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THERMODYNAMICS COURSE OUTLINE AND NOTES 2021/2022

SECTION A

Thermodynamics fundamentals (3 hours)

Measurable outcome
The student should be able to differentiate between the different types of systems, properties
and processes
• Thermodynamic systems
• Properties
• Processes

SECTION B

Measurable outcome
The student should be able to apply the steady-flow energy equation or the First Law of
Thermodynamics to a system of thermodynamic components (nozzles, pumps compressors,
capillary tubes, diffusers heaters, coolers, turbines, pistons, e.t.c) in order to estimate
required balances of heat, work and energy flow.

Energy forms (6 hours)

• Static energy forms(KE, PE, Internal energy (U))

• Transient energy forms (heat and work )
• 1st Law of thermodynamics(Application for open and closed systems)
• Processes of ideal gasses (isothermal, isobaric, isochoric, adiabatic)
• Energy transfer equations (open and closed systems)
• Enthalpy

Application of first law to engineering devices (2 hours)

• Turbines
• Compressors
• Nozzles
• Heat exchangers
• Throttling valves

SECTION C Properties of pure substances (3 hours)

• Phases and phase change processes

• Critical point
• Triple point
• Engineering tables reading

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SECTION D

Measurable outcomes

The student should be able to apply ideal cycle analysis to simple heat engine cycles to
estimate thermal efficiency and work as a function of pressures and temperatures at various
points in the cycle.

2nd Law of thermodynamics (6 hours)

• Definition
• Heat engines and heat engine efficiencies
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
• Calculating efficiencies and Coefficients of performance (COP)

Quiz 4 (1 hour)

Cycles and their efficiencies (10 hours)

• Carnot cycle
• Entropy and its determination
• Vapour and combined power cycles
• Improving vapour and combined power cycles
• Gas power cycles (Otto, Diesel, Dual and Brayton cycles)

Combustion
Measurable outcomes

The Student should be able to; determine the theoretical amount of air required to burn a fuel,
estimate the amount of energy that can be generated from a combustion process, estimate
the maximum temperature that can be reached in a combustion process

• Fuels
• Combustion equations
• Theoretical and actual combustion processes
• Mass and volumetric analysis
• Enthalpy of formation and enthalpy of combustion
• Lower and Higher heating value
• Dew point temperature
• Adiabatic flame temperature

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Introduction: Thermodynamic fundamentals

Engineering thermodynamics

Broadly speaking, Thermodynamics is the science of energy. It’s the study of energy, its
various forms and transformations

Applied thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work and the
properties of systems

Basic concepts
Thermodynamic system:

A prescribed and identifiable quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study

The surroundings: The mass or region outside the chosen area of study

The boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings
(The boundary can be fixed or movable. It can also be real or imaginary)

Open and closed systems.

A system can either be closed or open depending on whether the chosen focus of study is a
fixed mass or a fixed volume.

A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass. No mass can cross its boundary.
However, energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary.

An open system or control volume is a properly selected region in space. A control volume
usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a nozzle, compressor and turbine.
With control volumes, both mass and energy can cross the system boundary (often called
control surfaces in control volumes.) one characteristic of a control volume is that it has a
fixed boundary and position

A closed system that does not allow energy transfer across its boundary is called an isolated
system (for example a piston arrangement in the 3rd and fourth stage of the engine cycle)

Working substance

All thermodynamic systems require a working substance in order to accomplish the purpose
for which they are constructed. These are generally fluids which are capable of (deformation)
compression or expansion and which can take part in energy transfer. That is, they can receive
or reject heat or they are the means by which work is done on or by the system. For example,
air and steam. Since the working substance is usually a fluid, it is often referred to as a working
fluid. It is the matter contained within the boundaries of the system.

