Design and Implementation in Testing and Monitoring of

Lead-Acid Battery Using Arduino

An Undergraduate Research
Presented to the
Faculty of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
University of San Carlos – Technological Centre
Cebu City, Philippines

In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Degree in
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

By:
Fuentes, Edsel Ian, RME

Jaybee E. Lacea, R.E.E., M.Eng

Adviser

2020

1
 Adviser’s Certification

This Thesis Project entitled “Design and Implementation in Testing and Monitoring of

Lead-acid Battery using Arduino” by Edsel Ian S. Fuentes, RME has been accepted by

the undersigned in content and form for thesis defense.

______________________________________

Jaybee E. Lacea, R.E.E., M.Eng

Adviser

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 Table of Contents

Chapter I The Problem and Its Settings………………………………………………..5

1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………...5

1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………...7

1.3 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………...7

1.4 Scope and Limitations…………………………………………………………8

1.5 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………8

Chapter II Review of Related Literature……………………………………………...10

2.1 Battery………………………………………………………………………..10

2.2 Overview in Battery Monitoring……………………………………………..11

2.3 Related Studies and Its Analysis.…………………………………...………..13

Chapter III Methodology………………………………………………………………16

3.1 Process Outline………………………………………………………………16

3.2 Physical Monitoring and Testing of Lead-Acid Battery……..………..……..16

3.3 Designing a Battery Monitoring System……..………………………………17

3.4 Monitoring of Battery………………………..………………………………18

3.5 Comparison of Data in Lead Acid Battery…..............................................…20

3.6 Validation of the Design of the Prototype…………….......................………20

3.7 Getting the Internal Resistance of the Lead Acid Battery….………….....….20

Chapter IV Results and Discussion……………………………………………………23

4.1 Internal Resistance of the Battery..……………..………..………..…..……..23

4.1.1 Standard Method……..…………………….………………………23

4.1.2 Using the Battery Monitoring ……..............................................…25

4.1.3 Using the Prototype of the Study ……..…….......................………29

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 4.1.4 Internal Resistance of the Battery …………….….………….....….31

4.3 The Discharge Curve of Battery....……………..………..………..…..……..35

Chapter V Conclusion and Recommendation…………………...……………………39

5.1 Conclusion....………………………….………..………..………..…..……..39

5.2 Recommendation....……………..…………………...…..………..…..……..40

Appendix A Codes of the Module for Battery Monitoring………………..…………41

Appendix B Codes of the Prototype for Battery Monitoring…………………..……45

Documentation………………….…………………………………………..……..……46

Bibliography ...………………….…………………………………………..……..……49

Gantt Chart.....………………….…………………………………………..……..……52

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 Chapter 1
The Problem and Its Settings

1.1 Introduction
Batteries were created around the late 19th century which provided electricity even
before the electric generators. They are also important components to technologies that
have made an impact on the quality of life especially in energy, telecommunication, and
transportation. Engineers and scientists have developed many kinds of batteries over the
years and this development has expanded their uses to continually improve the quality of
life for people all over the world. Since the primary use of a battery is to provide electricity
and to store energy, technologies such as renewable energy systems are in trend due to how
they’re designed to be environment-friendly. If continuously-used, these batteries may
result in a system degradation which loses the effectiveness of storing energy. It is
necessary to check the status of these batteries as much as possible in order to prolong its
usage, it is also essential to timely replace them to avoid accidents and mishaps that can be
costly in general. This is important for people who are not connected to the electric grid
specifically in remote locations where the electric grid is unreachable to where the batteries
are the alternative source of energy [1].
A lot of research is being done to help aid this problem and one of it is the
development of lead acid batteries as an alternative energy power supply that provides
electric power for industrial use. The requirement of electric power enables smooth and
efficient operations that are visible in many transportation vehicles and in uninterruptible
power supply systems (UPS) which are used in heavy industries [2].

According to the world energy outlook survey for the year 2015, 1.2 billion people
around the world don’t have access to electricity. In the Philippines, close to 2.3 million
Filipinos don’t have access to electricity and many of these community are living in rural
areas and off-grid small islands. Some of the islands such as Pangan-an Island deploy solar
PV system and battery storage [3]. Due to their low cost, ruggedness, high reliability and
ability to supply high surge currents, lead acid batteries are well known and mostly used
for storage purposes.

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 Through the years, there have been a lot of activities and debates regarding the use
of internal "resistance" characteristics as a battery condition measurement. The desire and
interest for simple electronics spark interest for the researchers as a practical determination
of residual battery capacity, particularly given the increased usage of seal lead-acid (SLA)
batteries. It is regarded that battery internal resistance is known to be an aid in assessment
of battery state-of –health. Simple internal resistance measurements incorporate various
batteries and power system maintenance through Telstra. During charging and discharging,
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy has been used in studies of electrode and plate
behavior. However, there has been only limited application to the near equilibrium
condition for lead-acid batteries on float duty [4].

One of the most important and commonly used components for storage and
transport of renewable energy (e.g. solar and wind energy) are lead-acid batteries. The
simplicity in its design allows hydrogen and oxygen gases to be created during the charge
cycle to vent to the atmosphere so that distilled water must be regularly added to maintain
the electrolyte level and sulfuric acid concentration. With this, it is required to have a
regular maintenance to ensure the functionality of the battery [5].

To determine a representation of the internal ohmic condition of the battery, the

available techniques, which include AC impedance and conductance methods and
momentary DC loading, all involve controlled current or voltage. One common measure
to track battery life is internal battery resistance. However, greater interest lies in reported
claims of specific correlation between cell impedance and conductance with battery
capacity. Recent reports show that the currently available single-frequency internal ohmic
determination techniques cannot, in general, provide unequivocal absolute battery capacity
information although techniques have been shown to have some merit as a comparative
tool. Hence it is helpful in spotting early trends in rogue cells and components with poor
conduction integrity [3].

Therefore, a reliable battery system is indispensable for efficient operation in an

off-grid system. However, it is to be noted that these batteries are considerably expensive
and excessive use could result in their malfunction. One damaged lead–acid batteries from

6
a battery bank may have a negative impact on the over-all energy storage system. It is
important to continuously monitor the development and management of these batteries in
order to prevent unforeseen damage and to extend the lifespan of the entire battery bank.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Due to intermittent nature of Solar PV System, wind and tidal power, in off-grid
small island communities, energy storage system is added to extend the electricity supply
to 24 hours. Lead-acid battery, a source of standby power, are mostly located in the rural
places in the Philippines. The said battery requires monitoring and testing on its health,
life, and status so that necessary maintenance can be carried out once a problem is
identified. Unfortunately, due to distance constraint from the rural areas to the urban area,
it is difficult to execute the physical testing of the battery. The goal of this study is to find
a solution to the distance barrier in the monitoring process and find an alternative to
diagnose before physical testing.

