Fundamentals of Real-Time,

Spectrum Analysis
––
PrimeR
Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview.................................... 3 Timing and Triggers........................................................30
The Evolution of RF Signals .............................................3 Real-Time Triggering and Acquisition.......................31
Modern RF Measurement Challenges .............................4 Triggering in Systems with Digital Acquisition..........32
A Brief Survey of Instrument Architectures......................5 Trigger Modes and Features.....................................32
The Swept Spectrum Analyzer....................................5 Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer Trigger Sources........33
Vector Signal Analyzers..............................................7 Constructing a Frequency Mask...............................34
Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers...................................7 Modulation Analysis........................................................35
Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation.........35
Chapter 2: How Does the Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer Digital Modulation.....................................................36
Work? .................................................................................................. 9 Power Measurements and Statistics........................37
RF/IF Signal Conditioning ................................................9
Input Switching and Routing Section .......................10 Chapter 3: Correlation Between Time and
RF and Microwave Sections ....................................10 Frequency Domain Measurements........................................38
Frequency Conversion/IF Section.............................11 Spectrograms.................................................................38
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) Concepts.....................12 Swept FFT Analysis........................................................40
Digital Signal Processing Path in Real-Time Time control of acquisition and analysis........................41
Spectrum Analyzers..................................................12 Time Domain Measurements..........................................42
IF Digitizer.................................................................13 Pulse Measurements......................................................42
Corrections................................................................13
Chapter 4: Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer
Digital Downconverter (DDC)....................................13
Applications.....................................................................................43
IQ Baseband Signals.................................................14
Real-Time Analyzers: Laboratory to Field.......................43
Decimation................................................................15
Data Communications: WLAN........................................44
Decimation Filtering..................................................15
Data Communications: WPAN........................................46
Transforming Time Domain Waveforms to the
Voice and Data Communications:
Frequency Domain..........................................................16
Cellular Radio..................................................................48
Real-Time Spectrum Analysis...................................17
Radio Communications..................................................48
The RSA306 and Real-Time Analysis.......................17
Video Applications..........................................................50
Relating RTSA to Swept Spectrum Analyzer............18
Spectrum Management and Interference Finding..........51
RBW on the Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer..............18
Device Testing................................................................51
Windowing................................................................19
Radar..............................................................................51
Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFT) in the Real-Time
Spectrum Analyzer....................................................20 Chapter 5: Terminology................................................................52
Digital Filtering ...............................................................22 Glossary..........................................................................52
Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters .......................22 Acronym Reference........................................................53
Frequency Response vs. Impulse Response ...........22
Numerical Convolution..............................................23
DPX™ Technology: A Revolutionary Tool for Signal
Discovery........................................................................25
Digital Phosphor Display...........................................26
The DPX Display Engine...........................................27
The DPX Transform Engine.......................................29

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 Primer

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview location: consumer electronics in homes, medical devices in
hospitals, industrial control systems in factories, and even
The Evolution of RF Signals tracking devices implanted underneath the skin of livestock,
Engineers and scientists have been looking for innovative pets, and people.
uses for RF technology ever since the 1860s, when James
Clerk Maxwell mathematically predicted the existence of As RF signals have become ubiquitous in the modern world,
electromagnetic waves capable of transporting energy so too have problems with interference between the devices
across empty space. Following Heinrich Hertz’s physical that generate them. Products such as mobile phones that
demonstration of “radio waves” in 1886, Nikola Tesla, operate in licensed spectrum must be designed not to
Guglielmo Marconi, and others pioneered ways of manipulating transmit RF power into adjacent frequency channels and
these waves to enable long distance communications. At the cause interference. This is especially challenging for complex
turn of the century, the radio had become the first practical multi-standard devices that switch between different modes
application of RF signals. Over the next three decades, several of transmission and maintain simultaneous links to different
research projects were launched to investigate methods network elements. Devices that operate in unlicensed
of transmitting and receiving signals to detect and locate frequency bands must be designed to function properly in
objects at great distances. By the onset of World War II, radio the presence of interfering signals, and are legally required to
detection and ranging (also known as radar) had become transmit in short bursts at low power levels. These new digital
another prevalent RF application. RF technologies that involve the combination of computers
and RF include wireless LANs, cellular phones, digital TV, RFID
Due in large part to sustained growth in the military and and others. These, combined with new advances in Software
communications sectors, technological innovation in RF Defined Radio (SDR) and Cognitive Radio (CR) provide a
accelerated steadily throughout the remainder of the 20th new path forward and will fundamentally change spectrum
century and continues to do so today. To resist interference, allocation methodologies resulting in increased efficiency in the
avoid detection, and improve capacity, modern radar systems way that the RF spectrum, one of the scarcest commodities, is
and commercial communications networks have become utilized.
extremely complex, and both typically employ sophisticated
combinations of RF techniques such as complex and adaptive To overcome these evolving challenges, it is crucial for today’s
modulation, bursting and frequency hopping. Designing these engineers and scientists to be able to reliably detect and
types of advanced RF equipment and successfully integrating characterize RF signals that change over time, something
them into working systems are extremely complicated tasks. not easily done with traditional measurement tools. To
address these problems, Tektronix has designed the Real-
At the same time, the increasingly widespread success of Time Spectrum Analyzer (RSA), an instrument that can
cellular technology and wireless data networks combined discover elusive effects in RF signals, trigger on those effects,
with the advancing state of semiconductor technology and seamlessly capture them into memory, and analyze them in the
packaging has caused the cost of basic RF components to frequency, time, modulation, statistical and code domains.
drop significantly over time. This has enabled manufacturers
outside of the traditional military and communications This document describes how the RSA works and provides
realms to embed relatively simple RF devices into all sorts a basic understanding of how it can be used to solve many
of commodity products. RF transmitters have become so measurement problems associated with modern RF signals.
pervasive that they can be found in almost any imaginable

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Modern RF Measurement Challenges • Characterizing PLL settling times, frequency drift,

Given the challenge of characterizing the behavior of today’s microphonics
RF devices, it is necessary to understand how frequency,
• Capturing spread-spectrum and frequency-hopping signals
amplitude, and modulation parameters behave over short and
long intervals of time. Traditional tools like Swept Spectrum • Monitoring spectrum usage, detecting rogue transmissions
Analyzers (SA) and Vector Signal Analyzers (VSA) provide
• Testing and diagnosing transient EMI effects
snapshots of the signal in the frequency domain or the
modulation domain. This is often not enough information to • Characterizing time-variant modulation schemes
confidently describe the dynamic nature of modern RF signals.
• Isolating software and hardware interactions
Consider the following challenging measurement tasks:
Each measurement involves RF signals that change over
• Discovery of rare, short duration events time, often unpredictably. To effectively characterize these
signals, engineers need a tool that can discover elusive events,
• Seeing weak signals masked by stronger ones
effectively trigger on those events and isolate them into
• Observing signals masked by noise memory so that the signal behavior can be analyzed.

• Finding and analyzing transient and dynamic signals

• Capturing burst transmissions, glitches, switching

transients

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 Primer

Fa Fb Fa Fb

Figure 1-1. The Swept Spectrum Analyzer tunes across a series of frequency segments, often missing important transient events that occur outside the current
sweep band highlighted in tan segment Fb on the right.

A Brief Survey of Instrument Architectures dynamic range, its disadvantage is that it can only calculate
To learn how the RTSA works and understand the value of the amplitude data for one frequency point at a time. This
the measurements it provides, it is helpful to first examine approach is based on the assumption that the analyzer can
two other types of traditional RF signal analyzers: the Swept complete at least one sweep without there being significant
Spectrum Analyzer (SA) and the Vector Signal Analyzer (VSA). changes to the signal being measured. Consequently,
measurements are only valid for relatively stable, unchanging
The Swept Spectrum Analyzer input signals. If there are rapid changes in the signal, it is
The swept-tuned, superheterodyne spectrum analyzer is statistically probable that some changes will be missed. As
the traditional architecture that first enabled engineers to shown in Figure 1-1, the SA is looking at frequency segment
make frequency domain measurements many decades Fa while a momentary spectral event occurs at Fb (diagram on
ago. Originally built with purely analog components, the left). By the time the sweep arrives at segment Fb, the event
SA has since evolved along with the applications that it has vanished and is not detected (diagram on right). The SA
serves. Current generation SAs include digital elements architecture does not provide a reliable way to discover the
such as ADCs, DSPs, and microprocessors. However, the existence of this kind of transient signal, thus contributing to
basic swept approach remains largely the same and is best the long time and effort required to troubleshoot many modern
suited for observing controlled, static signals. The SA makes RF signals. In addition to missing momentary signals, the
power vs. frequency measurements by downconverting the spectrum of impulse signals such as those used in modern
signal of interest and sweeping it through the passband of a communications and radar may be misrepresented as well.
resolution bandwidth (RBW) filter. The RBW filter is followed SA architectures cannot represent the occupied spectrum of
by a detector that calculates the amplitude at each frequency an impulse without repetitive sweeps. One also needs to pay
point in the selected span. While this method can provide high special attention to sweep rate and resolution bandwidth.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Display
Low-Pass Resolution Envelope Video
RF Downconverter Bandwidth Detector Bandwidth
Attenuator Filter (SLVA) Filter
Y
Input

YIG
Pre-Selector X
Swept Tuned
Local
Oscillator
Sweep
Generator

a) Swept Tuned Spectrum Analyzer (SA)

Display
Low-Pass
RF Downconverter
Digital
Attenuator P X-Y
IF Filter Filter
Micro-
Input ADC Memory
Processor

Band-Pass Local Acquisition Bandwidth Post Capture Processing

Oscillator

b) Vector Signal Analyzer (VSA)

Modern FFT-Based Analyzers

RF Downconverter Real-Time Digital Post Capture
Low-Pass Downconvert
Attenuator IF Filter & Filter Capture Displays

Amp./Phase DDC/
Input ADC Memory
Corrections Decimation
X-Y

Ext
Band-Pass
Local
Oscillator 400MS/s

r
Free i
Processor

Run Live Signal

Micro-

Processing
165 MHz
Acquisition Bandwidth DPX

Real Time Engine

Real-Time Display X-Y

IQ out trigger
(option 05) Analysis

Real-Time Bandwidth Display Processing

c) Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer (RSA5100 Series)

Figure 1-2 a, b, c. Simplified Block Diagram of Swept Spectrum Analyzer (a), Vector Signal Analyzer (b), and Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer (c).

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Figure 1-2a depicts a typical modern SA architecture. Even the presence of larger ones or when the signals change in
though modern SAs have replaced analog functionality with frequency but not amplitude. Both cases occur frequently in
digital signal processing (DSP), the fundamental architecture today’s dynamic RF environment.
and its limitations remain.
Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers
Vector Signal Analyzers The term “real-time” is derived from early work on digital
Analyzing signals carrying digital modulation requires vector simulations of physical systems. A digital system simulation is
measurements that provide both magnitude and phase said to operate in real-time if its operating speed matches that
information. A simplified VSA block diagram is shown in of the real system which it is simulating.
Figure 1-2b.
To analyze signals in real-time means that the analysis
A VSA digitizes all of the RF power within the passband of the operations must be performed fast enough to accurately
instrument and puts the digitized waveform into memory. The process all signal components in the frequency band of
waveform in memory contains both the magnitude and phase interest. This definition implies that we must:
information which can be used by DSP for demodulation,
• Sample the input signal fast enough to satisfy Nyquist
measurements, or display processing. Within the VSA, an ADC
criteria. This means that the sampling frequency must
digitizes the wideband IF signal, and the downconversion, exceed twice the bandwidth of interest.
filtering, and detection are performed numerically.
Transformation from time domain to frequency domain is • Perform all computations continuously and fast enough
such that the output of the analysis keeps up with the
done using DFT (discrete Fourier transform) algorithms. The
changes in the input signal.
VSA measures modulation parameters such as FM deviation,
Code Domain Power, and Error Vector Magnitude (EVM and
Discover, Trigger, Capture, Analyze
constellation diagrams). It also provides other displays such as
The Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer (RTSA) architecture is
channel power, power versus time, and spectrograms.
designed to overcome the measurement limitations of the SA
While the VSA has added the ability to store waveforms in and VSA to better address the challenges associated with
memory, it is limited in its ability to analyze transient events. transient and dynamic RF signals as described in the previous
In the typical VSA free run mode, signals that are acquired sections. The RTSA performs signal analysis using real-time
must be stored in memory before being processed. The serial digital signal processing (DSP) that is done prior to memory
nature of this batch processing means that the instrument is storage as opposed to the post-acquisition processing that
effectively blind to events that occur between acquisitions. is common in the VSA architecture. Real time processing
Single or infrequent events cannot be discovered reliably. allows the user to discover events that are invisible to other
Triggering on these types of rare events can be used to architectures and to trigger on those events allowing their
isolate these events in memory. Unfortunately VSAs have selective capture into memory. The data in memory can then
limited triggering capabilities. External triggering requires be extensively analyzed in multiple domains using batch
prior knowledge of the event in question which may not be processing. The real-time DSP engine is also used to perform
practical. IF level triggering requires a measurable change signal conditioning, calibration and certain types of analysis.
in the total IF power and cannot isolate weak signals in

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Frame Frame Frame Frame

VSA
Not Real-Time Missed
Input
FFT FFT

Time Sampled
Time

Frame Frame Frame Frame

FFT FFT FFT FFT

Frequency
Real-Time Domain
RSA

Processing Time < Acquisition time!

