Chapter II

DS

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter provides related literatures to the study. It shows efforts employed by

empirical studies of other researchers and their findings, and identification of the research gap.

This section presents also the reviews of empirical literatures on traffic management especially

on traffic enforcement, traffic engineering, traffic education, traffic environment/ecology and

traffic economy.

5 E’s of Traffic Management

Traffic Enforcement

The roadway is a very treacherous area. In traffic law enforcement, it aims to produce

voluntary compliance with traffic laws while keeping traffic moving safely and smoothly. Traffic

officers are responsible for enforcing traffic laws, directing and controlling traffic, providing

directions and assistance to motorists, investigating motor vehicle crashes, providing

emergency assistance at the scene of a crash, gathering information related to traffic and writing

reports (Wrobleski and Hess, 2006). For this reason, in the assessment conducted by Adams in

2007 in ensuring enforcement’s uniformity on the highways; the government should create its

own highway patrol or assigns the already existing state police to assume all traffic

responsibilities while various city police departments relinquish traffic responsibility to other
government agencies. Nonetheless, many drivers routinely break traffic laws, believing their

minor infractions will not be noticed or result in tickets. These traffic violations, however, are
 15

not independent of each other but in many cases associated. It has been shown that those drivers

who are speeding also commit other violations considerably more often than those who keep to

the limits. These violations are usually close following, overtaking violations and other driving

errors and infringements as assessed by Bagolong et al., (2014). The risk of apprehension for

violating road traffic laws has been estimated for speeding, drunken driving, drugged driving,

non-wearing of seat belts, violations of hours of service and rest regulations, and use of

hand held mobile phones when driving. With respect to speeding, the risk of apprehension

appears to have increased in recent years, but this is fully attributable to an increased use of

speed cameras (Beckman, 2019).

Accordingly, a driver's behavior causes many accidents; still others are caused by

mechanical failure or road conditions as assessed by Beckman (2019). There are technical

solutions that are available to help with these problems and have contributed to a decline in the

death rates caused by automobile accidents. They include proximity monitors that let a driver

know how close they are to the vehicle ahead; detectors that measure the amount of alcohol

that a driver has consumed, and drifting monitors that alert a driver when his or her car drifts too

far to one side of the road or the other (Beckman, 2019).

Commonly, in a pedestrian, negligence case involving a motor vehicle will hinge upon

the exact duty of care owed by those involved. Both drivers and pedestrians must adhere to the

laws of the road and exercise reasonable care. Apparently, traffic collision in urban road and

freeway networks leads to a strong degradation of the network infrastructure and

accordingly reduced throughout, which can be countered through suitable control measures

and strategies. Despite the volume of time officers spend on traffic enforcement encounters,

issues relating to police decision making patterns in the enforcement of motor vehicle laws were
 16

salient in nature (Schafer and Mastrofski, 2005). Moreover, based from the assessment of

Redelmeier et al., (2003), the traffic law enforcement effectively reduces the frequency of

fatal motor-vehicle collision in countries with high rates of motor-vehicle use. Inconsistent

enforcement, therefore, may contribute to thousands of deaths each year worldwide.

Traffic Engineering

Traffic engineering is a method of civil engineering that helps to optimize the

performance and efficiency of the movement of people, goods, and transportation. In the field of

traffic engineering, engineers must look at the whole picture in order to maximize traffic flow

and reduce instanced of congestion: the movement of vehicles on roads and highways; the

movement of pedestrians. Through data collection of road construction, land development, and

traffic signals, and build traffic studies from them–allowing them to come up with new and

inventive ways to optimize the construction of roads, freeways, and other forms of ground

transportation (T-Square Engineering, 2017). In addition, the Institute of Transportation

Engineers defines traffic engineering as a subset of transportation engineering as phase of

transportation engineering which deals with the planning, geometric design and traffic operations

of roads, streets, and highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with

other modes of transportation (Hunashikatti, 2020). The definition represents a broadening of the

profession to include multimodal transportation systems and options, and to include a variety of

objectives in addition to the traditional goals of safety and efficiency. The traffic or highway

engineer must understand not only the basic characteristics of the driver, the vehicle, and the

roadway, but how each interacts with the others. Information obtained through traffic

engineering studies serves to identify relevant characteristics and define related problems. Traffic
 17

flow is of fundamental importance in developing and designing strategies for intersection

control, rural highways, and freeway segments The common objectives of traffic engineering

include providing high efficient traffic flow through ample research and innovative design

efforts, produce free flow of traffic, and use research to design roadways and highways that

increase traffic safety (strategic implementation of stop signs, traffic signs, and traffic lights) as

assessed by Hunashikatti (2020).