In particular, this study aims to:

i) To measure the battery internal resistance of the 12Volts, 5AmpereHour lead acid
battery.
ii) Present the internal resistance of the lead acid battery in relation to its body
temperature, voltage and time of used.
iii) Implement a prototype system that can monitor the battery internal resistance of the
lead acid battery.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Battery monitoring system is a device that is directly connected to rechargeable

battery systems. It records and transfers battery performance data till the end of the battery
life. Also, it analyzes and supervises battery parameters 24/7 providing invaluable data
every second and generates report which help in preventing battery deterioration and
unplanned power interruptions. Battery monitoring is essential to any industry that relies
on batteries to provide backup power. Usage of battery monitoring will eliminate the risk
of the system failure [6].

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 This study will be of great benefit to the following:

1. Students - The results of the study will provide the students with some knowledge
on battery monitoring and as well as a basis for further studies in the future.
2. Society – This study can be beneficial to the installer or implementing of energy
storage system in remote areas where they can save manpower to physically
monitor each battery.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

This study is purely grounded on remote monitoring and testing of the battery
impedance and voltage state. The battery to be monitored and tested is Lead-acid battery
which has a capacity of twelve (12) volts and 5Ah. This battery is to be tested for the
implementation and gathering of data focusing on its health status which is the battery
internal resistance and voltage state.

A resistor will be used as a dummy load in order to get the internal resistance to
compare the voltages of the battery before and after it has been connected to the load. The
testing has to be done for a short period so as not to heat the battery and consequently alter
its voltage.

The internal resistance characteristics of each battery is presented in relation to the

three parameters mainly: body temperature, voltage, and time of used. Internal resistance
is taken until it exceeds the original internal resistance by 25% which is considered the
need of replacement for battery.

The study is to design and implement a prototype that can monitor and test a Lead-
acid battery by using Arduino Uno. The Arduino Uno will be used as a micro-controller
and it will take periodic samples or trials of the battery voltage.

1.5 Definition of Terms

Energy – is an energy newly derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy.

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Lead Acid Battery – a battery which uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion
of the chemical energy into electrical power.

Renewable Energy – energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and
geothermal heat.

State of Charge - the charge level of the battery relative to its capacity which is determined
through its open-circuit voltage.

State of Health - reflects the energy capability and power capability of the battery by
looking its capacity and internal resistance.

System – a procedures according to which something is done or an organized scheme.

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 Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature

2.1 Battery

A device that converts chemical energy into electricity is often known as a battery.
The batteries, in general, have two or more cells connected in series or parallel. Each cells
is made up of an anode (negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode), and a paste of
ionic conductor denoted as an electrolyte.

The structural development of batteries range from a tiny implantable miniature

cells (merely 0.26-inches long and 0.09-inches in diameter) that lasts up to fifteen (15)
years of continuous usage [7], to the heavily built 1,300 tons and 2,000 square meters
rechargeable battery which is proficient in releasing a 40 megawatts of power for up to
seven full-minute of operation [8].

Nowadays, a common power source for household and industrial applications are
batteries which have become a multi-billion-dollar industry. It is known that the
development of batteries has developed in the late eighteen centuries. However, this belief
is challenged by the German archeologist Wilhelm König [9]. During his time as the
director at the National Museum of Iraq, he found a number of artifacts in the museum’s
collection consisting of tall terracotta jars containing an iron rod housed in a copper made
up of rolled-up copper sheet. In the year 1940, König wrote a paper speculating that the
artifacts may have been voltaic cells dating more than two thousand years and is known
as “Baghdad batteries” [9]. This speculation from König is supported by the fact that the
discovered iron rods inside the earthenware jars revealed evidence of acidic corrosion,
which may have been “submerge in vinegar”. In 1940, Willard F. M. Gray of the General
electric High Voltage Laboratory in Pittsfield Massachusetts, took time to replicate a
Baghdad battery and used a copper sulfite solution thereby generating electricity [10].

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2.2 Overview of Lead-Acid Battery

Lead acid batteries have been used as a practical power source for over 100 years
because of their high performance, it has a very cost-effective method for storing sufficient
power and energy [11]. Every year, approximately 3 million tons waste batteries are
generated according to statistics. With sustained and fast advancement of the economy, the
production of lead-acid batteries will continue to increase greatly (11).

The technology of lead–acid batteries is still under constant improvement and is

technically still very much significant due to its good performance and high capability [12].
Lead–acid batteries typically consist of lead alloy supports, which carry an
electrochemically active mass, the composition of which differs between positive and
negative plates, and with the state of charge of the battery [13].

Figure 2.1 Lead acid Battery

Despite of having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume

ratio, the ability of lead acid battery to supply high surge currents along with their low cost
makes them a choice in storage systems for various applications like solar and wind energy
storage, emergency back-up power, peak shaving, load-levelling and transportation
electrification [14].

Lead-acid battery has the longest history as a rechargeable battery [15]. For such a
long time, it has been taken under consideration for a large-scale stationary energy storage.
Its importance has escalated as the increase in its usage also increases. As time progressed,
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the need for load leveling, load switching (for renewable energy), and power quality are
becoming more demanding so the development of the battery’s functionality have become
more relevant [15].

In different kinds of industry, lead-acid batteries are widely used. In the automotive
industry, lead acid batteries are typically used since it needs a high current pulse to start a
vehicle [16]. In remote areas or places where there is no access to electricity, this kind of
battery is also used where it remains in a state of about 50% of charge during their
operation. During in this state, the battery can be charged or discharged with high
effectivity [16].

It has been known that lead-acid technology still remains to be the most reliable,
safe and affordable power source. There are several newly developed batteries but none has
reached the commercial success of lead-acid battery [17]. There are actually a lot of competing
battery technologies including Li-ion, sodium-sulfur but lead-acid batteries are very well
established both for automotive and industrial applications and have been successfully
applied for utility energy storage. In terms of energy density and specific energy, li-ion
batteries have advantages however, this is less important for static installations. Lead
batteries on the other hand, are efficient and capable of long cycle and calendar lives and
have been developed in recent years to have much longer cycle lives compared to 20 years
ago in conditions where the battery is not routinely returned to a fully charged condition
[18].

Without significant improvements in meeting the continuously increasing

requirements in the different markets, lead–acid batteries will have difficulties to survive
as a relevant technology in the market within the coming 20 years and maybe earlier [19].
Lead-acid batteries are of significant importance due to its commercial acceptability.
Hence, constant attempt to find new methods to improve its efficiency has been the goal
of a lot of researchers [20]. With this end view, the proponents of the study have seen the
necessity to implement a prototype that can help the users to easily monitor remotely the
battery voltage and internal resistance [21].