Frame Frame Frame Frame

Figure 1-3. VSA processing vs. Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers real-time engine processing.

The heart of the RSA is a real-time processing block as shown • Triggering in the frequency domain with Frequency Mask
in Figure 1-2c (on page 6). Similar to the VSA, a wide capture Trigger (FMT)
bandwidth is digitized. Unlike the VSA, the real-time engine
• Triggering on user specified bandwidths with filtered
operates fast enough to process every sample without gaps power trigger
as shown in Figure 1-3. Amplitude and phase corrections
that compensate for analog IF and RF responses can be • Real-time demodulation allowing the user to “listen” to a
particular signal within a busy band
continuously applied. Not only can the data stored in memory
be fully corrected, but this enables all subsequent real-time • Digital IQ streaming of digitized data allows the
processing to operate on corrected data as well. The real-time uninterrupted output of the signal for external storage
engine enables the following features that address the needs of and processing
modern RF analysis:
The real-time engine not only enables signal discovery and
• Real-time correction for imperfections in the analog trigger, but it also performs many of the repetitive signal
signal path processing tasks, freeing up valuable software-based
resources. Like the VSA, the RSA offers post-acquisition
• DPX® Live RF display allows the discovery of events missed
by swept SAs and VSAs analysis using DSP. It can perform measurements in multiple
time-correlated domains that can be displayed simultaneously.
• DPX Density™ measurements and triggering defined by the
persistency of a signal’s occurrence

• Advanced time-qualified triggering, such as runt triggering,

usually found in performance oscilloscopes

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 Primer

LF or IQ section (if present)

LP Filter
Input Switching
I
Input ADC
Digitized
Baseband
LP Filter
Q
Input ADC

ADC
RF LF/RF
LF Step Clock
Input Switch Attenuator

Cal
Switch Mixer Final IF
Mixer

ADC Digitized
IF
Final LO
RF Step Image Reject 1st IF Real-Time
Attenuator Filters 1st LO BW ADC
Internal Clock
Alignment
Source RF/uW Section Frequency Conversion/IF Section

Figure 2-1. Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer RF/IF block diagram.

Chapter 2: How Does the Real-Time • A real-time digital signal processing (DSP) engine enables
processing with no gaps.
Spectrum Analyzer Work?
• Sufficient capture memory and DSP power to enable
This chapter contains several architectural diagrams of the
continuous real-time acquisition over the desired time
main acquisition and analysis blocks of the Tektronix Real- measurement period.
Time Spectrum Analyzer (RSA). Some ancillary functions have
been omitted to clarify the discussion. • An integrated signal analysis system that provides multiple
analysis views of the signal under test, all correlated in time.
Modern RSAs can acquire a passband, or span, anywhere
within the input frequency range of the analyzer. At the heart RF/IF Signal Conditioning

of this capability is an RF downconverter followed by a Figure 2-1 shows a simplified RSA RF/IF block diagram.

wideband intermediate frequency (IF) section. An ADC digitizes Signals with frequency content anywhere in the frequency

the IF signal and the system carries out all further steps range of the RSAs are applied to the input connector. Once

digitally. DSP algorithms perform all signal conditioning and signals enter the instrument, they are routed and conditioned

analysis functions. in accordance with the needs of the analysis selected by

the user. Variable attenuation and gain is applied. Tuning
Several key characteristics distinguish a successful is achieved using multi-stage frequency conversion and a
real-time architecture: combination of tunable and fixed local oscillators (LO). Analog
filtering is done at the various IF frequencies. The last IF
• RF signal conditioning that provides a wide-bandwidth IF
path and high dynamic range. is digitized with an A/D converter. All further processing is
performed using DSP techniques. Some RSA models have
• The use of band-pass filters, instead of YIG preselection optional baseband modes where the input signal is digitized
filters, enabling simultaneous image-free frequency
directly, without any frequency conversions. The DSP for
conversion and wideband measurements across the entire
baseband signals follows a similar approach as is used
input frequency range of each product.
with RF signals.
• An ADC system capable of digitizing the entire real-time
BW with sufficient fidelity and dynamic range to support the
desired measurements.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Input Switching and Routing Section Step Attenuator

The input switching and routing section distributes the input The step attenuator is a device composed of resistive
waveforms to the various signal paths within the instrument. attenuator pads and RF/μW switches that decreases the level
Some RSA models include a separate DC coupled baseband of broadband signals by a programmed amount.
path for increased dynamic range and accuracy when
The step attenuator performs two functions:
analyzing low frequency signals as well as DC coupled
IQ baseband paths. RSAs also include internal alignment 1. It reduces the level of RF and microwave signals at the
sources. These alignment sources, which produce signals with input to a level that is optimum for processing. The step
properties that are specifically tailored for the RSA (PRBS, attenuator also protects the input from damage due to very
calibrated sinusoids, modulation references, etc.), are used high level signals by absorbing excessive RF power.

in self-alignment procedures that correct for temperature 2. It presents a broadband impedance match over the entire
variations in system parameters such as: frequency range of the instrument. This impedance match
is crucial in maintaining accuracy in measuring RF signals.
• Gain For this reason, most instrument specifications are stated
for the condition of 10 dB or more input attenuation.
• Amplitude flatness across the acquisition bandwidth

• Phase linearity across the acquisition bandwidth Step attenuators used by RSAs vary by model in their design.
They typically can be programmed to attenuate from 0 to
• Time alignment greater than 50 dB in steps of 5 or 10 dB.
• Trigger delay calibration
Image Reject Filter
The self-alignment processes, when combined with RTSAs provide image-free frequency conversion from the
calibrations using external equipment performed at the RF and microwave signals at their input to the final IF. This
factory or the service center, are at the heart of all critical is accomplished by placing a variety of filters in front of the
measurement specifications of RSAs. first mixer. The various RTSA models use multi-stage mixing
schemes incorporating broadband filters that allow image- free
RF and Microwave Sections conversion of the entire acquisition bandwidth with repeatable,
The RF/Microwave section contains the broadband circuitry that specified amplitude flatness and phase linearity.
conditions the input signals so that they have the proper level
and frequency content for optimal downstream processing. Preamplifier
Some RTSA models include options for a selectable
preamplifier that adds gain to the signal path prior to the
image reject filter. This option improves the noise figure of the
RTSAs and is useful for analyzing very weak signals. Adding
gain at the input, of course, limits the largest signal that can be
analyzed. Switching this amplifier out of the signal path returns
the analyzer’s range to normal.

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 Primer

Frequency Conversion/IF Section Internal Alignment Sources

All RTSA models can analyze a broad band of frequencies The performance achieved in RTSAs for some characteristics
centered anywhere in the analyzer’s frequency range. This is mentioned in the previous bulleted list far exceeds what is
done by converting the band of interest to a fixed IF where it is practical with analog components. Filter responses, delays and
filtered, amplified, and scaled. This IF signal is then digitized. gains vary over temperature and can be different for individual
Real-time and batch processing are then used to perform instruments. RTSAs performance is achieved by actually
multi-domain analysis on the signals of interest. measuring gains, filter shapes and delays and using DSP to
compensate for the measured performance. The frequency
Multi-Stage Frequency Conversion response and gain variations of the wideband RF components
The goal of the frequency conversion section is to faithfully is measured at the factory with calibrated equipment, traceable
convert signals in the desired band of frequencies to an to National Metrology Institutes such as NIST, NPL, and PTB.
IF suitable for analog-to-digital conversion. Tuning is This equipment is also used to calibrate the internal alignment
accomplished by selecting the frequencies of local oscillators sources which in turn provide signals that adjust for the signal
(LO) in a multiple conversion superheterodyne architecture as path conditions at the time and place where the RTSA is used.
shown in Figure 2-1 (on page 9). Each frequency conversion RTSAs use two kinds of internal signals:
stage contains a mixer (analog multiplier) followed by IF filtering
• A highly accurate, temperature stable sinusoidal signal is
and amplification. The choices of IF frequencies, filter shapes, used to set the signal path gain at a reference frequency,
gains, and levels differ depending on RTSA model and indeed typically 100 MHz. This signal is the internal RF level
are changed within each model as a function of instrument reference. It sets the accuracy in measuring RF power at
settings in order to optimize performance in several areas, as the center of the acquisition bandwidth.
listed below:
• A calibrated broadband signal is used to measure the
• Spurious responses due to mixer and filter imperfections amplitude and phase response across the real-time
acquisition BW. This signal is the internal channel response
• Dynamic range (smallest and largest signals that can be reference. It provides the information that allows DSP to
viewed simultaneously without errors) compensate for the amplitude, phase and delay variations
across the acquisition bandwidth.
• Amplitude flatness across the real-time bandwidth

• Phase linearity across the real-time bandwidth

• Delay match between the signal and trigger paths

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Real-Time Digital Signal Processing

Down- Real-Time
Post Acquistion
Amp/Phase converter IQ Out
(Option) Display
DDC/
ADC Correction
Decimation
Capture Analysis
SW
External
Free
Trigger Micro-
Run Processor

Filtered Power
Level

Freq
Live Signal Processing
Mask DPX

Pixel
DPX
Buffer

Figure 2-2. Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer Digital Signal Processing Block Diagram.

Digital Signal Processing (DSP) Concepts Figure 2-2 illustrates the major digital signal processing blocks
This section contains several architectural diagrams of the used in the Tektronix RTSAs. A band of frequencies from the
main acquisition and analysis blocks typical of Tektronix RF input is converted to an analog IF signal that is bandpass
RTSAs. Specific implementations vary by model number and filtered and digitized. Corrections are applied to the sampled
by specific measurement function. Some ancillary functions data correcting for amplitude flatness, phase linearity, and
have been omitted to clarify the discussion. other imperfections of the signal path. Some corrections are
applied in real-time, others are applied further downstream in
Digital Signal Processing Path in Real-Time the signal processing path.
Spectrum Analyzers
A digital downconversion and decimation process converts the
Tektronix RTSAs use a combination of analog and digital signal
A/D samples into streams of in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q)
processing (DSP) to convert RF signals into calibrated, time-
baseband signals as shown in Figure 2-3 (on the next page).
correlated multi-domain measurements. This section deals with
This IQ representation of the desired signal is the basic form
the digital portion of the RTSAs signal processing flow.
for representing signals in all RTSAs. DSP is then used to
perform all further signal conditioning and measurements. Both
real-time DSP and batch mode DSP are used in RTSAs

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Decimate I
by N
Analog
IF Corrections IQ Representation of
ADC
(if used) Baseband Time
Decimation
90° Domain Data
Numeric Filters
Oscillator
Decimate
Q
by N

Digital Downconverter

Figure 2-3. IF to IQ conversion in a Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer.

IF Digitizer Internal Alignment

Tektronix RTSAs typically digitize a band of frequencies The response across the acquisition bandwidth is affected by
centered on an intermediate frequency (IF). This band of the combination of mixers, filters, and amplifiers that comprise
frequencies is the widest frequency for which real-time analysis the IF processing path. These components can have fine-
can be performed. Digitizing at a high IF rather than at DC or grain amplitude and phase ripple over the wide bandwidths
baseband has several signal processing advantages: spurious acquired by RTSAs. An internal alignment process measures
performance, DC rejection, and dynamic range. The sampling the amplitude and phase response as a function of offset from
rate is chosen so that the desired IF bandwidth fits within the center frequency. The alignment is done at the time and
a Nyquist zone as shown in Figure 2-4 (on the next page). place where the instrument is in use and can be triggered
The sampling rate must be at least twice the IF bandwidth. either manually or as a function of temperature. This response
Sampling without aliasing is possible if the entire IF bandwidth is stored in memory.
fits between zero and one-half the sampling frequency,
one-half and one, three-halves and twice, etc. The practical Correction Process
implementations of IF filters require typical sampling rates at The RTSA correction process combines the RF response
least two-and-a-half times the IF bandwidth. measured at the factory with the IF response measured during
internal alignments to generate FIR coefficients for a set of
Corrections correction filters that compensate for amplitude flatness and
The RTSA specifications for amplitude flatness, phase phase response of the entire path between the input connector
linearity and level accuracy far exceed what is practical with and the ADC. These correction filters are implemented either in
the components that comprise the analog RF and IF signal real-time digital hardware or in software-based DSP depending
conditioning portions of the signal path. Tektronix RTSAs use on RTSA model and are applied to the digitized IQ stream.
a combination of factory calibration and internal self-alignment
to compensate for analog component variations (temperature, Digital Downconverter (DDC)
tolerance, aging, etc.) in the signal path. A common and computationally efficient way to represent
bandpass signals is to use the complex baseband
Factory Calibration representation of the waveform.
The RF frequency response of the RTSA over its range of
RTSAs use the Cartesian complex form, representing the time
input frequencies is measured at the factory. The RF behavior
sampled data as I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature) baseband
at the center of an acquisition bandwidth is predictable over
components of the signal. This is achieved using a digital
temperature and does not vary appreciably as the instrument
downconverter (DDC) as shown in Figure 2-3.
ages. Once measured in the factory, the RF response is stored
in a correction table that resides in non-volatile memory.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Digitized IF Signal IF Signal

Fs Fs 3Fs Fs
4 2 2

I baseband Q baseband

-Fs Fs -Fs Fs
4 4 4 4
Figure 2-4. Passband information is maintained in I and Q even at half the sample rate.