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Pure substances

A pure substance is a single substance or a mixture of substances which has the same
constituent composition throughout. It is a homogeneous substance and its molecular
structure (chemical composition) does not vary

Properties of a system (properties of state)

State: the overall condition of a system at a given time. The thermodynamic state of a system
is defined by the value of certain properties of that system

(Any characteristic of a system that can be used to define its state is called a property). The
properties of a substance depend on the behaviour of the particles that make up the
substance. For fluid systems, typical properties are pressure, temperature, volume, internal
energy,

Note: For engineering purposes, a classical thermodynamics approach will be taken. In this
approach (macroscopic approach), the engineer need not be concerned with the behaviour of
individual particles- rather, the focus is on averaged information. On the other hand, statistical
thermodynamics (which we will not be concerned with at this stage) takes a microscopic
approach. The microscopic approach focuses on the average behaviour of large groups of
individual articles.

Intensive and extensive properties

The properties of a system can either be intensive or extensive

Intensive properties: these are properties which are independent of the mass of the
substance. It is a property whose magnitude does not depend on the amount of matter
considered. For example, temperature, density, and pressure

Extensive properties: these are properties which are dependent on the mass of the system.
For example, volume, enthalpy and internal energy

Specific properties: these are extensive properties per unit mass. They are denoted by lower
case letters. Specific volume= V/m= v.

Note: Specific properties are intensive- they no longer depend on the mass of the system.

A simple system is a system having uniform properties throughout. However, all systems are
generally not simple since properties often vary from point to point.

Under macroscopic analysis, knowledge of the various properties of a substance defines the
state of a substance. If one or more properties are changed, the state of the system
(substance) changes. The condition or state of a pure substance can be completely defined
by any two independent intensive properties of a substance

Two properties are independent if one property can be held constant while varying the
other. For example, temperature and specific volume are always independent. Pressure
and temperature are not always independent since in some cases such as a phase
change, you cannot vary one while maintaining the other constant). Pressure and

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temperature are independent during single phase systems/processes but dependent for
multiple phase systems.

We do not need to specify all the properties of a substance in order to fix a state, two
independent properties are sufficient to fix a state. Once they are known, the other property
values can be determined using appropriate thermodynamic relations. (Mathematical
formulae)

T= f(P) during multiple phase processes. Therefore, for multiple phases, pressure and
temperature alone are not enough to specify the state of a substance/system.

Thermal equilibrium of state

A system is said to be in an equilibrium state when there are no unbalanced potentials (or
driving force) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes in its
properties when it is isolated from its surroundings. Put differently, a system is in equilibrium
if its properties have definite unchanged values as long as external conditions are unchanged
(properties describe states only when the system is in equilibrium)

There are various types of equilibrium

• Thermal equilibrium (No temperature potential)

• Mechanical equilibrium(no unbalanced forces- for example, no differences in pressure)

• Phase equilibrium

• Chemical equilibrium (chemical composition not changing with time- no chemical

reaction occurs)

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.

Process and cycles

Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process

A path is a series of states through which the system passes in moving from one equilibrium
state to another.

A cycle: A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end
of the process. That is, the initial state is the same as the final state.

A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings- both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial states
at the end of the reverse process.

This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and the
surroundings is zero for the combined (original and reverse) process.

Note: A system can be restored to its initial state following a process, regardless of whether
the process is reversible or irreversible. But for reversible processes, this restoration is made
without leaving any net change on the surroundings, whereas for irreversible processes, the
surroundings usually do some work on the system and therefore does not return to their
original state

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Note: In thermodynamics calculations are based on assuming reversible processes

Why? These are processes for which the forces causing change are almost exactly in
balance. Therefore, the states through which the system passes are for all practical purposes
equilibrium states- putting it more precisely, they are never removed more than differentially
from equilibrium states

Quasi-equilibrium (quasi-static ) processes

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to
an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static process. It
is a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties
in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.