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2.3 Related Studies and Its Analysis

In article from the Journal of Power Source regarding smarter battery management
system, battery capacity and internal resistance are the most used indicators for the
battery’s state of health (SOH) where in it reflects the energy capability and power
capability respectively. From the procedures in the battery testing, it is defined that when
the battery capacity decreases to 80% of the initial rated capacity under a specific test
protocol, the battery needs to be replaced since it is believed not suitable for vehicle
application. Furthermore, the increase of the internal resistance in some cases resulting to
power decrease obviously will lead to battery failure in advance. Therefore, it is important
to consider these two aspects together for electric vehicles to run normally [22].

In a study by Petr Krivik, they explored on the SoC (state of charge) determination
methods of lead acid battery systems. In the study, the Lead acid batteries used are for the
automotive industry. The battery voltage was used to determine the SoC. The current
integration and voltage correlation were used in order for the SoC determination and
monitoring of the battery capacity. It was concluded that voltage correlation was easy to
implement but it has lower accuracy due to errors by the battery internal resistance
compensation, which the accuracy of the current integration are more accurate [23].

Harish N, et al, created a management system using IoT for based battery for
vehicles. In their study State of charge and State of Health were considered to be important
parameters for batteries. The study discussed about the detection of Hydrogen gas emitted
from the batteries which provides very safe atmosphere around the battery for the
environment around it to be safe. Battery Management System will help analyze the data.
The concept is analogous to GPS tracking for vehicles [24].

From a study presented by Glenn Alber regarding the use of internal cell resistance
in predicting battery performance, he stated that that internal resistance of a cell is closely
related to its capacity and can, therefore, be used to predict cell’s performance during a
discharge. This can be a potential cost-effective replacement solution to load testing.
However the correlation of battery’s cell resistance and its capacity is not linear, therefore,
not used as an indicator of capacity, but rather, as a warning indicator that signals if a cell

13
has deteriorated to a level that will affect the operating integrity of the system. It has been
approved by field testing on all types of batteries. Results shows that if internal resistance
increases to more than 25%, above its base line value, the cell will fail a capacity test [25].

Based on the study of Ashok K. Singal, the internal resistance provides valuable
information about a battery as high reading implies an end-of-life to a battery. Also, in a
closed circuit the electric current flowing within the battery is due to the chemical reactions,
which will take place only if the voltage across the battery V is different from the chemical
potential ℰ. A steady state means the internal current within the battery must be equal to
the current 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅 through the external resistance R. The internal resistance could be
defined by 𝑅𝑖 = 1/|𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑉|𝑉=ℰ . When current increases the V decreases. Assuming a
constant 𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑉 in a certain range of V around ℰ and nothing that I=0 when V= ℰ, we get
Ri=(ℰ-V)/I. From this we could write = ℰ − I𝑅𝑖 , which justifies representing the battery
as a source of emf ℰ with its internal resistance Ri in series. The current I=V/R is then given
by I= ℰ/(R+ Ri). One could even have a reverse current through the battery when V _ across
the battery is made higher than ℰ. For that another source of emf, say ℰ1 and with an
internal resistance Ri1, so that ℰ1> ℰ of the battery in question, is connected across its
terminals. The magnitude of the reverse current through the battery will now be given by
I=(V- ℰ)/ Ri, as the recharging voltage V= ℰ1-I Ri1 is larger than ℰ, then I=(ℰ1- ℰ)/( Ri+R).
The reverse current means that the positive charges move towards the negative electrode
while the negative charges move towards the positive electrode, thereby reversing the
chemical reaction and recharging the battery. In the case of non-rechargeable battery no
reverse current takes place and we could say it has a discontinuity in its internal resistance
at V= ℰ+0 [26].
Now eℰ is the amount of chemical energy expended as work on a charge e in
transporting it from one electrode to the other. Out of this, an amount eV is spent against
the electric field, which ultimately gets delivered to the external load, the remaining energy
e(ℰ-V) represents the ohmic losses within the battery. Thus (ℰ-V)I=I2Ri are the power
losses in the battery as expected from a resistance Ri lying outside the battery in series.

The actual value of the internal resistance of a cell may depend upon a combination
of various factors. If the effective cross-section areas of the electrodes are large, more

14
current may flow through the battery even for the same ℰ-V change, implying a lower value.
Ri value. Similarly a larger separation between the electrodes would imply a smaller push
on the charges even for the same ℰ-V change, resulting in a smaller current, implying a
higher Ri value. The nature of the constituents (electrodes and the electrolyte) of a battery
also matter as a better conducting electrolyte means a higher current for the same ℰ-V and
thereby a smaller Ri. Further as with usage the density of chemical components within the
battery may decrease, it would lead to an increase in the internal resistance [26].

According to a related study of battery monitoring conducted by Anruari, the study

is all about determining if the two large second hand large capacity batteries are working
fine for a two-year old battery. He set up a 50W network of resistors to create a load to
discharge them and graphed the in-circuit terminal voltage and current over a period of 25
hours. He stated that the terminal voltage initially drops out very quickly from its resting
state and it takes about 30 minutes to stabilize. This effect was due to thermal changes, and
a delay in the chemical reactions in the battery [27].

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 Chapter 3
Methodology

3.1 Process Outline

The process outline is shown in figure 3.1. Lead-Acid Battery to be used will be
acquired according to its specifications needed in monitoring and assessing its capability
in using as the main material for this study. Lead-Acid Battery was assessed according to
its parameters such as voltage and internal resistance. It was physically monitored by these
parameters and tested. The prototype was designed to monitor the Lead-Acid Battery using
Arduino Uno Rev3 and it was tested and monitored. This was done with the use of Arduino
Uno Rev3 in making the operation possible. The data of the parameters of physical testing
and during the remote testing of the Lead-Acid Battery were then compared to verify the
readings of the data. Lastly, the data were sent to SD Card module for data logging.

Testing of
Designing a prototype and
Lead-acid Physical Validation of
battery comparing
battery monitoring and
Acquisition and testing of Lead-
monitoring results using the design of
System precise multi- the prototype
Assessment. acid battery
prototype. meter.

Figure 3.1 Process Outline

3.2 Physical Monitoring and Testing of Lead-Acid Battery

The Lead-Acid Battery were tested and physically monitored with the parameters
of its voltage and internal resistance. It was monitored with the use of the open circuit
voltage method in which the battery’s voltage is measured using a meter connected across
its terminals. A 4-hour rest period was required in case the battery had been freshly charged

16
to allow diffusion inside the battery to come to an end before the voltage readings are taken.
The readings after the testing will then be gathered and analyzed.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Testing and
Lead-acid monitoring needs a The readings of
4-hour rest period voltage and
battery internal
before readings are
taken in resistance

Figure 3.2 Process Outline of Physical and Testing of Lead-Acid Battery

3.3 Designing a Battery Monitoring System

In the design of a battery monitoring system, the Arduino Uno was used as a
microcontroller and SD Card module for data logging. The battery was a sealed lead acid
battery which gives out 12 V and 5 AH. It was also rechargeable which can also emulate
various charge levels. The sensor modules were used to obtain the parameters from the
lead-acid battery. A microcontroller measured the corresponding voltage and temperature
from the lead-acid battery and processed this to obtain the internal resistance and others
parameters needed in monitoring the Lead-Acid battery.