In general, a DDC contains a numeric oscillator that generates between one half of the sampling frequency and the sampling
a sine and a cosine at the center frequency of the band of frequency. Sampling produces an image of this signal between
interest. The sine and cosine are numerically multiplied with zero and one-half the sampling frequency. The signal is then
the digitized IF signal, generating streams of I and Q baseband multiplied with coherent sine and cosine signals at the center
samples that contain all of the information present in the of the passband of interest and followed by an anti-aliasing
original IF. DDCs are used not only to convert digitized IF filter, generating I and Q baseband signals. The baseband
signals to baseband but also in fine frequency tuning in RTSAs. signals are real-valued and symmetric about the origin. The
same information is contained in the positive and negative
IQ Baseband Signals frequencies. All of the modulation contained in the original
Figure 2-4 illustrates the process of taking a frequency band passband is also contained in these two signals. The minimum
and converting it to baseband using digital downconversion. required sampling frequency for each is now half of the
The original IF signal in this example is contained in the space original. It is then possible to decimate by two.

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Decimation or spans, resulting in longer time records for an equivalent

The Nyquist theorem states that for baseband signals one number of samples. The disadvantage of the lower effective
need only sample at a rate equal to twice the highest frequency sampling rate is a reduced time resolution. The advantages of
of interest. For bandpass signals one needs to sample at a rate the lower effective sampling rate are fewer computations for
at least twice the bandwidth. The sample rate can be reduced analysis and less memory usage for a given time record.
when the needed bandwidth is less than the maximum.
Sample rate reduction, or decimation, can be used to balance Decimation Filtering

bandwidth, processing time, record length and memory usage. The Nyquist requirements must also be observed when
The Tektronix RSA5100B Series, for example, uses a 400 decimating. If the data rate is reduced by a factor of two, then
MS/s sampling rate at the A/D converter to digitize a 165 MHz the bandwidth of the digital signal also must be reduced by
acquisition bandwidth, or span. The I and Q records that result a factor of two. This must be done with a digital filter prior to
after DDC, filtering and decimation for this 165 MHz acquisition the reduction in sample rate to prevent aliasing. Many levels of
bandwidth are at an effective sampling rate of half the original, decimation are used in Tektronix RTSAs. Each level contains a
that is, 200 MS/s. The total number of samples is unchanged: digital filter followed by a reduction in the number of samples.
we are left with two sets of samples, each at an effective An additional advantage of decimation and filtering is a
rate of 200 MS/s instead of a single set at 400 MS/s. Further reduction in noise with the reduced bandwidth. This reduction
decimation is made for narrower acquisition bandwidths in noise is often called processing gain.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

DFT-Based Spectrum Analysis*

Memory Contents
Input Signal

ADC DFT Engine

Time

Time Samples

Equivalent Bank of Filters

Bank of N Bandpass Complex
filters with centers
separated by one FFT
Envelope
frequency bin width Detection
M/
Input Signal Θ M/
Θ M/
Θ

Time M/
Θ
* The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a common
implementation of a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT).

Figure 2-5. A DFT-based Spectrum Analyzer and an equivalent implementation using a bank of bandpass filters.

Transforming Time Domain Waveforms to the Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFTs) are performed as shown in
Frequency Domain Figure 2-5 is such a way that signal processing keeps up with
Spectrum analysis, also called Fourier analysis, separates the the input signal. Repetitive Fourier transforms can also be used
various frequency components of an input signal. The typical to discover, capture and analyze infrequent transient events in
spectrum analyzer display plots the level of the individual the frequency domain even when the requirements for real-
frequency components versus frequency. The difference time are not strictly met.
between the start and stop frequencies of the plot is the span.
Spectrum analysis is said to be real-time when repetitive

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Real-Time Spectrum Analysis processor cannot process and display all the received data
For spectrum analysis to be classified as real-time, all via DFTs in real time. The RSA306 API software provided with
information contained within the span of interest must be the instrument, however, can transfer this data in real time to
processed indefinitely without gaps. An RTSA must take all another process. If that process is efficient and running on
information contained in time domain waveform and transform a powerful processor, then the combination of the RSA306
it into frequency domain signals. To do this in real-time hardware and the processor can truly be a real-time analyzer.
requires several important signal processing requirements: In addition, SignalVu-PC can read back the recorded gapless
data and do analysis offline on a dataset where no samples
• Enough capture bandwidth to support analysis of the signal are missed.
of interest
Discovering and Capturing Transient Events
• A high enough ADC clock rate to exceed the Nyquist
criteria for the capture bandwidth Another application of fast and repetitive Fourier transforms
• A long enough analysis interval to support the narrowest is the discovery, capture and observation of rare events in
resolution bandwidth (RBW) of interest the frequency domain. A useful specification is the minimum
event duration for 100% probability of capturing a single non-
• A fast enough DFT transform rate to exceed the Nyquist
repetitive event. A minimum event is defined as the narrowest
criteria for the RBW of interest
rectangular pulse that can be captured with 100% certainty
• DFT rates exceeding the Nyquist criteria for RBW require at the specified accuracy. Narrower events can be detected,
overlapping DFT frames: but the accuracy and probability may degrade. Discovering,
- The amount of overlap depends on the window function capturing and analyzing transients requires:

- The window function is determined by the RBW • Enough capture bandwidth to support analysis of the signal
of interest
Today’s RTSAs, such as the Tektronix 5100 and 6100 series,
• A high enough ADC clock rate to exceed the Nyquist
meet the real-time requirements listed above for Frequency criteria for the capture bandwidth
Mask Trigger (FMT) for spans up to their maximum real-
time acquisition bandwidth. Triggering on frequency domain • A long enough analysis interval to support the narrowest
resolution bandwidth (RBW) of interest
events, therefore, considers all the information contained in the
selected acquisition bandwidth. • A fast enough DFT transform rate to support the minimum
event duration
The RSA306 and Real-Time Analysis
At 3.125M spectrums per second, the DPX Spectrum mode
Although the Tektronix RSA306 USB spectrum analyzer
in the RSA5100 Series can detect RF pulses as short as 0.43
paired with SignalVu-PC cannot do gapless data processing
microseconds with the full accuracy specifications with 100%
at the incoming data rate, it can capture and transfer
probability. A Swept Spectrum Analyzer (SA) with 50 sweeps
downconverted RF samples at the 112 MHz sampling rate
per second requires pulses longer than 20 milliseconds for
of the ADC. SignalVu-PC can store this data in real time on a
100% probability of detection with full accuracy.
fast hard solid state disk, but the software running on a laptop

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

shown in Figure 2-6, where frequency is plotted horizontally,

Spectrum
time is plotted vertically and the amplitude is represented
as a color. The real-time DFT effectively samples the entire
Color Scale

spectrum of the incoming signal at the rate with which new

spectrums are computed. Events occurring between the time
segments on which the FFTs are performed are lost. RTSAs
minimize or eliminate the “dead time” by performing hardware-
Frequency
based DFTs, often performing transforms on overlapping time
segments at the fastest sample rate.

An SA, in contrast, is tuned to a single frequency at any given

time. The frequency changes as the sweep advances tracing
the diagonal line in Figure 2-6. The slope of the line becomes
Time

steeper as the sweep slows so that the function of a spectrum

Sw
ee analyzer in zero-span can be represented as a vertical line
p
indicating that the instrument is tuned to a single frequency as
time advances. Figure 2-6 also shows how a sweep can miss
transient events such as the single frequency hop depicted.

Spectrogram For a discussion of RTSA measurements for frequency spans

greater than the real-time bandwidth, please see chapter 3.
Figure 2-6. Spectrum, Spectrogram and Sweep.

RBW on the Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer

Relating RTSA to Swept Spectrum Analyzer
Frequency resolution is an important spectrum analyzer
Consider an RTSA system as described on the previous
specification. When we try to measure signals that are close
page. A passband of interest is downconverted to an IF and
in frequency, frequency resolution determines the capability
digitized. The time domain samples are digitally converted to
of the spectrum analyzer to distinguish between them. On
a baseband record composed of a sequence of I (in-phase)
traditional SAs, the IF filter bandwidth determines the ability
and Q (quadrature) samples. DFTs are sequentially performed
to resolve adjacent signals and is also called the resolution
on segments of the IQ record generating a mathematical
bandwidth (RBW). For example, in order to resolve two signals
representation of frequency occupancy over time, as shown in
of equal amplitude and 100 kHz apart in frequency, RBW
Figure 2-5 (on page 16).
needs to be less than 100 kHz.
Taking sequential equally spaced DFTs over time is
For spectrum analyzers based on the DFT technique, the RBW
mathematically equivalent to passing the input signal through
is inversely proportional to the acquisition time. Given the same
a bank of bandpass filters and then sampling the magnitude
sampling frequency, more samples are required to achieve a
and phase at the output of each filter. The frequency domain
smaller RBW. In addition, windowing also affects the RBW.
behavior over time can be visualized as a spectrogram as

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Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3 Frame 2 Frame 2 Frame 2

Figure 2-7. Three frames of a sampled time domain signal. Figure 2-8. Discontinuities caused by periodic extension of samples
in a single frame.

Windowing The choice of window function depends on its frequency

There is an assumption inherent in the mathematics of Discrete response characteristics such as side-lobe level, equivalent
Fourier Transform (DFT) analysis that the data to be processed noise bandwidth, and amplitude error. The window shape also
is a single period of a periodically repeating signal. Figure determines the effective RBW filter.
2-7 depicts a series of time domain samples. When DFT
Like other spectrum analyzers, the RTSAs allow the user to
processing is applied to Frame 2 in Figure 2-7, for example, the
select the RBW filter. The RTSAs also allow the user to select
periodic extension is made to the signal. The discontinuities
among many common window types. The added flexibility
between successive frames will generally occur as shown in
to directly specify the window shape enables the users to
Figure 2-8.
optimize for specific measurements. Special attention, for
These artificial discontinuities generate spectral artifacts example, should be paid to the spectrum analysis of pulse
not present in the original signal. This effect produces an signals. If the pulse duration is shorter than the window length,
inaccurate representation of the signal and is called spectral uniform window (no windowing) should be used to avoid de-
leakage. Spectral leakage not only creates signals in the output emphasizing effects on both ends of the DFT frame. For further
that were not present in the input, but also reduces the ability information on this topic, please refer to the Tektronix Primer,
to observe small signals in the presence of nearby large ones. “Understanding FFT Overlap Processing on the Real-Time
Spectrum Analyzer” (37W-18839).
Tektronix Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers apply a windowing
technique to reduce the effects of spectral leakage. Before
performing the DFT, the DFT frame is multiplied by a window
function with the same length sample by sample. The window
functions usually have a bell shape, reducing or eliminating the
discontinuities at the ends of the DFT frame.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Vertical Linear Scale

1 0

0.9 -20

0.8 -40

0.7 -60

0.6 -80

0.5 -100

0.4 -120

0.3 -140

0.2 -160

0.1 -180

0 -200
50 100 150 200 250 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

Figure 2-9. Kaiser Window (beta 16.7) in Time Domain (Horizontal is time Figure 2-10. The spectrum of a Kaiser window (beta 16.7). The horizontal scale
sample, Vertical is linear scale). unit is the frequency bin (Fs/N). The vertical scale is in dB.

The magnitude of the frequency response of the window Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFT) in the Real-Time Spectrum
function determines the RBW shape. The RBW is defined as Analyzer
the 3 dB bandwidth and is related to the sampling frequency The DFT is defined below:
and samples in the DFT as follows:

Equation 1

from the input sequence x(n). The DFT is block-based and N

Equation 2 is the total sample number of each DFT block (or Frame). The
input sequence x(n) is a sampled version of the input signal
Where k is a window-related coefficient, N is the number x(t). Although the input sequence is only defined for integer
of time-domain samples used in the DFT calculation, and values of n, the output is a continuous function of k, where
Fs is the sampling frequency. For the Kaiser window with k=(Nω)/(2π) and ω is the frequency in radians. The magnitude
beta1 = 16.7, k is about 2.23. The RBW shape factor, defined of X[k] represents the magnitude of the frequency component
as the frequency ratio between the spectrum amplitude at at frequency ω that is present in the input sequence x(n).
60 dB and 3 dB, is about 4:1. On the RSA5100/6100, the
spectrum analysis measurement uses Equation 2 to calculate There are various efficient methods to compute the DFT.
the required number of samples for the DFT based on the input Examples include the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and the
span and RBW settings. Chirp-Z Transform (CZT). The choice of implementation
method depends on the particular needs of the application.
The time domain and the spectrum of the Kaiser window The CZT, for example, has greater flexibility in choosing the
used for spectrum analysis is shown in Figure 2-9 and Figure frequency range and the number of output points than the FFT.
2-10. This is the default window used in the RSA5100/6100 The FFT is less flexible but requires fewer computations. Both
for spectrum analysis. Other windows (such as Blackman- the CZT and the FFT are used in RTSAs.
Harris, Uniform, Hanning) may be user-selected to meet
special measurement requirements, and may be used by
the instrument when performing some of the measurements
available in the instrument.