Usually, to successfully implement the above-mentioned objectives, traffic engineers will

be required to study an abundance of data, research, and literature on the characteristics of

traffic, the operations of traffic, traffic administration, traffic planning, and the geometrical

design of traffic, amongst other things. In addition to studying data, many traffic engineers will

execute a number of studies that will give them the appropriate data for traffic optimization

(Hunashikatti, 2020). Some studies include accident studies, traffic capacity studies, speed

studies, traffic volume studies, parking studies, origin and destination studies, and traffic flow

characteristics studies.

In addition to the enhancement of traffic flow, construction of roadways, and installation

of road signs and lights, traffic engineers also work hard to improve traffic calming in residential

areas. This includes neighborhood traffic control, traffic mitigation, neighborhood traffic safety

plans, traffic abatement, and roadway pavement marking, and signing plans (Hunashikatti,

2020).

On the other hand, Yannis et al., (2012) assessed the use of low cost traffic engineering

measures (LCTEMs) on the improvement of road safety in urban areas. The implementation of

one-way, one-lane roads which include speed humps, raised intersections and other traffic

calming measures contributed to significant reduction of vehicles accidents. Moreover, Wu et al.,

 18

(2015) had assessed that improving two-lane highway traffic safety conditions is of practical

importance to the traffic system according. These cost-effective engineering solutions were specifically

implemented to improve two-lane highway safety conditions, including (1) traffic sign replacement, (2)

repainting pavement markings, (3) roadside barrier installation, (4) intersection channelization, (5)

drainage optimization, and (6) sight distance improvement. And these engineering solutions effectively

improved traffic safety performance by significantly reducing crash occurrence risks and crash severities.

Traffic Education

With traffic on the roads becoming increasingly busy, it is important for all of us to teach

children from a young age to be aware of the traffic rules and regulations. Previously, children

could ride down the street without a care in the world but times have changed and with more

cars, scooters, bikes, motorbikes, buses and trams on the road than ever it is imperative we all

stay safe (Beat, 2015).

Road safety education (RSE) in schools is one potential way of reducing the

Number of deaths or injuries amongst young road users. Traffic education is essential for

equipping children sufficiently to become safe road users.

Traffic education is needed to encourage safe traffic activities. Traffic education is very

essential for every age group. Traffic education for educated road users can be easily done

through media which include televisions and radio. For uneducated road users, road safety

education should be simple and purposeful. Regular road safety programs are to be organized at

schools, colleges; industries, public places, and exhortation are powerful tools in the road safety

campaign (Heinrichova, 2010).

 19

People should be made aware of Traffic Rules & Regulations like Parking, No Parking,

Use of Speed Breakers and Traffic Signs, provisions of Motor Vehicles Act, Accident Prevention

tips, Tips for motorcyclists, Tips for Cyclists, Accident Scene, Traffic Control, and others. The

main goal of road safety is to prevent casualties. Children are the high risk group in traffic.

Traffic education is essential for equipping children sufficiently to become safe road users. Only

formal education at school is not sufficient, but even more so is the education provided by

parents. The mental development of children limits their capabilities in traffic, but by stimulating

them this development can be speeded up slightly (Commondove, 2018).

Traffic education mainly involves making the rules known and motivating each

individual to follow the traffic rules and regulations. Traffic rules are meant to encourage a

traffic flow which is as safe and smooth as possible. Breaking these rules result in an increased

risk of crashes, or a more serious outcome. Enforcement of these rules is a police task. Road

accidents can occur for a variety of reasons. In the assessment conducted by Raftery and

Wundersitz in 2011, some reasons of road accidents are under our control while others may be

unavoidable. Hence, individuals should always do what we can to reduce the possibility of

avoidable accidents by paying attention to the road, adjusting our speed for poor weather, and

following road signs. Traffic education is equally important to all road users. All the participants

of road are equally responsible for the traffic safety. The drivers and pedestrians should have

adequate information regarding road uses. For instance, the driver should know that he must stop

at a red traffic signal and pedestrian should know that he must not cross the road at red traffic

signal. This is an example of basic traffic regulation (Raftery and Wundersitz, 2011).