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 Figure 3.3 Block Diagram of Lead-Acid Battery Monitoring System

The block diagram of a lead-acid battery monitoring system is divided in three parts
as shown in figure 3.3. In part A, where the gathering of parameters of lead acid batteries
happens. Arduino Uno Rev3 was used as the micro-controller and programmed to read the
voltage and temperature from the sensor also it controlled the relays to turn on and off. In
part B, where the data were stored in SD Card module. Lastly, for part C, the data was
compared from the precise multi-meter with the setup of the study.

3.4 Monitoring of Battery

The battery was monitored to obtain its internal resistance through three different
methods. The first method was the standard method where the parameters required were
obtained from the multimeter. The second method used battery monitoring module, which
uses microcontroller with relay, to measure the required parameters. This module was also
used to monitor the battery while discharging. The last method used the prototype of the
study in monitoring the battery. This method uses analog-to-digital converter (ADC), op-
amp, and microcontroller. Shown in Figure 3.4 the steps in monitoring the battery and
getting its internal resistance using the three approaches.

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 Figure 3.4 Battery Monitoring Flowchart

Battery has to be fully charged first before getting its internal resistance. From the
depleted state, the battery was charged for at least 8 hours. Shown in Figure 3.5 the
characteristics of battery at charging state [28]. In this study, the battery is considered fully-
charged if the open-circuit voltage of it is 12.6V or above. If the battery was just charged,
the battery had to rest for at least 4 hours before obtaining the required parameters to allow
the surface charge of the battery to dissipate. That is because this surface charge causes the
battery to give different readings while in open state. The internal resistance of the battery
was then determined using the three methods; standard method, using the battery
monitoring module, and using the prototype of the study.

After obtaining the internal resistance using the three methods, the battery was
discharged until 10.5 V. D. Jaya & V. Ramanarayanan states that at 10.5V, the battery is
considered to be fully-depleted [29]. The module was used to monitor the battery to get it
open-circuit voltage while discharging. This was done to obtain the discharge curve for
each trial.

19
 Figure 3.5 Charging Characteristics of the DJW12-5.4 Battery

3.5 Comparison of Data in Lead Acid Battery

The parameters obtained from the physical monitoring using voltmeter and with its
application and compared the measured parameters with the precise multi-meter.
Specifically, the internal resistance of the battery obtained using the three different
methods, and the discharge curve between each trial were compared.

3.6 Validation of the Design of the Prototype

The design of the prototype of the battery monitoring system was validated by
comparing the internal resistance obtained from it to the internal resistance obtained from
standard method. This was done by getting the percent error for every trial.

3.7 Getting the Internal Resistance of the Lead Acid Battery

When designing a circuit with a battery, battery was often assumed as an

ideal voltage source immediately. This means that no matter how much or little load
attached to the battery, the voltage at the source’s terminals will always stay the same.

20
 In reality, several factors can limit a battery’s ability to act as an ideal voltage
source. Battery size, chemical properties, age, and temperature all affect the amount of
current a battery is able to source. As a result, one can create a better model of a battery
with an ideal voltage source and a resistor in series.

Measuring the voltage of a battery across its terminals without any load connected
was known as the open-circuit voltage (VOC). There was no current flowing through the
internal resistor, the voltage drop across it is 0 V. Therefore, VOC was assumed as equal
to the voltage of the ideal voltage source in the battery.

If a load is connected across the battery, the voltage across the terminals drops. This
drop in voltage is caused by the internal resistance of the battery. The internal resistance
can be calculated using the open-circuit voltage and the voltage across the battery’s
terminals with a load attached. Using the equation 3, the value of the internal resistance of
the battery can be obtained.

The charging cycle of the batteries are initially based on their specification sheet.
The batteries will have a voltage test using a multi-meter and it will be compared to the
values in its specification sheet. And also in old rechargeable battery, if available, will be
tested in order to prove the 25% measurement correctly.

𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑰= (3.1)
𝑉𝐿

𝑉𝑜𝑐 −𝑉𝐿
𝑹𝒊 = (3.2)
I

𝑉𝑜𝑐 −𝑉𝐿
𝑹𝒊 = ( ) ∗ (𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑡 ) (3.3)
𝑉𝐿

Where,

Ri = Internal Resistance of Battery

Voc = Open Circuit Voltage

VL = Load Voltage

21
From this, the internal resistance of the lead acid battery was obtained.

Figure 3.6 Individual Battery Schematic

Halfway Deliverables

The battery monitoring parameters such as open circuit voltage, load voltage and

internal resistance will be presented using Arduino.

22
 Chapter 4
Results and Discussion

4.1 Internal Resistance of the Battery

The internal resistance of the battery was obtained through three approaches:
standard method, using the battery monitoring module, and the prototype of the study.

4.1.1 Standard Method

In standard method, the open-circuit voltage (VOC), the voltage with load (VWL),
and the total current (IT) were obtained using multimeter. By getting the voltage drop of
the internal resistance from subtracting the voltages acquired, and with the use of Ohm’s
Law, the internal resistance of the battery were determined. Figure 4.1 shows the circuit of
standard method. Figure 4.2 shows the setup for the standard method. The dummy load
used for this study were three 50 ohms, 5W in parallel.

Figure 4.1 Standard Method

𝑉𝑂𝐶 −𝑉𝑊𝐿
= (4.1)
𝐼𝑇

23
 Figure 4.2 Getting the open-circuit voltage (left), voltage with load (middle), and the
total current (right)

Table 4.1 shows the data gathered using the standard method. Thirty (30) trials were
done in this study. Internal resistance was obtained using the equation (4.1).

Table 4.1 Internal Resistance of Battery through Standard Method

Trials VOC (V) VWL (V) IT (A) RINT (Ω)
1 12.75 12.15 0.64 0.9375
2 12.82 12.41 0.64 0.640625
3 12.69 12.19 0.65 0.769231
4 12.7 12.31 0.64 0.609375
5 12.79 12.41 0.64 0.59375
6 12.84 12.43 0.63 0.650794
7 12.81 12.39 0.64 0.65625
8 12.9 12.51 0.61 0.639344
9 12.86 12.5 0.62 0.580645
10 12.91 12.52 0.65 0.6
11 12.83 12.42 0.65 0.630769
12 12.87 12.42 0.66 0.681818
13 12.67 12.23 0.61 0.721311
14 12.72 12.28 0.64 0.6875
15 12.78 12.4 0.62 0.612903
16 12.9 12.52 0.66 0.575758
17 13.2 12.81 0.65 0.6
18 13.07 12.64 0.64 0.671875
19 12.8 12.35 0.62 0.725806
20 12.94 12.44 0.62 0.806452
21 12.8 12.3 0.62 0.806452
24
 22 12.83 12.29 0.61 0.885246
23 12.76 12.23 0.61 0.868852
24 12.85 12.26 0.65 0.907692
25 12.9 12.28 0.63 0.984127
26 13.16 12.47 0.61 1.131148
27 13.08 12.4 0.63 1.079365
28 13.13 12.37 0.63 1.206349
29 12.96 12.24 0.61 1.180328
30 12.63 11.84 0.61 1.295082