[Reference 1] Oppenheim, A.V. and R.W Schafer, Discrete-time Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall, 1989, p. 453.

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Input Signal: Frequency = 4.7222 Hz : Sample Frequency = 20 Hz DFT (X[k])

1 8
0.8 7
0.6
6
0.4
5
0.2

Magnitude
Amplitude

0 4

-0.2 3
-0.4
2
-0.6
1
x(t) -0.8
x(n) DFT (X[k])
-1 0
0 4 8 12 0 5 10 15 20
Sample Number (n) Frequency (Hz)

Figure 2-11. Input Signal. Figure 2-12. DFT of x(n) evaluated continuously.

FFT CZT: Start Frequency = 2.5 Hz : Stop Frequency = 7.4 Hz

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5
Magnitude

Magnitude
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
DFT (X[k]) DFT (X[k])
FFT 0 CZT 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

Figure 2-13. FFT of x(n), length of FFT = N = length of x(n). Figure 2-14. CZT of x(n).

The ability to resolve frequency components is not dependent An FFT returns N-equally spaced frequency domain samples
on the particular implementation of the DFT and is determined of X[k]. The magnitude of X[k] is shown in Figure 2- 13. Note
by the time length of the input sequence or the RBW. that the samples returned by the FFT might miss the peaks of
magnitude of X[k].
To illustrate the relationship of the DFT to the FFT and the CZT,
a sampled Continuous Waveform (CW) signal will be analyzed. A CZT can return M frequency domain samples with an
For illustration purposes a real-valued sine wave x(t) will be arbitrary start and stop frequency (Figure 2-14). Notice that the
used as the input signal (Figure 2-11). The sample version of CZT does not change the underlying frequency domain output
x(t) is x(n). In this case N = 16 and the sample rate is 20 Hz. of the DFT. It only takes a different set of frequency domain
samples than the FFT.
Figure 2-12 shows the result of evaluating the DFT for 0 ≤ k
< N. Note that the magnitude of X[k] for ω > π (f > 10 Hz) is a An advantage of using the CZT is that the frequency of the
mirror image of the first half. This is the result for a real-valued first and last sample in the frequency domain can be arbitrarily
input sequence x(n). In practice, the results from π < ω < 2π selected and does not depend on the input sample rate. The
are discarded (or not computed) when a real input signal is same result can also be achieved by arbitrarily controlling the
analyzed. For a complex input, a unique result can be obtained input sample rate so that the output of the FFT produces the
for 0 ≤ ω < 2π (0 ≤ f < 20 Hz). same output samples as the CZT. The end result is the same in
both cases. The choice is purely an implementation issue, and
depending on the requirements and available HW, one or the
other will be a more optimal solution.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Impulse Response

Frequency Response
1.2
1.2
1

1
0.8

0.8
0.6
Amplitude

0.6

Value
0.4

0.4 0.2

0.2 0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

0 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency -0.4

Time

Figure 2-15. Frequency response of a lowpass filter. Figure 2-16. Impulse response for the lowpass filter in Figure 2-15.

Digital Filtering Frequency Response vs. Impulse Response

Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters The theory of Fourier transforms shows an equivalency
Frequency filters are used in many applications to select between the frequency domain and the time domain. It further
some frequencies and reject others. While traditional filters are tells us that the transfer function of a device, usually expressed
implemented using analog circuit elements (RLC), DSP selects as its amplitude and phase response over frequency, is
the frequencies to be enhanced or attenuated mathematically. equivalent to the impulse response over time. A FIR filter
A common mathematical implementation is the Finite Impulse emulates the impulse response of the desired filter transfer
Response (FIR) filter. RSAs make extensive use of FIR filters. In function with a discrete-time approximation that has finite
addition to the usual signal conditioning applications requiring timeduration. Signal filtering is then performed by convolving
the passage or rejection of specific bands, FIR filters are also the input signal with the impulse response of the filter.
used to adjust for analog signal path imperfections. Internally
Figure 2-15 shows the magnitude of the transfer function of a
generated alignment data is combined with stored factory
lowpass filter. Figure 2-16 shows its impulse response.
calibration data to create FIR filters with a response that
compensates for the analog signal path frequency response,
making the cascade of the analog and digital paths have flat
amplitude response and linear phase.

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Frequency Frequency
Domain Input Domain Output Input Time
Samples
Output Time
Samples
Multiplication
Frequency Response

Convolution
1.2

1
Impulse Response
0.8
Amplitude

1.2
0.6
1
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.6
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Value
Frequency 0.4

0.2

Filter
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

-0.2

-0.4

Time

Frequency Sampled Filter

Response
Frequency Domain Impulse Response Discrete Time

Figure 2-17. Multiplying a filter by its frequency response. Figure 2-18. Convolution in the time domain is equivalent to multiplication in
the frequency domain.

Numerical Convolution Fourier theory states that a multiplication in the frequency

The frequency domain is often used to analyze the responses domain is the equivalent of a convolution in the time domain.
of linear systems such as filters. Signals are expressed in terms The frequency domain multiplication shown above is equivalent
of their frequency content. The spectrum of the signal at the to convolving the time domain representation of the input
output of a filter is computed by multiplying the input signal signal with the impulse response of the filter as shown in
spectrum by the frequency response of the filter. Figure 2-17 Figure 2-18.
illustrates this frequency domain operation.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Input time
samples Time samples shifted each clock cycle

Output time
samples

M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 M-5 1 0

Impulse Response

1.2

0.8

0.6

Sampled filter
Value

0.4

0.2

impulse response
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

-0.2

-0.4

Numerical Convolution
Time

stored in registers

Figure 2-19. Discrete Time Numerical Convolution.

All frequency filters involve the use of memory elements. the later samples on the left. The upper registers are used
Capacitors and inductors, the common reactive elements used to shift the input signal from left to right with one shift each
in analog filters, have memory since their output in a circuit clock cycle. The contents of each corresponding register
depends on the current input as well as the input at previous are multiplied together and all of the resulting products are
points in time. A discrete time filter can be constructed using summed each clock cycle. The result of the sum is the
actual memory elements as shown in Figure 2-19. filtered signal.

The lower registers are used to store values of the filter’s

impulse response with the earlier samples on the right and

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• Offset:
0.00 dBm
• dB/div:
10.00 dB

• RBW
91KHz

-100.0 dBm
• CF: 2.445 GHz • Span: 10.00 MHz

Figure 2-20 a, b. Comparison (a), Swept Spectrum Analyzer MaxHold trace after 120 seconds and (b), Tektronix Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer with DPX bitmap
MaxHold trace after 20 seconds.

In summary, the RTSA relies heavily on digital signal in software on the host PC to allow extremely low power
processing for spectrum analysis. Key points of DSP as operation in a portable instrument. Processing power in
applied to the RTSAs are: current laptop computers is slower than that in dedicated
hardware, so the 100% probability of intercept for a pulse is
• The RSA5100/6100 analyzers use a combination of FFTs limited to pulses longer than 100 us. As portable computer
and CZTs to achieve spectrum displays. processing power increases (including implementation of
GPUs for fast graphics processing), this number can
• FFTs are more computationally efficient, allowing faster be reduced.
transform rates, but CZTs are more flexible, allowing
variable resolution bandwidths for a fixed set of As we have seen in this section, digitally implemented
input samples. corrections and filtering are a key factor in implanting the high

• The resolution bandwidth (RBW) shape is achieved by transform rate required of a RTSA. The next section looks at
applying an optimized window function to the time domain the practical use of these filters in one of the unique displays
signals before performing a Fourier transform. RBWs are available in the RTSA, the Digital Phosphor Spectrum Display.
specified by their 3 dB bandwidth and 60 dB:3 dB shape
factor, in the same fashion as an analog implementation. DPX™ Technology: A Revolutionary Tool for
In general, the shape factor of the digitally implemented Signal Discovery
filter is lower (sharper) than an analog implementation, Tektronix’ patented Digital Phosphor technology or DPX
yielding easier resolution of closely spaced signals of widely reveals signal details that are completely missed by
different amplitudes.
conventional spectrum analyzers and VSAs (Figure 2-20). The
• Other shape factors can be used for special applications by DPX Spectrum’s Live RF display shows signals never seen
applying optimized window functions. before, giving users instant insight and greatly accelerating
problem discovery and diagnosis. DPX is a standard feature in
• The RSA306 RTSA uses CZTs for maximum flexibility in
all Tektronix RTSAs.
choosing spectrum lengths and resolution bandwidths.
The DSP processing in this instrument is implemented

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Digital Phosphor Display Proportionality: The slower the electron beam passes through
The name “Digital Phosphor” derives from the phosphor a point on the phosphor-coated screen, the brighter the
coating on the inside of cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used as resulting light. Brightness of a spot also increases as the beam
displays in older televisions, computer monitors and test hits it more frequently. Users intuitively know how to interpret
equipment where the electron beam is directly controlled this z-axis information: a bright section of the trace indicates
by the input waveform. When the phosphor is excited by an a frequent event or slow beam motion, and a dim trace results
electron beam, it fluoresces, lighting up the path drawn by the from infrequent events or fast-moving beams. In the DPX
stream of electrons. display, both color and brightness provide z-axis emphasis.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) replaced CRTs in most Persistence and proportionality do not come naturally to
applications due to their smaller depth and lower power instruments with LCDs and a digital signal path. Tektronix
requirements, among other advantages. However, the developed Digital Phosphor technology so the analog benefits
combination of phosphor coatings and vector drawing in CRTs of a variable persistence CRT could be achieved, and even
provided several valuable benefits. improved upon, in our industry-leading digital oscilloscopes
and now in our RTSAs. Digital enhancements such as intensity
Persistence: The phosphor continues to glow even after the grading, selectable color schemes and statistical traces
electron beam has passed by. Generally, the fluorescence communicate more information in less time.
fades quickly enough that viewers don’t perceive it lingering,
but even a small amount of persistence will allow the human
eye to detect events that would otherwise be too short to see.

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1
1
1 2
Amplitude

Amplitude
1 4
2 1
1 1 1 5 7
1 1 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 9 9 9 1 1 1 1 1 9 9 9

Frequency Frequency

Figure 2-21. Example 3-D Bitmap Database after 1 (left) and 9 (right) updates. Note that each column contains the same total number of “hits.”

The DPX Display Engine Number of Occurrences Color

Performing thousands of spectral measurements per second 0 black
and updating the screen at a live rate is an oversimplified 1 blue
description of the role DPX technology performs in an RTSA. 2 light blue
Thousands of acquisitions are taken and transformed into
3 cyan
spectrums every second. This high transform rate is the key
4 green blue
to detecting infrequent events, but it is far too fast for the
5 green
LCD to keep up with, and it is well beyond what human eyes
6 yellow
can perceive. So the incoming spectrums are written into a
7 orange
bitmap database at full speed then transferred to the screen at
a viewable rate. Picture the bitmap database as a dense grid 8 red orange
created by dividing a spectrum graph into rows representing 9 red
trace amplitude values and columns for points on the
Figure 2-22. Example Color-Mapping Algorithm.
frequency axis. Each cell in this grid contains the count of how
many times it was hit by an incoming spectrum. Tracking these
counts is how Digital Phosphor implements proportionality, so The grid on the right shows values that our simplified database
you can visually distinguish rare transients from normal signals might contain after an additional eight spectral transforms have
and background noise. been performed and their results stored in the cells. One of the
nine spectrums happened to be computed at a time during
The actual 3-D database in an RTSA contains hundreds of which the signal was absent, as you can see by the string of
columns and rows, but we will use an 11X10 matrix to illustrate “1” values at the noise floor.
the concept. The picture on the left in Figure 2-21 shows what
the database cells might contain after a single spectrum is When we map the Number of Occurrences values to a color
mapped into it. Blank cells contain the value zero, meaning that scale, data turns into information. The table found in Figure
no points from a spectrum have fallen into them yet. 2-22 shows the color-mapping algorithm that will be used for
this example. Warmer colors (red, orange, yellow) indicate
more occurrences. Other intensity-grading schemes can also
be used.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 2-23. Color-coded low-resolution example with Temperature Bitmap (left), and a real DPX display (right) shown with Spectrum Bitmap.