Some of the most common accidents can be avoided by teaching our drivers and

pedestrians about the dire consequences that can result from even small mistakes. Every driver
 20

should take care to avoid common road violations. Driver’s education program shouldn’t simply

teach the student how to drive a car; it should also teach the rules and regulations that enforce

safety for all drivers. Consequently, obtaining driver license criteria should also be reviewed.

Adequate knowledge of traffic rules and regulations should be ensured before issuing driving

license. The driving school should teach about how to adjust speed for different conditions, how

to distance oneself from other vehicles, and other fundamentals of driving (EducateNepal, 2018).

One person’s mistake may kill innocent people so traffic safety rules and regulations are

to be strictly enforced by the traffic police. Every year the lives of approximately 1.35 million

people are cut short as a result of a road traffic crash. Between 20 and 50 million more people

suffer non-fatal injuries, with many incurring a disability as a result of their injury. Road traffic

injuries cause considerable economic losses to individuals, their families, and to nations as a

whole. These losses arise from the cost of treatment as well as lost productivity for those killed

or disabled by their injuries, and for family members who need to take time off work or school to

care for the injured. Road traffic crashes cost most countries 3% of their gross domestic product.

This statistics reveals that road safety aspect is very crucial across the globe. Traffic education is

one of the options that could be used as a tool to control the road accidents (World Health

Organization, 2020).

Every time we get behind the wheel of our vehicles, we have the possibility of affecting

not only our own lives, but of others as well. Therefore, it’s of utmost importance that we take

driving education seriously and do our best to stay safe on the road.
 21

Road safety education (RSE) in

schools is one potential way of
reducing the number of deaths or
injuries amongst young road users.
Indeed, OECD countries have made
RSE in schools a priority
(OECD, 2004), which has led to the
proliferation of educational
programs using a variety of
strategic
approaches and delivery methods.
Organisations with an interest in
road safety (e.g., emergency
services, motoring organisations,
governments, health professionals, and
community groups, etc.) are
continually looking for new and
innovative ways to improve road
safety knowledge and promote safe,
 22

responsible road use. However,

common criticisms of school-based
RSE programs often point to a
lack of evidence proving their
effectiveness, and that schools
themselves are often hard-pressed to
find time in already full curricula
to schedule additional activities.
The purpose of this report is to
review the strategies and methods
utilised by current RSE programs
offered in schools and to provide
some comment on the efficacy of thes
CASR Road Safety Research Report | The
efficacy of road safety education in schools: A
review of current approaches
iii

Summary
 23

Traffic Environment/Ecology

Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment includes the study of potentially disastrous

population explosion, changes in urban environment due to the scale and density of new urban

concentration and new activities carried out, air pollution and crowding, especially transportation

congestion which result therein (Santiago, 2015).

Roads and traffic exert a variety of direct and mostly detrimental effects on nature. The

transport sector has acknowledged its responsibility to control these impacts and develop

appropriate and cost-efficient mitigation. This cannot be done, however, without the involvement

of and collaboration with other societal sectors. European environmental policy and law set the

overarching goals and define if and where mitigation may be needed. While in some respects

jurisdiction already provides a clear framework for mitigation (e.g. chemical pollution, CO2),

there are other domains (e.g., habitat fragmentation, disturbance, mortality) where the broad goal

yet has to be translated into measureable tasks (Saferoad, 2020).

The European Union goals for biodiversity state that species should be kept at a favorable

conservation status. This implies that we should seek to ensure that populations can maintain a

certain favorable size and exert dynamics that do not lead to a steady decline. Population

dynamics are driven by a few key factors such as i. fecundity of reproduction (which is directly

linked to food and resource availability, age structure and genetic properties of a population); ii.