4.1.2 Using the Battery Monitoring Module

A battery monitoring module was designed to monitor the battery. This module
measured the open-circuit voltage of the battery and the voltage with load. With the use of
relay, they can be measured while the battery is discharging. The temperature of the battery
was also monitored by the module by placing the temperature sensor on the top of the
battery. The program of the module is shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Flowchart of the Battery Monitoring Module

25
 Figure 4.4 Module Used in Monitoring Battery

In this method, the internal resistance of the battery was obtained from the open-
circuit voltage (Voc), voltage with load (Vwl), and the resistance of the dummy load (Rset)
as shown below. Shown in Figure 4.5 and 4.6 the setup for the battery monitoring module
and a sample of data gathered from serial monitor using the module.

𝑉𝑂𝐶 −𝑉𝑊𝐿 𝑉
𝑂𝐶 −𝑉𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐼𝑁𝑇 = = 𝑉𝑊𝐿 (4.2)
𝐼𝑇 ⁄𝑅
𝑆𝐸𝑇

𝑉𝑂𝐶 −𝑉𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐼𝑁𝑇 = 𝑅𝑆𝐸𝑇 ( ) (4.3)
𝑉𝑊𝐿

26
 Figure 4.5 Setup for battery monitoring module

Figure 4.6 Data acquisition using battery monitoring module

27
 There are two open-circuit voltage considered in this method. One is where the load
is not connected to the module, meaning the module solely measures the voltage of the
battery. While the other one is where the load is connected to the module. The open-circuit
voltage of this one is lower than the first one. This might be due to the internal resistance
of the relay. Table 4.2 shows the data gathered using the battery monitoring module.
Internal resistance was obtained using the equation (4.2) for the 30 trials.

Table 4.2 Internal Resistance of Battery using Battery Monitoring Module

Trials VOC (V) VOC w/ Relay VWL w/ Relay RINT (Ω)
(V) (V)
1 12.69 12.5 11.75 1.06383
2 12.78 12.53 12.1 0.592287
3 12.72 12.53 12.02 0.707155
4 12.69 12.5 12.05 0.622407
5 12.8 12.61 12.16 0.616776
6 12.85 12.67 12.18 0.670498
7 12.79 12.59 12.16 0.589364
8 12.89 12.66 12.25 0.557823
9 12.83 12.62 12.18 0.60208
10 12.9 12.71 12.33 0.513652
11 12.84 12.67 12.25 0.571429
12 12.86 12.66 12.26 0.543774
13 12.61 12.39 11.92 0.657159
14 12.65 12.41 11.95 0.641562
15 12.73 12.65 12.28 0.502172
16 12.83 12.6 12.26 0.462208
17 13.1 12.87 12.48 0.520833
18 13.05 12.81 12.29 0.70518
19 12.74 12.53 12.07 0.635184
20 12.94 12.72 12.16 0.767544
21 12.76 12.54 11.94 0.837521
22 12.77 12.56 11.99 0.792327
23 12.67 12.48 11.69 1.126319
24 12.69 12.51 11.8 1.002825
25 12.79 12.59 11.88 0.996072
26 13.09 12.84 12 1.166667
27 13.01 12.8 12.07 1.008009
28 13.05 12.87 11.99 1.223242
29 12.93 12.74 11.95 1.101813
30 12.76 12.53 11.69 1.197605

28
4.1.3 Using the Prototype of the Study

The prototype of the study consists of the following: operational amplifier (op-
amp), analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and microcontroller. The use of op-amp is to
reduce the voltage taken from circuit of which the microcontroller can handle (0 to 5V).
ADC converts the analog readings from the circuit into digital to the microcontroller.

In this approach, the internal resistance of the battery was obtained from the open-
circuit voltage (Voc), voltage with load (Vwl), and the resistance of the dummy load (Rset).
Shown in Figure 4.7 and 4.8 the setup for the prototype of the study and a sample of data
gathered from serial monitor.

Figure 4.7 Setup for the prototype of the study

29
 Figure 4.8 Data acquisition using prototype of the study

The prototype of the study uses a switch instead of relay to disconnect and connect
the load from the battery to obtain the open-circuit voltage, VOC, and voltage with load,
VWL, respectively. Table 4.3 shows the data gathered using the prototype of the study.
Internal resistance was obtained using the equation (4.2) for the 30 trials.

Table 4.3 Internal Resistance of Battery using Prototype of the Study

Trials VOC (V) VWL (V) RINT (Ω)
1 12.65 11.95 0.97629
2 12.68 12.21 0.641551
3 12.73 12.15 0.79561
4 12.69 12.19 0.68362
5 12.71 12.2 0.696721
6 12.81 12.26 0.747689
7 12.84 12.37 0.633252
8 12.9 12.41 0.658071
9 12.89 12.39 0.672585
10 13 12.55 0.59761
11 12.82 12.38 0.592353
12 12.88 12.48 0.534188

30
 13 12.63 12.12 0.70132
14 12.63 12.14 0.672707
15 12.7 12.29 0.556008
16 12.9 12.44 0.616292
17 12.89 12.41 0.644641
18 13.07 12.41 0.886382
19 12.74 11.79 1.342946
20 12.96 12.37 0.794934
21 12.78 12.15 0.864198
22 12.67 12.08 0.814018
23 12.67 11.97 0.974659
24 12.65 11.94 0.991066
25 12.89 12.08 1.11755
26 13.11 12.45 0.883534
27 13.07 12.3 1.04336
28 13.14 12.15 1.358025
29 12.85 12.01 1.165695
30 12.78 11.93 1.187483

4.1.4 Internal Resistance of the Battery

The internal resistance of the battery was taken on each trial through three different
methods; standard method, battery monitoring module, and prototype of the study. The
standard method uses multimeter as a measuring instrument, while both module and
prototype uses voltage divider and op-amp to decrease the voltage obtained from the
battery so that the microcontroller can read it. In a sense, standard method is more accurate
than the other two methods. Therefore, in this study, the standard method was used as the
reference for internal resistance of the battery. The temperature was also considered in this
study. The range of the temperature set in this study was from 30 °C to 35 °C. Table 4.4
shows the internal resistances of each method and the temperature on the surface of the
battery. Shown in Figure 4.9 the graph of the internal resistances taken from each trial
using the three different approach.