In Figure 2-23, the left image is the result of coloring the count is carried over to the next frame, it is called “variable
database cells according to how many times they were written persistence.” Adjusting the fraction changes the length of time
into by the nine spectrums. Displaying these colored cells, one it takes for a signal event to decay from the database, and thus
per pixel on the screen, creates the spectacular DPX displays, fade from the display.
as seen in the right image.
Imagine a signal that popped up only once during the time

Persistence DPX was running. Further, assume that it was present for
all of the spectrum updates in a frame and that the Variable
In the RSA5100 Series, for example, 3 million+ spectrums
Persistence Factor causes 25% attenuation after each frame.
enter the database each second. At the end of each frame
The cells it affected would start out with a value of 150,000
of ~150,000 input spectra (about 20 times per second), the
and be displayed at full force. One frame later, the Number of
bitmap database is transferred out for additional processing
Occurrences values become 75,000. After the next frame, they
before being displayed, and data from a new frame starts filling
are 37,500, then smaller and smaller until they are so dim as
the bitmap.
to be invisible. On the screen, you would initially see a bright
To implement persistence, the DPX engine can keep the trace with a spike at the signal frequency. The part of the
existing counts and add to them as new spectrums arrive, trace where the signal occurred fades away. During this time,
rather than clearing the bitmap database counts to zero at the pixels start to brighten at the noise level below the fading
the start of each new frame. Maintaining the full count values signal. In the end, there is only a baseline trace in the display
across frames is “infinite persistence.” If only a fraction of each (Figure 2-24, on the next page).

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Figure 2-24. With variable persistence, a brief CW signal captured by DPX remains in the display for an adjustable period of time before fading away.
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
Frequency Frequency Frequency
+Peak Detection -Peak Detection +Average Detection

Figure 2-25. Detected traces example: +Peak Detection (left); - Peak Detection (middle); and Average Detection (right).

Persistence is an extremely valuable troubleshooting aid, Just like regular spectrum traces, DPX line traces can be
delivering all the benefits of MaxHold and more. To find out if accumulated over ongoing acquisitions to yield MaxHold,
there is an intermittent signal or occasional shift in frequency MinHold and Average trace functions. Using Hold on the DPX
or amplitude, you can turn on Infinite Persistence and let the +Peak trace is almost exactly the same as the MaxHold trace
RTSA baby-sit. When you return, you will see not only the on a typical spectrum analyzer, with the important difference
highest level for each frequency point, but also the lowest that the DPX trace’s update rate is orders of magnitude faster.
levels and any points in between. Once the presence of
transient behavior or intruding signals has been revealed, The DPX Transform Engine
you can characterize the problem in detail with Variable So how do all those spectrums get generated? In parallel with
Persistence. the software batch processing used for most measurements,
and using the same stream of incoming IQ data, there is a
Statistical Line Traces hardware-based computation engine devoted to continuous,
A colorful bitmap is DPX Spectrum’s signature trace, but DPX real-time signal processing. This subsystem supports time-
also produces statistical line traces. The database contents are critical functions like power-level triggering, frequency mask
queried for the highest, lowest and average amplitude values triggering and others. It also performs DFTs fast enough to
recorded in each frequency column. The three resulting trace produce the spectrum rate used by the DPX display system.
detections are +Peak, -Peak and Average (Figure 2-25).
For more information on DPX display technology, please see
The +Peak and -Peak traces show signal maxima and minima Application Note 37W-19638, “DPX Acquisition Technology for
instantly and clearly. Average detection finds the mean level Spectrum Analyzers Fundamentals”.
for the signal at each frequency point. All these traces can be
saved and restored for use as reference traces.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 2-26. Time overview with spectrum length and multi-domain analysis length indicators as shown in the RSA6100.

Timing and Triggers The acquisition length specifies the length of time for which
Real-time processing enables the DPX display that makes the samples will be stored in memory in response to a trigger. The
RTSA a powerful discovery tool. However, the DPX display acquisition history determines how many previous acquisitions
does not keep a time domain record that can re-analyzed in will be kept after each new trigger. Tektronix RTSAs show the
multiple domains. Capture and additional analysis requires entire acquisition length in the time domain overview window.
that the signal be written into memory, and that the area of
The spectrum length determines the length of time for
interest in the waveform be selected for analysis. This section
which spectrum displays are calculated. The spectrum
illustrates the triggering, acquisition and analysis period
offset determines the delay or advance from the instant of
controls of the RTSA, seen in Figure 2-26.
the trigger event until the beginning of the FFT frame that is
The timing controls, when used in conjunction with triggers, displayed. Both spectrum length and spectrum offset have a
offer a powerful combination for analyzing transient or other time resolution of one FFT frame. Tektronix high performance
timing related parameters. RTSAs allow one to vary the FFT length for spectrum viewing.
They indicate the spectrum offset and spectrum length using a
colored bar at the bottom of the time domain overview window.
The bar color is keyed to the pertinent display.

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The analysis length determines the length of time for which

modulation analysis and other time-based measurements are
made. The analysis offset determines the delay or advance
Input
from the instant of the trigger until the beginning of the analysis.
Signal
Tektronix RTSAs indicate the analysis offset and length using a
colored bar at the bottom of the time domain overview window.
The bar color is keyed to the pertinent display.

The output trigger indicator allows the user to selectively

Trigger
enable a TTL rear-panel output at the instant of a trigger. This
can be used to synchronize RTSA measurements with other
instruments such as oscilloscopes or logic analyzers.

Real-Time Triggering and Acquisition

The RTSA is capable of performing time, spectrum, and
modulation analysis. Triggering is critical to capturing Oscilloscope
time domain information. The RTSA offers unique trigger Display
functionality, providing frequency-edge, density, and FMTs
(Frequency Mask Triggers) as well as the usual power, external
and level-based triggers.

The most common trigger system is the one used in most

oscilloscopes. In traditional analog oscilloscopes, the signal
to be observed is fed to one input while the trigger is fed to Figure 2-27. Traditional oscilloscope triggering.

another. The trigger event causes the start of a horizontal

sweep while the amplitude of the signal is shown as a vertical
displacement superimposed on a calibrated graticule. In its
simplest form, analog triggering allows events that happen
after the trigger to be observed, as shown in Figure 2-27.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

First In/First Out (FIFO) Memory

Most recent sample Older samples

ADC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 N N N
-3 -2 -1 N
Memory Control

Fs Freeze
TD = 0 Pre-trigger samples only
TD = Memory length Post-trigger samples only
Trigger Variable delay
= 50% Memory length Half pre-trigger, half post-trigger
0 to N clocks

Figure 2-28. Triggering in digital acquisition systems.

Triggering in Systems with Digital Acquisition to half of the memory depth, half of the stored samples are
The ability to represent and process signals digitally, coupled those that preceded the trigger and half the stored samples
with large memory capacity, allows the capture of events that followed it. This concept is similar to a trigger delay used in
happen before the trigger as well as after it. zero span mode of a conventional SA. The RTSA can capture
much longer time records, however, and this signal data
Digital acquisition systems of the type used in Tektronix RTSAs can subsequently be analyzed in the frequency, time, and
use an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) to fill a deep memory modulation domains. This is a powerful tool for applications
with time samples of the received signal. Conceptually, new such as signal monitoring and device troubleshooting.
samples are continuously fed to the memory while the oldest
samples fall off. The example shown in Figure 2-28 shows Trigger Modes and Features
a memory configured to store “N” samples. The arrival of The free-run mode acquires samples of the received IF signal
a trigger stops the acquisition, freezing the contents of the without the consideration of any trigger conditions. Spectrum,
memory. The addition of a variable delay in the path of the modulation or other measurements are displayed as they are
trigger signal allows events that happen before a trigger as well acquired and processed.
as those that come after it to be captured.
The triggered mode requires a trigger source as well as the
Consider a case in which there is no delay. The trigger event setting of various parameters that define the conditions for
causes the memory to freeze immediately after a sample triggering as well as the instrument behavior in response to
concurrent with the trigger is stored. The memory then a trigger.
contains the sample at the time of the trigger as well as “N”
samples that occurred before the trigger. Only pre-trigger A selection of continuous or single trigger determines whether
events are stored. acquisitions repeat each time a trigger occurs or are taken
only once each time a measurement is armed. The trigger
Consider now the case in which the delay is set to match position, adjustable from 0 to 100%, selects which portion of
exactly the length of the memory. “N” samples are then an acquisition block is pre-trigger. A selection of 10% captures
allowed to come into the memory after the trigger occurrence pre-trigger data for one tenth of the selected block and post-
before the memory is frozen. The memory then contains “N” trigger data for nine tenths. Trigger slope allows the selection
samples of signal activity after the trigger. Only post-trigger of rising edges, falling edges or their combination for triggering.
events are stored. Rise and fall allows the capture of complete bursts. Fall and rise
allows the capture of gaps in an otherwise continuous signal.
Both post- and pre-trigger events can be captured if the delay
is set to a fraction of the memory length. If the delay is set

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Trigger Source Trigger Signal Setting Units Uncertainty Notes

External External trigger connector Volts (variable) or TTL RSA306: ± 250 ns RSA306: 1 ext. trig Input
RSA5100: ± 4 ns RSA5100/6100: 2 ext. trig
RSA6100: ± 5 ns Inputs (front and rear)
Power Level Trigger Power calculated within current Power, or dB relative to full ±1 time domain points (based RSA5100/6100 add user-
acquisition BW scale on effective sampling rate) settable filter bandwidth to
trigger
Frequency Mask Trigger Point-by-point comparison at dB and Hz, based on the RSA306: N/A RSA5100/6100: Frame length based on effective
the output of FFT processor graphical mask drawn on ±1 frame length sampling rate
screen
DPX Density Trigger Point-by-point comparison of % threshold, based on RSA306: N/A Frame length based on effective
DPX data D frequency & D amplitude RSA5100/6100: ±1 frame sampling rate
length
Frequency Edge Trigger Frequency comparison at the Hz RSA306: N/A RSA5100/6100: RSA5100/6100 add user-
output of FFT processor ±1 time domain points settable filter bandwidth to
trigger
Table 2-1. Comparison of Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers trigger sources.

Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer Trigger Sources with durations as brief as one sample at the full sampling rate.
Tektronix RTSAs provide several methods of internal and The time resolution of the downstream analysis, however, is
external triggering. Table 2-1 summarizes the various real- time limited to the decimated effective sampling rate. Level trigger is
trigger sources, their settings, and the time resolution that is available on some RTSA models.
associated with each one.
Power triggering calculates the power of the signal after
External triggering allows an external signal to control filtering and decimation. The power of each filtered pair of
the acquisition. This is typically a control signal such as a IQ samples (I2+Q2) is compared with a user-selected power
frequency switching command from the system under test. setting. Some RTSA models offer a filtered power trigger where
This external signal prompts the acquisition of an event in the a filter with a selectable bandwidth to be applied to the signal
system under test. in the trigger path.

Internal triggering depends on the characteristics of the signal Frequency-edge triggering looks at the change in frequency as
being tested. The various RTSA models have the ability to a function of time, and triggers on a specified change in level.
trigger on the level of the digitized signal, on the power of the Triggering can be done on rising or falling frequencies, similar
signal after filtering and decimation, or on the occurrence of to the way a time domain level trigger works.
specific spectral components using the FMT (note: the RSA306
Triggering can also be done on DPX density. Since the DPX
does not support frequency mask triggering). Each of the
histogram is a 2D array in frequency and amplitude, a box
trigger sources and modes offers specific advantages in terms
with specified upper and lower frequencies and upper and
of frequency selectivity, time resolution and dynamic range.
lower amplitudes can be defined. When the data density in the
The functional elements that support these features are shown
specified box reaches a specified threshold, a trigger is created.
in Figure 2-29 (on the next page).

Level triggering compares the digitized signal at the output

of the ADC with a user-selected setting. The full bandwidth
of the digitized signal is used, even when observing narrow
spans that require further filtering and decimation. Level
triggering uses the full digitization rate and can detect events

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

External Trigger Processing Block

Trigger
Level
Fs
ADC
Power
Fs effective Power
Trigger
I 2 + Q2
Fs Timing and
Density/Mask Control
DPX Density
and Frequency
Mask HW
FFT engine
Frequency

Frequency vs. Time

DDC/
Decimator Memory
Freeze Memory Control

Figure 2-29. Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer trigger processing.

transient spectrum containment violations, and much more. A

full DFT is required to compare a signal to a mask, requiring
a complete frame. The time resolution for FMT is roughly one
DFT frame. Trigger events are determined in the frequency
domain using a dedicated hardware DFT processor, as shown
in the block diagram in Figure 2-29.

Constructing a Frequency Mask

Like other forms of mask testing, the FMT (also known as
frequency domain trigger) starts with a definition of an on-
screen mask. This definition is done with a set of frequency
points and their amplitudes. The mask can be defined point-
by-point or graphically by drawing it with a mouse or other
pointing device. Triggers can be set to occur when a signal
outside the mask boundary “breaks in,” or when a signal inside
the mask boundary “breaks out.”
Figure 2-30. Frequency mask definition.
Figure 2-30 shows a frequency mask defined to allow the
Frequency mask triggering compares the spectrum shape to a passage of the normal spectrum of a signal but not momentary
user-defined mask. This powerful technique allows changes in aberrations. On the next page, Figure 2-31 shows a
a spectrum shape to trigger an acquisition. FMTs can reliably spectrogram display for an acquisition that was triggered when
detect signals far below full-scale even in the presence of other the signal momentarily exceeded the mask. Figure 2-32 shows
signals at much higher levels. This ability to trigger on weak the spectrum for the first frame where the mask was exceeded.
signals in the presence of strong ones is critical for detecting Note that pre-trigger and post-trigger data were collected and
intermittent signals, the presence of inter-modulation products, are both shown in the spectrogram.
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Figure 2-31. Spectrogram showing a transient signal adjacent to the carrier. Figure 2-32. One frame of the spectrogram showing the trigger event where
The cursor is set to the trigger point, so pre-trigger data is displayed above the the transient signal breaks the boundary of the frequency mask.
cursor line, and post-trigger data is displayed below the cursor line. The narrow
white line at the left of the blue area denotes post-trigger data.