Survival of offspring and adults (that directly affects population size and thereby the risk for

extinction); and iii. immigration (as a recovery mechanism that prevents local populations from

getting extinct and maintains genetic exchange).

 24

In many species, especially the larger wildlife, the transport sector has a special

responsibility for the latter two key factors: Survival is directly linked the death toll wildlife pays

due to road and railroad traffic. Millions of animals are killed annually as they enter or cross

transport infrastructure facilities, but statistics are limited (often only to those that are of

immediate traffic safety concern) and despite legal requirements on a monitoring system for

incidental mortality (i.e. road kills), empirical data is scarce. Immigration, on the other hand, is

dependent on the permeability of transport corridors for wildlife. Many if not most terrestrial

species experience significant movement barriers in roads and railroads. This barrier effect often

increases with traffic volume and is thus linked to mortality, but in many species it also contains

behavioral components (avoidance) that prevent accidents but increase the barrier effect. Also

here, empirical data is often scarce and the functional relationship with traffic or road design

mostly theoretical (Santiago, 2015).

Barrier effect and road mortality are rather different in their nature, but they are

intrinsically linked in their effect on population dynamics (as mortality can partly be

compensated by immigration and vice versa). They thus should be addressed within the same

mitigate on strategy for “defragmentation”.

On the other hand, transport infrastructure is closely linked to several sustainability issues

of political relevance, i.e. biodiversity and ecological processes, resource and energy efficiency

and economic development, all of which need to be addressed in planning. Roads and railways

induce changes in ecosystems at multiple scales, from the microclimatic processes in the road or

railway corridor to the population dynamics and dispersal possibilities of different species

(Coffin, 2007). The effects of roads and railways can be measured as the distance from the road

or railway, within which changes in species diversity and abundance as well as in hydrological
 25

flows, erosion and sedimentation rates can be observed, relative to a control location. This

approach to quantification of effects is referred to as the “road effect zone”, and has become a

central methodology in road ecology research (Forman and Deblinger, 2000).

Traffic Economy

Transportation projects can have various impacts on a community’s economic

development objectives, such as productivity, employment, business activity, property values,

and investment and tax revenues. In general, transport projects that improve overall accessibility

(i.e., they improve businesses ability to provide goods and services, and people's ability to access

education, employment and services) and reduce transportation costs (including travel time,

vehicle operating costs, road and parking facility costs, accident and pollution damages) tend to

increase economic productivity and development. Care is needed to avoid double counting

impacts that are already counted in travel time and vehicle cost savings, emission or safety

benefits. Many economic impacts are economic transfers (one person, group or area benefits at

another's expense) while others are true resource changes (overall economic productivity

increases or declines). In many situations, the distribution of impacts is important; for example,

from the perspective of the people who gain from an economic transfer, it is a true benefit, but

not from society's overall perspective as assessed by Weisbrod in 2007.

It is important to consider the full range of economic impacts, both positive and negative,

that a transport project may cause. For example, an urban highway expansion may improve

motorists' access and reduce their costs per vehicle-mile, but by creating a barrier to pedestrian

travel and stimulating more dispersed land use development patterns, reduces access by other

modes, and increases the total amount of travel required to reach destinations. Similarly,
 26

improving access to a particular area can expose businesses to more competition (for example, if

previously captive local customers can more easily access regional shopping centers), reducing

business activity there (Litman, 2010).

A new highway or public transport service increases a community's access to other areas.

This increases businesses' labor pool, reduces their costs to obtain input materials and services,

and expands their potential market. This may increase "economies of scale" in production

processes, which means higher productivity through lower costs per unit of output.

Grise et al. (2019) assessed that an improved accessibility may increase workers' ability

to access education and employment opportunities (increasing their productivity and incomes),

and increase residents' access to more shopping opportunities (providing financial savings), and

increase access to recreation and cultural opportunities (increasing their welfare).

Mobility management strategies, such as more efficient road pricing, can improve travel

time reliability, which reduces logistics and scheduling costs beyond just the travel time savings.

New transportation links between cities and ports, and new types of inter-modal facilities

and services at those locations, make it possible for new patterns of international trade to

develop. In some cases, the new links may improve the efficiency of business customer/client

visits as well as product deliveries.