A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealised process and is not a true representation of an

actual process. However, many actual processes approximate it and they can be modelled as
quasi-equilibrium with negligible error. Quasi-equilibrium processes act as standard processes
to which actual processes can be compared.

For any process path, the prefix iso is often used to designate a process for which a particular
property remains constant.

Isothermal- constant temperature process- (process proceeds isothermally)

Isobaric- constant pressure process –(process proceeds isobarically)

Isometric (isochoric) - constant volume process – (process proceeds isometrically or

isochorically)

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Energy

Energy conservation principle

Energy cannot be created or destroyed during a process; it can only change from one form to
another. Put differently, “Although energy assumes various forms, the total quantity of energy
is constant, with the consequence that when energy disappears in one form, it appears
simultaneously in one or more other forms”.

The total energy of a system is the sum of all the various types of energy (thermal, electric,
mechanical, potential, chemical, nuclear and magnetic.). In thermodynamics we only deal with
change in total energy rather than absolute values of total energy since it is usually the change
that matters in engineering problems. The change in total energy is independent of the
reference point chosen

Static forms of energy

Macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy

Macroscopic forms of energy are energy forms that a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame. For example, potential energy and kinetic energy of
the system. The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of
some external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity and surface tension.

For thermodynamics at this level, (except in a few specialised cases) magnetic and
surface tension effects will be neglected.

Kinetic energy: Energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference point. When all parts move with the same velocity

𝑉2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 (𝑘𝐽) … … … … … . (1)
2

For a rotating body

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 (𝑘𝐽) … … … … … . (2)
2

𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 and 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎

Potential energy: energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑍 … … … … … … … … … . . (3)

𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

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Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of the system and
the degree of molecular activity. They are independent of the outside reference frames. The
sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is referred to as the internal energy of the system.
It is the store of the energy which results from the motion of atoms and molecules of the body
and inter-particle forces that exist between them. (The sum of the microscopic forms of energy
of a system and can be viewed as the sum of the k.e and p.e of the molecules). If a particle is
in motion, then it will possess kinetic energy, which is a function of the velocity with which the
particle is moving.

At a microscopic level the internal energy is due to the molecular energy which is the sum of
the (1) molecular translational, vibrational and rotational energies (also called the thermal
portion of the energy), (2) the molecular bond energy (also called the chemical energy),and
the (3) intermolecular potential energy. At a given temperature the energy depends upon the
nature of a substance and, hence, is known as an intrinsic form of energy.

Sensible energy is the portion of internal energy that is associated with the kinetic energies
of the system (rotational, oscillation, vibrational). At any particular state, the atoms and
molecules will have a particular degree of motion. Change in degree of motion causes a
change in temperature of the working substance. It can be said that the average velocity and
the degree of activity of the molecules is proportional to the temperature of the working
substance. The greater the kinetic energy of the particles which make up the body, then in
general, the higher the temperature of the body will become.

At higher temperatures, molecules possess higher kinetic energy and therefore the system
has higher internal energy.

Latent energy is that portion of internal energy associated with the phase change of a working
substance. Increase in internal energy content often results in an increase in temperature.
This is always true for a single phase system. However, for a two-phase system, increase in
internal energy, rather than bring about an increase in the temperature of the system will cause
a phase change at a constant temperature. Therefore, for phase change, internal energy
increases at constant temperature. There are bonding forces between the various particles
comprising a substance. These forces are weakest in gases and strongest in solids. If
sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or a liquid, the molecules overcome the
molecular forces and break away turning the substance if say a liquid into a gas(phase
change). The energy used for this change is called latent energy. Phase change can occur
without a change in the chemical composition of the substance (e.g, H2O)

Total energy of a system is the combination of both the macroscopic and microscopic energy
of a system. However, as already stated, magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are
usually neglected. In the absence of these effects

Total energy of a system 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸…………………………………………………(4)

𝑉2
𝐸=𝑚 + 𝑚𝑔𝑍 + 𝑈 … … … … … … … … … … . . . . … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
2
NOTE: Most of the systems that will be encountered remain stationary during a process and
therefore experience no change in both KE and PE (for the system as a whole). That is,

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change in macroscopic energy is zero.. Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the
centre of gravity remain constant during a process are referred to as stationary systems.
The change in total energy of a stationary system is identical to the change in its
internal energy.