Table 4.4. Internal resistance from the three methods with temperature and percent error
Standard Battery-Monitoring
Prototype of the Study
Trials Method Module Temp (°C)
RINT (Ω) RINT (Ω) %error (%) RINT (Ω) %error (%)
1 0.9375 0.872011 6.985466 0.9762901 4.13761 32
2 0.640625 0.606562 5.317167 0.64155064 0.14449 33.5

31
 3 0.769231 0.707155 8.069884 0.79561043 3.429355 33
4 0.609375 0.679989 11.58792 0.68362045 12.18387 34
5 0.59375 0.659522 11.07736 0.69672131 17.34254 34.5
6 0.650794 0.670498 3.027754 0.74768896 14.88879 33.5
7 0.65625 0.589364 10.19215 0.63325249 3.504382 34.5
8 0.639344 0.557823 12.75074 0.65807145 2.929124 34
9 0.580645 0.60208 3.69154 0.67258542 15.83416 34
10 0.6 0.513652 14.39128 0.59760956 0.398406 34.5
11 0.630769 0.571429 9.407666 0.59235326 6.090337 33.5
12 0.681818 0.543774 20.24651 0.53418803 21.65242 34
13 0.721311 0.657159 8.893889 0.70132013 2.771527 34
14 0.6875 0.641562 6.681882 0.6727073 2.151665 33
15 0.612903 0.502172 18.06675 0.55600759 9.282971 33.5
16 0.575758 0.462208 19.72182 0.61629153 7.040108 34.5
17 0.6 0.520833 13.19444 0.64464142 7.440236 35
18 0.671875 0.70518 4.957077 0.88638195 31.92662 35
19 0.725806 0.635184 12.48581 1.342946 85.02812 34
20 0.806452 0.767544 4.824561 0.79493398 1.428186 34.5
21 0.806452 0.837521 3.852596 0.86419753 7.160494 34.5
22 0.885246 0.792327 10.4964 0.81401766 8.046153 34.5
23 0.868852 1.126319 29.63292 0.97465887 12.17772 33.5
24 0.907692 1.002825 10.4807 0.99106644 9.185286 33.5
25 0.984127 0.996072 1.21375 1.11754967 13.55747 33.5
26 1.131148 1.166667 3.140097 0.88353414 21.89046 34
27 1.079365 1.008009 6.610946 1.04336043 3.335725 33
28 1.206349 1.223242 1.40029 1.35802469 12.5731 35
29 1.180328 1.101813 6.651945 1.16569525 1.239708 33
30 1.295082 1.197605 7.526719 1.18748254 8.30831 32.5
Average %error - 9.552601 - 11.56931 -

32
 Internal Resistance of the Leoch Battery
1.6 75

70
1.4
65
1.2
60

Temperature (C)
1
Rint (ohms)

55

0.8 50

45
0.6
40
0.4 Standard Method
35 Module
0.2
30 Prototype

0 25 Temperature
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Trials

Figure 4.9 Internal resistance of Leoch battery

From the graph shown in Figure 4.9, there is a huge difference of internal resistance
between trials 1 and 2. That was because the internal resistance in the 1st trial was taken
immediately after charging the battery. When the battery is just charged, surface charges
are formed in the battery. This will cause higher voltage reading on the battery than in its
normal state. Therefore, the internal resistance of the battery was taken after 4 hours from
charging on the 2nd trial and onwards. Nevertheless, with the exemption of the 1st trial,
the graph shows that the internal resistance of the battery increases in successive uses.
Based from the data in the standard method, the internal resistance of the battery increased
by 102% from its original internal resistance obtained in the 2nd trial with an internal
resistance 0.64 ohms to 1.295 ohms taken from 30th trial.

With the standard method as the reference for the internal resistance of the battery,
the percent error of the module and prototype of the study were taken as shown in Figure
4.10. The formulas used in getting the percent error of the module and prototype are shown
in equation (4.4) and (4.5), respectively.

|𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 −𝑅𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 |
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑥100% (4.4)
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

33
 |𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 −𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 |
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 = 𝑥100% (4.5)
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

Percent Error of the Module and Prototype

90

80

70

60
%error (%)

50 Module

40 Prototype

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Trials

Figure 4.10 Percent error of the RINT of battery using the module and prototype

As shown in Figure 4.10, the module’s highest percent error obtained was almost
30%, while the lowest was 1.2%. In average, the percent error of the battery-monitoring
module is 9.55%. As for the prototype of the study, the highest percent error was 85%
while lowest was 0.15% which has the average percent error of 11.57%. Although the
prototype reached a percent error of 85% which was huge, only one of such were obtained.
Considering that the prototype was just placed on a breadboard, this huge error might be
due to loose connection in the prototype’s circuit. Since the next highest percent error the
prototype obtained was 30%, a huge difference between them, the 85% error can be
concluded as an outlier.

Although the average error of the module and prototype is a huge 10% error, one
should take note that the value of the parameters compared to each other was small, which
is around 1 ohm. Considering this, the difference of value of the internal resistance is at

34
most 0.5 ohms, which is a small difference if compared to the load connected in the battery
having a resistance of 16.67 ohms, ideally.

4.3 The Discharge Curve of Battery

One of the concerns in this study was the discharge curve of the battery. Thus, the
battery monitoring module was used to measure the open circuit voltage of the battery over
time while discharging. The dummy load used in the setup were three 50 ohms in parallel
as shown in Figure 4.11. The battery was discharged until it reached below 10.5V. Using
three 50 ohms resistors in parallel to discharge the battery, the expected discharge time of
the battery with the capacity of 5Ah can be determined.

Figure 4.11 Setup for Discharging the Battery with the Module

12 𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = = 0.72 𝐴
50⁄ 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
3

5 𝐴ℎ
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝐼𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑌 = = 6.944 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠 56 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
0.72 𝐴

Ideally, the expected time for the battery to fully deplete from full charge is 7 hours.
However, the losses in discharging the battery should be taken into account. One method
to consider this is to use Peukert’s Law which considers the efficiency factor of a
discharging battery. To apply this, one should only divide the ideal discharge time by 1.3
to 1.5 [30]. For this study, the constant 1.3 was used so the discharge time is practically,

35
 6.9444 ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 5.342 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 5 ℎ𝑟𝑠 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
1.3

Thirty (30) trials were done in monitoring the battery to get the VOC of the
discharging battery. Shown in the Figure 4.12 the graph of open-circuit voltage of a
discharging battery over time.

Battery-Discharge Curves
13.5 Trial1 Trial2
Trial3 Trial4
13 Trial5 Trial6
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc)

Trial7 Trial8
12.5 Trial9 Trial10
Trial11 Trial12
12 Trial13 Trial14
Trial15 Trial16
11.5
Trial17 Trial18
Trial19 Trial20
11
Trial21 Trial22
Trial23 Trial24
10.5
Trial25 Trial26
Trial27 Trial28
10
Trial29 Trial30
0:00:00

0:30:00

1:00:00

1:30:00

2:00:00

2:30:00

3:00:00

3:30:00

4:00:00

4:30:00

5:00:00

5:30:00

6:00:00

6:30:00

7:00:00
Duration 7:30:00

Figure 4.12 Graph of VOC of a Discharging Battery

The graph shows that the battery discharges at a constant rate until it reaches at a
certain voltage where upon the rate of discharge drastically increases after reaching this
voltage. This means that one should avoid reaching this voltage since the battery drains
faster at this point. The age of the battery affects its discharge time. The graph shows that
the discharge point, which is the voltage where the battery starts to discharge quickly,
increases as the battery ages. This was shown clearly starting trial 20 onwards.