Modulation Analysis is therefore the time derivative of Phase Modulation (PM).

Modulation is the means through which RF signals carry Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a digital modulation
information. Modulation analysis using the Tektronix RTSA not format in which the symbol decision points occur at multiples
only extracts the data being transmitted but also measures of 90 degrees of phase. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
the accuracy with which signals are modulated. Moreover, it (QAM) is a high-order modulation format in which both
quantifies many of the errors and impairments that degrade amplitude and phase are varied simultaneously to provide
modulation quality. multiple states. Even highly complex modulation formats such
as Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) can be
Modern communications systems have dramatically increased
decomposed into magnitude and phase components.
the number of modulation formats in use. The RTSA is capable
of analyzing the most common formats and has an architecture Magnitude and phase can be thought of as the length and the
that allows for the analysis of new formats as they emerge. angle of a vector in a polar coordinate system. The same point
can be expressed in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates
Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation (X,Y). The IQ format of the time samples stored in memory
RF carriers can transport information in many ways based on by the RTSA are mathematically equivalent to Cartesian
variations in the amplitude or phase of the carrier. Frequency coordinates with I representing the horizontal or X component
is the time derivative of phase. Frequency Modulation (FM) and Q the vertical or Y component.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

TX Signal
I Mod Filter

e
nc
re
Data

rfe
IQ

te
Encoder Demux hift

In
Up-Conversion pl er S
Clock Mod Filter Dop
Noise
Q Oth
er
Err
ors
Local
Transmitter Oscillator

Rx Filter I Symbol
IQ Frequency Data
Down- Phase & Demod Decoder
conversion Rx Filter Clock Recovery Clock
Q Symbol
Clock
Local
Oscillator Receiver
Figure 2-34. Typical digital communications system.

Q
Digital Modulation
Figure 2-34 shows the signal processing in a typical digital
communications system. The transmit process starts with
de
itu

the data to be sent and a clock. The data and clock are
gn
Ma

passed through an encoder that re-arranges the data, adds

synchronization bits, and does encoding and scrambling which
Phase
might be used in the receiver to recover errors that inevitably
I
occur when signals are transmitted over the air. The data is
Magnitude = I 2 + Q2 then split into I and Q paths and filtered, upconverted to the
appropriate channel and transmitted over the air.
Phase = tan –1
Q
I ( ) The process of reception is the reverse of transmission with

Figure 2-33. Vector representation of magnitude and phase.

some additional steps. The RF signal is downconverted to I
and Q baseband signals which are passed through Rx filters
Figure 2-33 illustrates the magnitude and phase of a vector often designed to remove inter-symbol interference. The
along with its I and Q components. AM demodulation consists signal is then passed through an algorithm that recovers the
of computing the instantaneous magnitude for each IQ sample exact frequency, phase and data clock. This is necessary to
and plotting the result over time. PM demodulation consists correct for multi-path delay and Doppler shift in the path and
of computing the phase angle of the IQ samples and plotting for the fact that the Rx and Tx local oscillators are not usually
them over time after accounting for the discontinuities of synchronized. Once frequency, phase and clock are recovered,
the arctangent function at ±π/2. FM is computed using the the signal is demodulated and decoded, errors are corrected,
property that frequency is the time-derivative of phase. and bits lost due to signal degradation in the transmission path
are recovered.

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Rx Filter I Modulation
Analysis Views
Frequency,
IQ Phase &
Up-Conversion Demod Constellation
Rx Filter Clock Recovery Symbol table
Q EVM
Rho
Ideal Signal Frequency Frror
Local Reconstruction Magnitude Error
Oscillator Phase Error
Ideal I Ideal Q Origin Offset
Code Domain
RTSA Modulation Analysis Actual Q
Compare Power
Actual I More...

Figure 2-35. RTSA modulation analysis block diagram.

The varieties of digital modulation are numerous and include Power Measurements and Statistics
the familiar FSK, BPSK, QPSK, GMSK, QAM, OFDM and Tektronix RTSAs can perform power measurements both
others. Digital modulation is often combined with channel in the frequency domain and in the time domain. Time
assignments, filtering, power control, error correction and domain measurements are made by integrating the power
communications protocols to encompass a particular digital in the I and Q baseband signals stored in memory over a
communication standard whose purpose is to transmit specified time interval. Frequency domain measurements
error-free bits of information between radios at opposite are made by integrating the power in the spectrum over a
ends of a link. Much of the complexity incurred in a digital specified frequency interval. Channel filters, required for many
communication format is necessary to compensate for the standards-based measurements, may be applied to yield
errors and impairments that enter the system as the signal the resultant channel power. Calibration and normalization
travels over the air or other media. parameters are also applied to maintain accuracy under all
specified conditions.
Figure 2-35 illustrates the signal processing steps required
for a digital modulation analysis. The basic process is the Communications standards often specify statistical
same as that of a receiver except that modulation accuracy measurements for components and end-user devices. RTSAs
measurements require a comparison between the received and have measurement routines to calculate statistics such as
ideal modulation waveforms. The method used in most RTSA the Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function (CCDF)
modulation quality measurements is to use the recovered of a signal which is often used to characterize the statistics
symbols to reconstruct the mathematically ideal I and Q including the Peak-Average Ratio (PAR) behavior of complex
signals. These ideal signals are compared with the actual or modulated signals.
degraded I and Q signals to generate the required modulation
analysis views and measurements.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 3-1. Spectrogram display, showing a waterfall plot of spectra as a Figure 3-2. Color-graded spectrogram of an OFDM RF signal from a Tektronix
function of time for an OFDM signal, compared to a DPX spectrogram in the RSA-5126B Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer.
bottom frame.

Chapter 3: Correlation Between Time and (real-time spectrum analysis). Since the Fourier transform can
be obtained very quickly using an algorithm such as the FFT
Frequency Domain Measurements
(Fast Fourier Transform) implemented in a parallel fashion in
Spectrum analyzers are primarily frequency domain FPGA hardware, or in software in a fast modern processor,
instruments, but there are many measurements where it is the spectrum can be displayed more quickly than an oscillator
useful either to observe spectral features in the time domain, or can be swept in traditional swept spectrum analysis. In
to control where spectral measurements are made as a function addition, since the time domain information is available to the
of time. The Real Time Spectrum Analyzer has an advantage system from the ADC output, it is quite easy to correlate the
in locating events precisely in both the time and frequency appearance of a particular spectral feature with the time the
domain because of the nature of its operation: it acquires data were acquired.
measurements in the time domain and converts that information
to the frequency domain using the discrete Fourier transform. Spectrograms
The most useful display in this regard is the spectrogram,
Typical ways to display frequency domain information include which displays complete spectra as a function of time and
the RF spectrum, the DPX spectral information display, and the lets the user see a continuously updated history of events.
spectrogram. As described previously, the RF spectrum can Common ways of displaying this information are a waterfall
be obtained by sweeping a reference oscillator and recording plot (pseudo-3D plot where spectra are offset), and a color-
the mixed-down amplitude as a function of time (swept coded representation of spectra where the amplitude is
spectrum analysis). The RF spectrum can also be recorded represented by graded colors. An example of a 3D waterfall
by allowing a broad range of frequencies to pass through display is shown in Figure 3-1. An example of a color-graded
filters, downconverting the signal with a fixed reference spectrogram is shown in Figure 3-2, where the signal is an
oscillator, digitizing data using a high resolution ADC, and OFDM RF transmission.
converting the time domain sequence to a spectrum using
an efficient implementation of the discrete Fourier transform

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Figure 3-3. Frequency hopping signal showing the frequency change in a spectrogram with 20 ns time resolution due to DFT overlap. Note that overlap is reported as
99%; in this case each DFT is shifted by 4 I-Q samples.

The time resolution of the spectrogram is determined by two Tektronix RTSAs can perform DFT calculations with arbitrary
factors: 1) the sampling rate of the ADC, and 2) the length of sample overlap on contiguous data acquired into memory. With
the DFT used to produce the spectrum. The length of the DFT a long record length captured by triggering an acquisition into
determines the frequency resolution obtained, so we would sample memory of a hopping signal, for example, spectra with
like to keep it reasonably long. A typical sampling rate for a good frequency resolution and very short time resolution can
real-time spectrum analyzer is 400 Msamples/sec (or 200 M be calculated, as shown in the example above. It is possible
I-Q data points/sec). For a relatively short DFT of 256 points, a to scan through the spectrogram data at coarse or fine time
complete spectrum can be acquired in 1.28 usec. Since DFTs resolution, and display the individual spectra in a spectrum
can be overlapped in time, however, with multiple spectra window. Shown in Figure 3-3 are a spectrogram expanded to
being calculated with some of the same data simultaneously, have 20 ns time separation between spectra, and the spectrum
the timing resolution for frequency domain events can be associated with the marker displayed in the spectrum window.
improved by the overlap factor. For an overlap of 75% in this More information about DFT overlap processing can be found
example, the timing resolution for our short capture can be in the Tektronix publication “Understanding FFT Overlap
improved to 320 nsec. If we overlap the DFTs in one sample Processing Fundamentals” (Publication 37W-18839-1).
increments, the timing resolution for spectra improves to
5 nsec. In our example above with a 400 MS/s ADC and a
256-point DFT, the minimum frequency separation that could
be examined would be about 780 kHz.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Swept FFT Analysis For constant or repetitive signals this will not be a problem,
When the bandwidth to be examined exceeds the real-time but the swept DPX display will be blind to signals that occur
bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer (165 MHz in the above when it not processing a portion of the sweep where an event
example using a 400 MS/s ADC), multiple real-time spectra occurs. One way to mitigate this is with the dwell setting
can be stitched together to provide additional spectral in the DPX swept display. Dwell sets the length of time for
coverage. While this reduces the speed at which changes each step in a stepped sweep, and can be set from 50 ms
in spectral features can be discovered, the technique still to 100 s. During the dwell time, probability of intercept in the
provides a substantial improvement in measurement time over step is the same as if the instrument were working in a real-
swept spectrum analyzers for narrow resolution bandwidths. time bandwidth, but the unit is blind to the other steps in the
For broad spectral coverage in a real-time spectrum analyzer, sweep during this time. So, if you have a sweep that requires
the first part of a the spectrum is recorded by setting the 5 steps, you could dwell on each step for a time required to
acquisition frequency to the center of the first block of get a complete look at spectral activity, then move on to the
frequencies to be acquired, then stepping the reference next step. In principle true DPX analysis could be extended
oscillator to the center of the next block of frequencies and to wider frequency ranges by either extending the sampling
performing a second acquisition, and repeating until the rate of the ADC to much higher frequency, or by implementing
desired spectrum is complete. The amount of time taken to parallel ADCs and filter paths that simultaneously capture
assemble the full spectrum depends on the RBW (resolution multiple blocks of spectrum. In practice the ultra-wideband
bandwidth) selected which determines the FFT length, and digitizer approach has drawbacks both in implementing very
whether averaging is used to reduce noise. wideband filters and in higher noise in this type of ADC. The
parallel approach is impractical in a single instrument because
In addition to single spectra, the swept FFT approach
it requires substantial duplication of hardware in the instrument
described above can also be applied to DPX analysis. For DPX
and complex display issues. A possible approach could be to
analysis as you will recall, all spectral data is histogrammed
synchronize multiple RTSAs tuned to different frequencies to
in real time such that no information is lost. When the DPX
cover all bands of interest. However, the phase relationships
technique is extended to wide spectra beyond the real-
between the multiple RTSA’s local oscillators is different,
time bandwidth, though, the reference oscillator must be
so vector measurements would not be possible. But, this
tuned to new frequencies during the spectrum and thus
approach would allow no gaps when looking between bands
some information is by definition missed during the scan.
for infrequently occurring events in the frequency domain.

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Figure 3-4. Time overview and spectrum of a CW modulated pulse at 2.445 GHz.