Note: In subsequent lectures, we will assume our closed systems to be stationary unless
stated otherwise.

The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy.
During a chemical reaction such as combustion, some chemical bonds are destroyed and
others are created changing the internal energy of the substance (system)

A chemical reaction involves changes in the structure of the electrons of atoms, but a nuclear
reaction involves changes in the core of the nucleus. An atom preserves its identity during a
chemical reaction but loses it during a nuclear reaction.

All the above forms of energy constituting the total energy of a system can be viewed as static
forms of energy because they are contained in the system.

Transient energy forms

Two other forms of energy referred to as transient, dynamic or energy interactions do exist.
These are heat transfer and work. These forms of energy represent the energy gained or
lost during a process. They are recognised only at the boundary.

Heat transfer: An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is temperature
difference. Heat is descriptive of an energy transfer process through a system boundary
resulting from temperature difference. The heat transferred will disperse into other forms of
energy such as work or/and internal energy. Heat transfer ceases when a system and its
surroundings attain a state of thermal equilibrium.

Thermodynamic heat limits the use of the word to the transfer of thermal energy during a
process. Heat is energy in transition. Once heat transfer has taken place, the energy
transferred has the resultant effect of increasing the internal energy of the system.

A process in which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process. Adiabatic

processes can be closely approximated where a system is sufficiently thermally insulated-this
results in negligible heat transfer and can be called an adiabatic process (Perfect insulation is
unattainable). An adiabatic process can also be obtained if there is no temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings (equivalent to no driving force). An adiabatic process
can also be approximated when a process is carried out with sufficient rapidity that there will
be little time for heat transfer.

Heat is transferred by three mechanisms

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

Please read about these. The details will be considered in your heat transfer
subject.

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Note

a) A non-adiabatic process can be isothermal. For example a phase change

b) A process can be adiabatic but not isothermal (For a work transfer process.)

𝑸̇ = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

If heat transfer per unit time is constant during a process then

Total heat transfer is given by

𝑄 = 𝑄̇ (∆𝑡)…………………………………………….(6)

Where (∆𝑡) is time interval

Specific heat of a substance

This is the amount of heat which transfers into or out of a unit mass of a substance while the
temperature of the substance rises or changes by one degree. If

T1 = Original temperature

T2 = Final temperature

c = specific heat of a substance

m =mass of the substance

Total heat transferred during a process that brings the temperature from T1 to T2 is

𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐 )……………………………………..(7)

The specific heat of most liquids and solids may generally be taken as constant. But the
variation in gasses can be considerable. Therefore, for gasses, an average value is usually
taken within the temperature range being considered.

Take note
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat transfer required raise a unit mass of
a substance through 1 degree difference in temperature. However, for gases, the amount of
heat required to bring about this one degree rise will depend on whether there is work transfer
across the system boundary or not.

If you consider a gas tight piston cylinder arrangement- if heat transfer into the system takes
place with the piston fixed, the gas will be heated at constant volume and a certain quantity of
heat would bring about a 1 degree rise in temperature. However, if the gas in the cylinder
could be allowed to expand (that is if the gas tight piston is allowed to move), then the gas will
be doing some external work on its surroundings. The extent to which the gas is allowed to
move is one of an infinite number of possible arrangements. The amount of heat transfer will
depend upon the piston movement and there is an infinite number of possible heat supply
quantities that will bring about a 1 degree rise in temperature. Therefore, there is an infinite

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number of specific heats for a gas and it is necessary to define the conditions under which the
specific heat was measured. There are two important cases, referred to as principal specific
heats

Specific heat at constant volume(𝑪𝒗 ): The amount of heat which transfers to or from a
unit mass of a gas while the temperature changes by 1 degree and the volume remains
constant.