However, the changes of discharge time of every trial is difficult to compare if the
graph in Figure 4.12 is used since they didn’t have the same starting voltage. That is
because, aside from the factors mentioned, the settled voltage, the voltage after resting the
battery from charging, also affects the discharge time of the battery. One example of it is
shown in trial 17 where the battery discharged the longest because its settled voltage is

36
13V. Thus, the data was modified so that the discharge curve of battery will start at 12V as
shown at Figure 4.13.

Discharge Curve of Battery

12.2
Trial 1 Trial 2
12 Trial 3 Trial 4
11.8 Trial 5 Trial 6
Trial 7 Trial 8
11.6
Trial 9 Trial 10
Voc (V)

11.4 Trial 11 Trial 12

Trail 13 Trial 14
11.2
Trial 15 Trial 16
11 Trial 17 Trial 18
10.8 Trial 19 Trial 20
Trial 21 Trial 22
10.6 Trial 23 Trial 24
10.4 Trial 25 Trial 26
Trial 27 Trial 28
0:00:00

0:15:00

0:30:00

0:45:00

1:00:00

1:15:00

1:30:00

1:45:00

2:00:00

2:15:00

2:30:00

2:45:00

3:00:00

3:15:00
Trial 29 Trial 30

Duration

Figure 4.13 Discharge curve of battery from 12V

Although the graph only shows the discharge curve of the battery starting from
12V, not the duration from the fully-charged battery, it can be clearly seen that the
discharge time of the battery from trials 1 to 18 is in the range between 2 ¾ hours and 3
hours. The discharge time starts to decrease at trial 19 where it settles in the range between
1 ½ hours and 1 ¾ hours. The discharge time of thirty trials were shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5. Discharge time from full charge and from 12V
Full Discharge Time Discharge Time
Trials Charge from Full Charge from 12V
Voltage (hr:min:sec) (hr:min:sec)
1 12.69 V 5:06:24 2:46:33
2 12.71 V 5:07:06 2:44:51
3 12.72 V 5:17:36 2:47:21
4 12.69 V 5:07:00 3:00:51
5 12.8 V 5:37:24 2:55:54
6 12.85 V 5:50:12 2:50:51
7 12.79 V 5:20:45 2:49:36
8 12.89 V 5:54:36 2:45:18
9 12.83 V 5:38:09 2:56:21
10 12.9 V 6:34:57 2:52:12
11 12.84 V 6:02:24 2:56:30
12 12.86 V 5:57:21 2:48:03
13 12.61 V 4:43:09 2:57:12

37
 14 12.65 V 4:52:39 2:54:30
15 12.73 V 5:57:03 2:45:42
16 12.83 V 5:28:09 3:01:18
17 13.09 V 7:08:09 2:58:51
18 13.05 V 6:49:57 2:44:18
19 12.74 V 5:07:21 2:28:51
20 12.93 V 5:49:00 2:27:51
21 12.76 V 5:08:27 2:19:06
22 12.77 V 4:51:51 1:57:39
23 12.67 V 4:06:03 1:45:57
24 12.69 V 4:08:51 1:47:15
25 12.79 V 4:43:39 2:16:12
26 13.09 V 5:24:33 1:41:42
27 13.01 V 4:21:33 1:40:09
28 13.05 V 4:32:36 1:34:51
29 12.94 V 4:16:36 1:38:51
30 12.76 V 4:14:48 1:31:45

The table shows both the discharge time from full charge and from 12V. It was
expected to discharge from full charge for 5hrs and 20min. Many trials had satisfied this,
however, there are some whose discharge time exceeds greatly from the expected time.
Trial 17, for example, which has a discharge time of 7 hours, has the longest discharge time
of battery out of all trials made. The reason for this is because its settled voltage is 13.09V.
Although trial 26 has the same settled voltage with trial 17, battery in this trial has already
deteriorated, that’s why the discharge time of it is lesser than in trial 17. The decrease of
duration starts trial 19 where it also shows the increase of discharge point from this trial
onwards. The rate of discharge from the discharge point drastically increases that’s why
one should avoid reaching this voltage. Since the discharge point increases as the battery
ages, the range of voltage where you can operate also became lesser.

38
 Chapter 5
Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

Battery Monitoring is essential in the world today due to increasing of Solar Panel
PV, Wind, and Tidal power system in the industry and community. Energy storage system
is used to store the standby energy produced and generate electricity once it is needed.
Lead-acid batteries are one of the most common energy storage and it is crucial to
understand the battery characteristic over time to know when to conduct battery
maintenance and replacement.

The Internal Resistance of the battery increases as the battery gets old and the cycle
count increases. In the study, there is a correlation between discharge time of the battery
and its internal resistance. As the internal resistance increases, its discharge time decreases,
decreasing the duration of the battery supplying the load in the same setup. In the study,
the internal resistance of the 12V, 5Ah lead-acid battery increased twice from its original
resistance from trial 2 to trial 30. The huge increase of internal resistance causes clear
changes in the battery, especially the decrease of discharge time of the battery. Throughout
the trials, the discharge curve of the battery also shows changes in its form every time the
battery was used. This includes the increase of the discharge rate of the battery and the
increase of discharge point. The battery drains faster after reaching the discharge point,
that’s why the increase of discharge point will result in decrease of the battery’s discharge
time. Mentioned in the related studies that once the battery internal resistance is +25% from
its original internal resistance, the battery was needed to be replaced. This was achieved
starting at trial 20 and the internal resistance increased more onwards. The study also shows
a significant change of discharge curve from trial 20 where the discharge point drastically
increases that results in decreasing the discharge time of the lead-acid battery. With these
changes, the study proves that changing battery is needed when the internal resistance
increased by 25% from its original value.

39
 The study concluded that the battery’s internal resistance can be used as an aid in
assessing the battery’s state of health. Monitoring the internal resistance of the battery time
to time is a good practice for everyone in checking the health of the battery for replacement.

5.2 Recommendation

The researcher recommends to monitor the lead-acid battery using the Arduino
system to monitor the open circuit voltage and the battery internal resistance. It is essential
to know when to recharge the battery if the terminal voltage is low, and to monitor the
increasing internal resistance using the data in the SD card. This is needed to know when
to replace the battery if the internal resistance is already high.