Time control of acquisition and analysis by a 2.445277 GHz carrier. The time overview window can be
Since in a real-time spectrum analyzer time domain information used to view the pulse train, and make modifications to how
is always collected, it can be used both to change settings on many pulses are acquired by using the acquisition settings to
the instrument that control when data is collected and how it adjust the acquisition length by either the number of samples
is analyzed. The primary control over when data is acquired or the amount of time. The overview window also shows
are the various trigger functions described in Chapter 2. The which portion of the captured signal is used for analysis in the
frequency mask triggers available in DPX are particularly frequency domain. The gray “curtains” can be moved back and
valuable when trying to analyze an infrequent signal that has forth and used to determine which samples are part of the DFT
a unique frequency signature that can be identified in the analysis (also shown by the red bar at the top of the window).
presence of other signals. In some instances, however, it is In this case the analysis is done on a single pulse and includes
the amplitude vs. time information that is more important in some of the “off” time. The window can be modified to
identifying signals of interest. Hopping signals are one example included multiple pulses or to be limited to just part of the “on”
of this type. time of the pulses depending on the type of modulation and
the desired analysis. Note that the spectrum time (indicated by
Tektronix real-time spectrum analyzers use a window titled
the red bar in the Time Overview window) must be long enough
“Time Overview” for control of acquisition and analysis timing.
to contain at least one DFT; if the spectrum time is set too low
Figure 3-4 shows an example of a stream of pulses modulated
to realize the RBW, the user will get a warning message.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 3-5. LFM modulated pulse showing phase and frequency as a function of time.

Time Domain Measurements Examination of frequency measurements over time can be

There are many types of measurements made on RF signals very useful for diagnosing issues with transmitters. Modulation
that include time as a parameter. Some of the measurements typically varies parameters like frequency, amplitude, or phase
that are included in the Tektronix spectrum analyzer software over time, and examining time plots of these can show how
are the following: the system is behaving. Shown in Figure 3-5 is an analysis of a
25 usec pulse where frequency is varying linearly as a function
• Frequency vs. time
of time. In this case, the analysis time is indicated in the time
• Amplitude or power vs. time overview by the blue bar at the top of the display, and the red
bar indicates the analysis length for spectrum analysis.
• I and Q vs. time

• Phase vs. time Pulse Measurements

Perhaps the most useful correlation between the time and
• Modulation parameters vs. time (frequency deviation, phase frequency domains is in the area of pulse measurements.
error, magnitude error, error vector magnitude)
Tektronix Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers (RTSAs) are ideally
• Frequency settling suited for making pulse measurements. Automatic pulse
measurement software can be included on all models of RTSA.
• Phase settling
Extensive analysis on individual and pulse trend information

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can be selected. Unlike traditional spectrum analyzers, the RSA306 RSA5126B

various models of RTSA are specified for system risetime/
Frequency range 9 kHz - 6.2 GHz 1 Hz - 26.5 GHz
falltime (to 10 ns), minimum pulse duration (as short as 50 ns),
Real-time analysis bandwidth 40 MHz 25 MHz - 165 MHz
and modulation bandwidths to 165 MHz.
IQ sample rate 56 MS/s 200 MS/s
For faster risetimes, pulses, and wider modulation
100% POI pulse duration 100 µs 0.43 µs
bandwidths, the SignalVu-PC software can be use in
conjunction with Tektronix DPO70000 Series oscilloscopes Amplitude accuracy +/- 1.25 dB +/-0.3 dB

for automatic pulse measurements in the picoseconds and (95% confidence to 3 GHz)

bandwidths up to 70 GHz. Resolution BW range 1 Hz - 8 MHz 0.1 Hz - 20 MHz

Max CW measurement input +20 dBm +30 dBm
Individual pulse information for carrier frequency, risetime, power
falltime, droop, ripple, occupied spectrum, and pulsewidth are
DANL (1 GHz with preamp) -163 dBm/Hz -167 dBm/Hz
among the many pulse measurements that can be selected and
SSB phase noise (10 kHz) -84 dBc/Hz -109 dBc/Hz
characterized on the pulse measurement analysis software.
Spur-free dynamic range > 50 dBc > 80 dBc
Pulse trend statistics information includes PRF, duty cycle, Residual spurious < -78 dBm < -95 dBm
and pulse-to-pulse phase information. In addition, statistical (-50 dBm ref)
information can be displayed as a trend, or Fast Fourier Power < 4.5 W < 400 W
Transforms (FFTs) can be performed over the sampled data to
reveal important diagnostic information. Table 4-1. Comparison of USB and Benchtop Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers.

Chapter 4: Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer and portability. The primary trade-off is with power; benchtop
Applications analyzers typically use > 300 W of power for very linear RF
components and hardware digital signal processing that
This chapter describes some of the application areas that
allows for fast FFTs and advanced triggering, while hand-held
real-time spectrum analyzers are useful in testing. For
analyzers typically use < 5 W of power. The developments
each application area the pertinent measurement types
that make such low power analyzers possible are twofold:
are discussed, and advantages of real-time analyzers are
1) commodity low power RF components have been developed
highlighted. Before we get started, however, it is worth
for cell phone use, and 2) low power microprocessors with
discussing some of the different types of real-time spectrum
very fast processing speeds have been developed for cell
analyzers, since their characteristics will have a bearing on how
phones, tablets, and laptop computers where battery longevity
they are used in different application areas.
is extremely important. Handheld real-time spectrum analyzers
Real-Time Analyzers: Laboratory to Field depend on fast software processing to convert time domain
Much of the discussion so far has been general to any type of ADC samples to frequency spectra and do data decimation
real-time spectrum analyzer. Benchtop laboratory analyzers and filtering. As processors and algorithms improve, these
have been pushing the state of the art for more than 2 decades instruments will also improve.
now, with each version improving both real-time bandwidth
Shown in Table 4-1 is a comparison of a Tektronix USB-
with faster digitizers, and RF performance with improved
connected spectrum analyzer with a mid-range benchtop
mixers, amplifiers, filters, and shielding. The spur-free dynamic
real-time spectrum analyzer. In the applications and examples
range of benchtop real-time spectrum analyzers, controlled by
to follow, the suitability of both types of analyzers for the
spurious peaks generated by nonlinear elements in the signal
applications will be described.
chain, now exceeds 80 dBc.

A new generation of hand-held real-time spectrum analyzers

is now appearing, however, which trade off some of the RF
performance achievable in benchtop analyzers for low power

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 4-1. 802.11g WLAN transmitter test plots for a 20 MHz channel with 64QAM modulation.

Data Communications: WLAN Up to 14 channels are available in the 2.4 GHz band. The
Wireless local area networks have become ubiquitous in the 802.11n standard (2009) uses up to 4 MIMO data streams
last decade as computing has become pervasive in the office, with either 20 MHz or 40 MHz channel bandwidth, and with
the home, and in personal communications. From the original 4 antennas and 40 MHz channels can achieve up to 600
specifications for Wi-Fi as the IEEE 802.11 standard in the Mb/s. The 802.11ac standard (2013) uses up to 8 MIMO data
2.4 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) unlicensed streams with 20, 40, 80, or 160 MHz channel bandwidth, and
frequency band, Wi-Fi has undergone more than a half dozen can achieve a maximum data rate of up to 6.77 Gb/s using 8
revisions and progressed from a 2 Mb/s channel to multiple antennas and a 160 MHz channel bandwidth. The latter two
channels with more than 1 Gb/s throughput. Frequency bands standards use a variety of modulation types depending on the
now include 2.4 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz. Currently channel configurations. A new standard, 802.11ad, also known
the most popular variants are 802.11g (2.4 GHz), 802.11n (2.4 as WiGig, has recently been approved and will allow operation
and 5 GHz), and 802.11ac (5 GHz). The 802.11g standard in the 60 GHz band. Another specification currently in draft,
(2003) uses a single data stream of up to 54 Mb/s, with OFDM 802.11ah, will provide extended range Wi-Fi in the sub-1 GHz
modulation of the packet information in a 20 MHz channel. band at data rates of 100 kb for low power transmissions.

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 Primer

Testing WLAN transmission with the newer standards can Tektronix real-time spectrum analyzers at the low end
present some challenges. There are optional implementations have a 40 MHz real-time bandwidth, which is adequate for
for channel bandwidth, modulation type, and the number of characterization and decoding of 40 MHz WLAN channels.
spatial streams. In 802.11ac, for example, required parameters It is possible to synchronize these instruments, so multiple
are 80 MHz channel bandwidth, one spatial stream, 64QAM WLAN spatial channels can be captured and analyzed.
modulation, and 5/6 coding with a long guard interval. Optional Wi-Fi transmitters can also be characterized by spectrum
parameters in the same standard allow 160 MHz channel emission mask testing for wider channels than 40 MHz, since
bandwidth, 8 spatial streams, 256QAM modulation, and 5/6 wide real-time bandwidth is not needed for this type of test,
coding with a short guard interval. A spectrum analyzer should provided that some method of triggering on signal bursts
have a real-time bandwidth of 120 MHz for testing an 80 MHz is available, as discussed earlier. The higher-end Tektronix
WLAN channel to measure transmitter spectrum emission spectrum analyzers have a real-time bandwidth of 165 MHz,
mask tests, unless there is some external trigger method that which is adequate for full characterization of 160 MHz WLAN
allows triggering outside the IF bandwidth. Similarly, for a channels. The RSA5100B has a residual EVM spec of -49 dBm,
160 MHz WLAN channel a 240 MHz bandwidth is required which is more than adequate for testing complex modulation
(although the 160 MHz channels may be implemented as two such as 256QAM. Figure 4-1 shows some of the WLAN
non-contiguous 80 MHz channels). A test instrument should characterization measurement possible using SignalVu WLAN
also have good enough linearity and noise specifications standards measurement software.
to permit measuring the very low EVM that is required for
See Tektronix Publication “Wi-Fi: Overview of the 802.11
implementation of 256QAM modulation; since the device EVM
Physical Layer and Transmitter Measurements” for additional
should be < -32 dBm for 256QAM 5/6 coding, a spectrum
information.
analyzer should be at least 10 dB better than that, or <
-42 dBm in order to accurately measure the signal without
contributing distortion. Finally, for testing of multiple spatial
streams the test equipment should have up to 8 independent
capture channels that are synchronized to permit phase-
accurate measurements from multiple antennas.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 4-2. Bluetooth spectrogram (color coded spectra with time on the vertical axis) for DH1 packets with a PRBS9 payload, with frequency hopping enabled. A line
spectrum is shown at the marker in the spectrogram.

Data Communications: WPAN specification (2010) uses 40 channels with 2 MHz spacing
Wireless personal area networks are designed to replace for Bluetooth Low Energy. Bluetooth Basic Rate (BR) has a
low speed electrical connections over short distances (< 10 data rate of 1 Mb/s and uses Gaussian frequency shift keying
m). Bluetooth is the best known and most widely deployed (GFSK) modulation. Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) uses pi/4-
personal area network, and is used for connecting electronics DPSK modulation (2 Mb/s) or 8DPSK modulation (3 Mb/s) for
such as mobile phones and headsets over short distances. It data; the header is still modulated using GFSK. Bluetooth Low
is expected to be widely used for connecting devices in the Energy (LE) (marketed as Bluetooth Smart) uses the same
Internet of Things. It is based on the IEEE 802.15.1 standard, spectrum but has 40 2 MHz channels with a bit rate of 1 Mb/s
but the standard is now maintained by the Bluetooth SIG. each using GFSK modulation, and is limited to low power
Bluetooth signals are in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, from 2.400 (10 mW) operation. Both Bluetooth and Bluetooth Smart use
– 2.4835 GHz. The initial Bluetooth specification used 79 adaptive frequency hopping to minimize interference, although
channels with 1 MHz spacing; the current Bluetooth 4.0 the details are different.

46 | WWW.TEK.COM
 Primer

Figure 4-3. Bluetooth Basic Rate RF analysis on the RSA306 using DH1 packets. Shown are the time overview and spectrum for packet transmission, and frequency
deviation for GFSK modulation.

Since Bluetooth has a relatively slow radio interface (maximum standard, IEEE 802.15.4e (2012), has added several new
data rate ~3 Mb/s), RF analysis can be done using many types frequency bands, modulation formats, and bit rates. General
of instrumentation. Frequency hopping takes place at 1600 modulation test software on any real-time spectrum analyzers
hops/s. A spectrum analyzer must have sufficiently low noise can provide information on the wireless link. Protocol
and a low jitter clock to do accurate modulation analysis. specific software can add convenience of use for automatic
Software presets for modulation types and data rates, such determination of modulation type, bit rate, etc.
as those available in SignalVu, can make the job of analyzing
Another protocol that also uses IEEE 802.15.4 radios is
Bluetooth radios much easier.
6LoWPAN, defined by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task
In addition to the Bluetooth short distance wireless protocol, Force) in RFC 6282. This protocol uses wireless radios to
another protocol marketed as Zigbee has recently received provide IPv6 internet connectivity to devices at low data
attention as an even lower rate, lower power communications rates. Although there is not much difference in the radio link
standard for connecting low data rate sensors and devices. from Zigbee, higher protocol layers are quite different and
IEEE 802.15.4 (2003) specifies a direct sequence spread are oriented to providing internet connectivity. Testing of the
spectrum (DSSS) protocol operating in the 868/915 MHz physical layer is similar to Zigbee. For these low data rates and
frequency bands at 20 or 40 kbit/s, and in the 2.45 GHz narrow channels, a portable spectrum analyzer such as the
frequency band at 250 kbit/s. The latest version of the RSA306 is adequate for RF testing.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 4-4. LTE emissions testing showing Spectrum Emission Mask and Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio (ACLR).