Specific heat at constant pressure(𝑪𝒑 ): The amount of heat which transfers to or from a
unit mass of a gas while the temperature changes by 1 degree and the pressure remains
constant.

Both (𝑪𝒗 )𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝑪𝒑 ) rise in value with temperature. For calculation purposes, it is usual
to assume an average value of specific heat within the temperature range being considered.

Energy transfer by work: Work is the energy transfer associated with force acting through
a distance. Work done per unit time is power. Work is said to be done on a system or by a
system if a force at the boundary of the system is moved through a distance. Work, like heat
is not a property. It is a transient quantity and only describes that process by which a force is
moved through a distance.

Further still, heat and work are directional quantities and therefore, they require the
specification of both the magnitude and the direction of energy transfer.

Sign convention

Heat transfer to a system and work done by the system are positive

Heat transfer from the system and work done on the system are negative.

Similarities between heat and work

• Both are associated with a process not a state- they are path functions. Their
magnitude depends on the path followed during the process as well as the end states
• They are both boundary phenomena, recognised only as they cross the boundary
• They are not properties

Path functions are inexact differentials. They are designated by the symbol δ.

Differential amounts of heat δQ and differential amounts of work δW. Work done along a path
1 to 2 is not W2-W1 because work is not the property of a system.

On the other hand, properties are exact differentials since they only depend on the end states.
Exact differentials are designated by the symbol d.

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Mechanical forms of work

Work done by a constant force F on a body displaced through a distance s in the direction of
the force is

W= Fs. (kJ)……………………………………………………………………………..(8)

If the force is not constant, total work is equal to the sum of the differential amounts of work
𝟐
W= ∫𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒔 … … … … … … … . (𝒌𝑱) …………………………………………………………... (9)

For work to be done there must be force acting on the boundary and the boundary must move.

Note: in order to evaluate the integral in equation (9), the relationship between F and s has to
be known

Shaft work

Energy transmitted through a rotating shaft

Usually, the torque T applied to the shaft is constant- this means that the force F applied is
also constant. For a specified constant torque, the work done during n revolutions is
determined as follows. A force F acting through a moment arm r generates a torque T

T=Fr, F= T/r

The force is acting through a distance S= 2𝜋𝑟𝑛, where n is number of revolutions, and r is the
moment arm.

𝑻
Shaft work = Fs = ( )𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒏 = 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝑻 … . . (𝒌𝑱) ………………………………………….(10)
𝒓

Power transmitted through the shaft = 2𝜋ǹT …………. (kW)………………………….(11)

Where ǹ is; number of revolutions per unit time.

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Spring work

When a force is applied to a spring and it changes length by and amount dx, work done is
𝒙𝟐
W= ∫𝒙𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒙 … … … … … … … . (𝒌𝑱)……………………………………………………….(11)

For linear elastic springs F= Kx where x is displacement and K is the spring constant with units
kN/m.
𝒙𝟐
W= ∫𝒙𝟏 𝒌𝒙𝒅𝒙 … … … … … … … . (𝒌𝑱)………………………………………………………. (12)

𝒌
= (𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐𝟏 ) … … … … … … . . (𝒌𝑱)……………………………………………………….. (13)
𝟐

Work done on solid bars

Solid bars when operating in the elastic range could be treated in the same way as springs.
𝒙𝟐 𝟐
W= ∫𝒙𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒙 … … …= ∫𝟏 𝝈𝒏 𝑨𝒅𝒙 … … … … … … … . (𝒌𝑱)……………………………………. (14)

Where 𝜎𝑛 is normal stress and A is cross-sectional area of bar.