As one can see in the data, especially the graph of internal resistance of three
methods, the internal resistance can be seen as fluctuating. This fluctuating data might be
due from the measuring instrument. That is because the data observed in this study has a
very low value, which is around 1 ohm. Thus, it is recommended to have more accurate
measuring device or instrument and if possible, can read more than two decimal places.
The module and the prototype did not satisfy this since these methods passes many steps
to obtain the data; voltage divider and op-amp to decrease the voltage value, ADC to
convert the value before the microcontroller reads and process the converted data, which
results in gaining errors along the process. Taking this in consideration, it is recommended
to conduct this experiment on other lead-acid batteries at the same and different voltage
and ampere-hour (Ah) rating to have a more in-depth conclusion on the behavior of lead-
acid battery in general. While doing so, one should take note the increase of internal
resistance and the changes of the battery’s discharge curve.

40
 Appendix A

Arduino Codes of the Module for Battery Monitoring

#include <MCP3428.h>
#include <Wire.h>
MCP3428 MCP(0x6B); // Declaration of MCP3428: A2, A1, A0 bits (011, 0x6B)
float raw_voltage_OC;
float raw_voltage_WL;

#include "RTClib.h"
RTC_DS1307 RTC;
DateTime now;

#include <SPI.h>
#include <SD.h>
File dataFile;

#include <OneWire.h>
#include <DallasTemperature.h>
// Data wire is plugged into port 4 on the Arduino
#define ONE_WIRE_BUS 4
#define TEMPERATURE_PRECISION 9
// Setup a oneWire instance to communicate with any OneWire devices (not just
Maxim/Dallas temperature ICs)
OneWire oneWire(ONE_WIRE_BUS);
// Pass our oneWire reference to Dallas Temperature.
DallasTemperature sensors(&oneWire);
// arrays to hold device addresses
DeviceAddress thermometer = { 0x28, 0xAA, 0xBF, 0x16, 0x1B, 0x13, 0x02, 0x12 };
float temperature;

const byte relay_pin = 5;

unsigned long PERIOD = 3000; // in milliseconds

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
sensors.begin();
sensors.setResolution(thermometer, TEMPERATURE_PRECISION);
pinMode(relay_pin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(relay_pin, HIGH);
delay(100);

Wire.begin();
RTC.begin();

41
 //check or the Real Time Clock is on
if (! RTC.isrunning()) {
Serial.println("RTC is NOT running!");
// following line sets the RTC to the date & time this sketch was compiled
// uncomment it & upload to set the time, date and start run the RTC!
//RTC.adjust(DateTime(__DATE__, __TIME__));
}

//setup SD card
Serial.print("Initializing SD card...");
// see if the SD card is present and can be initialized:
if (!SD.begin(9)) {
Serial.println("Card failed, or not present");
// don't do anything more:
return;
}
Serial.println("Card initialized.");

File dataFile = SD.open("DHTDATA.txt", FILE_WRITE);

if (dataFile) {
dataFile.print("Date,");
dataFile.print("Time,");
dataFile.print("Open-circuit Voltage,");
dataFile.print("With-load Voltage,");
dataFile.print("Temperature,");
dataFile.println(';');
dataFile.close();
}
}

/*
Main function, calls the temperatures in a loop.
*/
void loop()
{
unsigned long start_time = millis();
read_sensors();
write_data();
while (millis() - start_time < PERIOD) {
// wait for next cycle
}
}

void read_sensors()
{

42
 // MCP3428 is configured to channel 1 with 16 bits resolution, one shot mode and gain
defined to 1
// This arrangement of the mentioned parameters can be changed as per convenience

MCP.SetConfiguration(1, 16, 0, 1);

// Note that the library waits for a complete conversion
raw_voltage_WL = (0.00043518684 * MCP.readADC()) - 0.20758412301;
Serial.print("VWL: ");
Serial.println(raw_voltage_WL);
digitalWrite(relay_pin, LOW);
delay(100);

MCP.SetConfiguration(1, 16, 0, 1);

// Note that the library waits for a complete conversion
raw_voltage_OC = (0.00043518684 * MCP.readADC()) - 0.20758412301;
Serial.print("VOC: ");
Serial.println(raw_voltage_OC);
digitalWrite(relay_pin, HIGH);
delay(100);

// Read from DS18B20 sensor

sensors.requestTemperatures();
temperature = sensors.getTempC(thermometer);
Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.println(temperature);
}

void write_data() {
File dataFile = SD.open("DHTDATA.txt", FILE_WRITE);
if (dataFile) {
now = RTC.now();
dataFile.print(now.year(), DEC);
dataFile.print("/");
dataFile.print(now.month(), DEC);
dataFile.print("/");
dataFile.print(now.day(), DEC);
dataFile.print(",");
dataFile.print(now.hour(), DEC);
dataFile.print(":");
dataFile.print(now.minute(), DEC);
dataFile.print(":");
dataFile.print(now.second(), DEC);
dataFile.print(",");

dataFile.print(raw_voltage_OC);
dataFile.print(",");

43
 dataFile.print(raw_voltage_Load);
dataFile.print(",");
dataFile.print(temperature);

dataFile.println(';');
dataFile.close();

Serial.print(now.year(), DEC);
Serial.print("/");
Serial.print(now.month(), DEC);
Serial.print("/");
Serial.print(now.day(), DEC);
Serial.print(",");
Serial.print(now.hour(), DEC);
Serial.print(":");
Serial.println(now.minute(), DEC);
}
}

44
 Appendix B

Arduino Codes of the Prototype for Battery Monitoring

/*
ReadAnalogVoltage

Reads an analog input on pin 0, converts it to voltage, and prints the result to the Serial
Monitor.
Graphical representation is available using Serial Plotter (Tools > Serial Plotter menu).
Attach the center pin of a potentiometer to pin A0, and the outside pins to +5V and
ground.

This example code is in the public domain.

http://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/ReadAnalogVoltage
*/

// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {
// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per second:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {
// read the input on analog pin 0:
int sensorValue = analogRead(A0);
float voltage = 11.98 * sensorValue * (4.72 / 1023.0);
// print out the value you read:
Serial.print("Voltage: ");
Serial.print(voltage);
Serial.println(" Volts");
delay(1000);
}

45
 Documentation

Figure 7.1 Actual Setup of the Monitoring

Figure 7.2 Battery charger used to recharge the lead-acid Battery

46
Figure 7.3 Data collected in SD card

47
Figure 7.4 Meeting with the Adviser

48
 Bibliography

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RXpf9z-44xMtoWP_d4xDLaogX9U8r2Aol4to.

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[22] University, Battery. Battery University. [Online] 2017.
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51
 Gantt Chart

Task Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Picking of Topics
Gathering of Related
Literature
Group Discussion
Choosing of
Materials and
Equipment
Finalization of Paper
for Project Proposal
Submission of the
Project Proposal
Proposal
Purchasing of
Materials
Assembly of Project
Model
Data Gathering
Preparation of Final
Research Paper
Oral Defense

52