Voice and Data Communications: Radio Communications

Cellular Radio More and more of the control and operation of modern radio
A large share of modern RF data transmission now takes place communications are controlled by software. Digital circuits
on cellular smart phones. Although the radio interface is just are replacing analog functions for dynamic operation of
a small part of the cell infrastructure, it determines to a large modulation, power, channel control, and channel loading.
extent what the user experience will be for hand-held data These modern radios can change power, frequency,
communications. LTE is the 4G upgrade path for both GSM/ modulation, coding, and statistics rapidly over time.
UMTS and CDMA2000 networks. RF transmission is specified
in 3GPP documentation (TS 36-104 version 12.5.0 Release 12). The combination of DPX Spectrum and FMT provide a powerful
LTE transmission is standardized on many different frequencies and unique capability for radio debug. DPX can discover
depending on the country; in North America 700, 750 800, unusual transient events such as impulse noise caused by
850, 1900, 1700/2100, 2500, and 2600 MHz are used. Allowed software faults or other low-level spectrum noise while the
spectrum for cells is 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz in the FMT can be set up to isolate those events. Using the external
current standard. Peak download rates are 299.6 Mb/s, and trigger output in conjunction with the FMT allows you to trigger
peak upload rates are 75.4 Mb/s using 20 MHz of spectrum other instruments. Triggering oscilloscopes and logic analyzers
and 4 x 4 MIMO antennas. OFDMA modulation is used for the enables you to isolate events deep into your block diagram so
downlink and SC-FDMA modulation is used for the uplink. that the root cause can be isolated. Tektronix iView capability
and Mixed-Signal Oscilloscopes allow for the accurate time
Testing of LTE transmitters involves primarily verification of alignment and display of analog and digital signals to with
power levels and verifying that there are not any unwanted picosecond accuracy. Subroutines and lines of code can be
emissions outside the band being used. Shown in Figure 4-4 time correlated to the actual spectrum event of interest.
is a test for Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio for an LTE base
station. Although channels are relatively narrow compared
to other wireless technologies, measurement require well-
calibrated spectrum analyzers with flat frequency response.
Automated measurements using instrument software can
greatly aid efficiency of measurements.

48 | WWW.TEK.COM
 Primer

Figure 4-5. P25 radio symbol decode with constellation diagram.

Public safety radio communications have moved to the digital P25 radio testing is again a low bandwidth application, but
domain since the 1990s due to the limitations of analog radios. requires stringent frequency stability in test equipment to
In the U.S., Project 25 has evolved as a standard for two-way measure adherence to standards. Very stable oscillators can
wireless communications for public safety, security, public be used with Tektronix RTSAs to insure testing to standards.
service, and commercial applications. Standards are published
There are several application notes and white papers
by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), and
available from Tektronix on using the RTSA for radio
stipulate compliance requirements so that different radios
communications applications:
can interoperate. Phase 1 radios use continuous 4-level FM
modulation (C4FM) at 4.8kbaud and 2 bits/symbol for digital • Testing APCO Project 25 Transmitters with Tektronix
transmission. Receivers are designed to demodulate CQPSK Solutions
(compatible quadrature phase shift keying) signals, which
use only 6.25 kHz of bandwidth, as well as C4FM. Phase 2
specifications are designed to improve spectrum utilization to
accommodate additional transmitters in a trunking system, and
use a TDMA (time division multiple access) scheme.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Figure 4-6. Satellite C-band DVB-S video transmission in a 30 MHz bandwidth using QPSK modulation at 29.27 Msymbols/s.

Video Applications used by more than 70 countries. Shown in Figure 4.6 is an eye
Digital RF is used for several applications in video broadcast. pattern and constellation diagram for a decoded QPSK DVB-S
Broadcast material is distributed via satellite using DVB-S signal (29.270 Msymbol/s) that was taken from a C-band
and DVB-S2 formats, and digital video is broadcast using the satellite transmission at 5150 MHz (downconverted to 1210
DVB-T format. Standards are published by ETSI (European MHz) from the A&E Network.
Telecommunications Standards Institute, www.etsi.org).
The Tektronix RSA306 low cost USB3 real-time spectrum
DVB-S and DVB-S2 are now routinely used for satellite video
analyzer can be used to do monitoring of video transmission at
transmission, and use BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK, 16APSK, and
multiple locations with remote reporting of error measurements
32APSK modulation (most commonly QPSK and 8PSK). DVB-T
through the API.
is used for wireless broadcast of terrestrial video, and is now

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

SPeCTrum mAnAgemenT AnD inTerFerenCe FinDing With the ability to reveal the existence of memory effects
Whether you are securing a facility or protecting your spectrum using DPX Spectrum, the RTSA can provide unique insight
investment, interference must be mitigated. The detection of for amplifier designers. Add the capability of correlated multi-
low-level and intermittent interference in the presence of larger domain analysis for amplitude statistics (CCDF), modulation
signals and the characterization of impulsive noise are not quality (EVM), and Adjacent Channel Power (ACP) analysis, and
possible with any certainty using most spectrum analyzer tools. the RTSAs provides invaluable insight for amplifier designers.

With DPX displaying Live RF, you will see signals you never Learn more about the characterization of modern amplifiers
knew existed. RTSAs will change the way you search and with this application note:
discover elusive signals. With industry-leading performance
• Troubleshooting and Characterizing Wide Band RF Systems
for combined bandwidth and dynamic range, RTSAs are the Using the Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers.
only spectrum analyzers specified with a 100% probability of
detecting signals within a band of interest. Radar
Integration of pulse measurements into a single tool for time
Frequency Mask Trigger (FMT) enables the RTSA to trigger on
and frequency domain simplifies radar testing and improves
low-level signals or impulses with a 100% probability for
test reproducibility. The RTSA has the combined test capability
capture and analysis.
that replaces several common tools used in radar transmitter
DeviCe TeSTing test analysis (oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, vector
Voice communications in mobile communications tend to analyzers, power meters, and peak-power meters). In addition,
operate at some level of steady traffic state. As high rate data the Digital Phosphor Display (DPX) can display interference
services become integrated into modern radio communication components and the products of non-linearities that go
standards, the output power needs to be rapidly adapt to the undetected with other tools.
changing load. Modulation quality, spectral regrowth, and
The application note below is available from Tektronix for
power efficiency are a constant trade-off in amplifier design.
information on using the RTSA to test radars:
Whether advances in linearization are driven by the need for • Advanced Radar Testing with the Real-Time Spectrum
better efficiency, reduced cost, or performance, various digital Analyzer
techniques using some form of adaptive digital predistortion
(DPD) have become common in cellular amplifier design. These
designs are susceptible to memory effects, bias feed through,
and other transient spectral regrowth abnormalities.

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Fundamentals of Real-Time, Spectrum Analysis Primer

Harmonic and intermodulation distortions are common types.

Chapter 5: Terminology
DPX - Digital Phosphor analysis - A signal analysis and
Glossary compression methodology that allows the live view of time-
Acquisition - An integer number of time-contiguous samples. changing signals allowing the discovery of rare transient events.
Acquisition Time - The length of time represented by one DPX Spectrum - DPX technology applied to spectrum
acquisition. analysis. DPX Spectrum provides a Live RF view as well as the
Amplitude - The magnitude of an electrical signal. observation frequency domain transients.
Amplitude Modulation (AM) - The process in which the Dynamic Range - The maximum ratio of the levels of two
amplitude of a sine wave (the carrier) is varied in accordance signals simultaneously present at the input which can be
with the instantaneous voltage of a second electrical signal measured to a specified accuracy.
(the modulating signal). FFT - Fast Fourier Transform – A computationally efficient
Analysis Time - A subset of time-contiguous samples from method of computing a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). A
one block, used as input to an analysis view. common FFT algorithm requires that the number of input and
output samples are equal and a power of 2 (2,4,8,16,…).
Analysis View - The flexible window used to display real-time
measurement results. Frequency - The rate at which a signal oscillates, expressed as
hertz or number of cycles per second.
Carrier - The RF signal upon which modulation resides.
Frequency Domain View - The representation of the power of
Carrier Frequency - The frequency of the CW component of
the spectral components of a signal as a function of frequency;
the carrier signal.
the spectrum of the signal.
Center Frequency - The frequency corresponding to the
Frequency Drift - Gradual shift or change a signal frequency
center of a frequency span of a spectrum the analyzer display.
over the specified time, where other conditions remain
CZT-Chirp-Z transform - A computationally efficient method constant. Expressed in hertz per second.
of computing a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). CZTs offer
Frequency Mask Trigger - A flexible real-time trigger based
more flexibility for example in selecting the number of output
on specific events that occur in the frequency domain. The
frequency points than the conventional FFT at the expense of
triggering parameters are defined by a graphical mask.
additional computations.
Frequency Modulation (FM) - The process in which the
CW Signal - Continuous wave signal. A sine wave.
frequency of an electrical signal (the carrier) is varied according
dBfs - A unit to express power level in decibels referenced to to the instantaneous voltage of a second electrical signal (the
full scale. Depending on the context, this is either the full scale modulating signal).
of the display screen or the full scale of the ADC. Frequency Range - The range of frequencies over which a
dBm - A unit to express power level in decibels referenced to device operates, with lower and upper bounds.
1 milliwatt. Frequency Span - A continuous range of frequencies
dBmV - A unit to express voltage levels in decibels referenced extending between two frequency limits.
to 1 millivolt. Marker - A visually identifiable point on a waveform trace, used
Decibel (dB) - Ten times the logarithm of the ratio of one to extract a readout of domain and range values represented by
electrical power to another. that point.

DFT-Discrete Fourier transform - A mathematical process to Modulate - To vary a characteristic of a signal, typically in
calculate the frequency spectrum of a sampled time domain order to transmit information.
signal. Noise - Unwanted random disturbances superimposed on a
Display Line - A horizontal or vertical line on a waveform signal which tend to obscure that signal.
display, used as a reference for visual (or automatic) Noise Floor - The level of noise intrinsic to a system that
comparison with a given level, time, or frequency. represents the minimum limit at which input signals can be
Distortion - Degradation of a signal, often a result of nonlinear observed; ultimately limited by thermal noise (kTB).
operations, resulting in unwanted frequency components. Noise Bandwidth (NBW) - The exact bandwidth of a filter that

52 | WWW.TEK.COM
 Primer

is used to calculate the absolute power of noise or noise-like Acronym Reference

signals in dBm/Hz. ACP: Adjacent Channel Power
Probability of Intercept - The certainty to which a signal can ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter
be detected within defined parameters. AM: Amplitude Modulation
Real-Time Bandwidth - The frequency span over which real- BH4B: Blackman-Harris 4B Window
time seamless capture can be performed, which is a function
BW: Bandwidth
of the digitizer and the IF bandwidth of a Real-Time Spectrum
CCDF: Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function
Analyzer.
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
Real-Time Seamless Capture - The ability to acquire and
store an uninterrupted series of time domain samples that CW: Continuous Wave
represent the behavior of an RF signal over a long period of dB: Decibel
time.
dBfs: dB Full Scale
Real-Time Spectrum Analysis - A spectrum analysis
DDC: Digital Downconverter
technique based on Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFT) that
DFT: Discrete Fourier Transform
is capable of continuously analyzing a bandwidth of interest
without time gaps. Real-Time Spectrum Analysis provides DPX: Digital Phosphor Display, Spectrum, etc.
100% probability of display and trigger of transient signal DSP: Digital Signal Processing
fluctuations within the specified span, resolution bandwidth EVM: Error Vector Magnitude
and time parameters.
FFT: Fast Fourier Transform
Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer - Instrument capable of
FM: Frequency Modulation
measuring elusive RF events in RF signals, triggering on those
events, seamlessly capturing them into memory, and analyzing FSK: Frequency Shift Keying
them in the frequency, time, and modulation domains. IF: Intermediate Frequency
Reference Level - The signal level represented by the IQ: In-Phase Quadrature
uppermost graticule line of the analyzer display. LO: Local Oscillator
Resolution Bandwidth (RBW) - The width of the narrowest NBW: Noise Bandwidth
measurable band of frequencies in a spectrum analyzer
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
display. The RBW determines the analyzer’s ability to resolve
PAR: Peak-Average Ratio
closely spaced signal components.
PM: Phase Modulation
Sensitivity - Measure of a spectrum analyzer’s ability to
display minimum level signals, usually expressed as Displayed POI: Probability of Intercept
Average Noise Level (DANL). PRBS: Pseudorandom Binary Sequence
Spectrogram - Frequency vs. Time vs. amplitude display PSK: Phase Shift Keying
where the frequency is represented on x-axis and time on the
QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
y-axis. The power is expressed by the color.
QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Spectrum - The frequency domain representation of a signal
RBW: Resolution Bandwidth
showing the power distribution of its spectral component
versus frequency. RF: Radio Frequency

Spectrum Analysis - Measurement technique for determining RMS: Root Mean Square
the frequency content of an RF signal. RTSA: Real-Time Spectrum Analyzer
Vector Signal Analysis - Measurement technique for SA: Spectrum Analyzer
charactering the modulation of an RF signal. Vector analysis VSA: Vector Signal Analyzer
takes both magnitude and phase into account.

WWW.TEK.COM | 53
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