Work done to raise or accelerate a body

When a body is raised in a gravitational field, its potential energy increases. Likewise, when a
body is accelerated, its kinetic energy increases. The work transfer needed to raise a body is
equal to the change in potential energy of the body. The work transfer needed to accelerate a
body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.

Gravitational work= work done by or against a gravitational force field. In a gravitational field,

F=mg
𝒁 𝒁
W= ∫𝒁 𝟐 𝑭𝒅𝒛 = ∫𝒁 𝟐 𝒎𝒈𝒅𝒛 = mg (Z2-Z1)……………………………………………………… (15)
𝟏 𝟏

Acceleration work: Work associated with a change in velocity of a system from C1 to C2

𝒁
W= ∫𝒁 𝟐 𝑭𝒅𝒔
𝟏

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𝒅𝑪
F=ma and = 𝒂 . ………………………………………………………………………….. (16)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑪
Therefore, 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒅𝒕 ……………………………………………………………………… (17)

𝒅𝒔
𝑪 = 𝒅𝒕 , ……………………………………………………………………………………… (18)

Therefore, ds= C.dt

𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝑪 𝟐
W= ∫𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒔 = ∫𝟏 𝒎 𝒅𝒕 . Cdt= ∫𝟏 𝒎𝑪𝒅𝑪 = ……………………………………………….. (19)

𝒎
𝑾= 𝟐
(𝑪𝟐𝟐 − 𝑪𝟐𝟏 )…………………………………………………………………………… (20)

Moving boundary work

This is work associated with the compression or expansion of a gas within a system boundary.
Thermodynamic analysis will be restricted to quasi equilibrium processes. That is a process
in which the system remains nearly in equilibrium at all times.

Recall

Quasi-equilibrium (quasi-static ) processes

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to
an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi equilibrium or quasi-static process. It
is a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties
in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.

A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealised process and is not a true representation of an

actual process. However, many actual processes approximate it and they can be modelled as
quasi-equilibrium with negligible error. Quasi-equilibrium processes act as standard processes
to which actual processes can be compared.

REVERSIBLE WORK

Reversible work: this is a work interaction that takes place during a quasi-equilibrium
process.

Developing the expression for reversible boundary work.

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement in which a fluid at pressure P is trapped by a piston of

cross sectional area A. the force on the piston will be (Demonstration in class)

𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨………………………………………………………………………………………….. (21)

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If this force is just sufficient to push the piston outwards through a distance L along the cylinder
while the pressure remains constant, the force on the piston will have remained constant.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝐴 × 𝐿 = 𝑃 × 𝐴𝐿(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡) = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) ……………………………(22)

Draw a graph to represent this process. (A constant volume process.)

The area under the graph = P(V2-V1)…………………………………………………………(23)

It can be observed from this graph (your graph) that the area under a P-V diagram gives the
work done.

Consider a variable pressure-variable volume process (common in thermal engine expansion

processes) Draw a P-V diagram to show this.

In order to develop the work expression for this process, the entire graph is subdivided into
small rectangles. The area of each small rectangle represents work done as has been shown
in the previous constant pressure example. The sum of all the areas of the rectangle would
approximate very closely to the area under the graph and hence the work done. The greater
the number of rectangles, the better the approximation.

Consider some point in the expansion process (follow class illustration.)

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Work done during the elemental expansion (𝜹𝒗) where pressure is P and initial volume is V
(shaded area). Work done during the elemental expansion is = 𝑷𝜹𝒗

The total work done will be obtained by summing all the elemental strips of width 𝝏𝒗 from
volume V1 to V2

∑𝑉=𝑉1
𝑉=𝑉2 𝑃𝛿 𝑉…………………………………………………………….(24)

Now if an infinite number of strips are taken, which case 𝛿𝑉 → 0, then

𝑉
𝑊 = ∫𝑉 2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 …………………………………………………………………………………(25)
1

Note: Although expressions have been developed for expansion processes, the compression
is the reverse of the expansion (the results will instead be negative)

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