DEFINITION OF IDENTITY

According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, the word “identity” originated in the late sixteenth
century from the Latin word “idem” which means “same.” The term states the “fact of being who or
what a person or thing is,” and it also stands for “a close similarity or affinity” (Sriratana, 2008). Identity
is a collective aspect of a set of characteristics that define a person or a thing. It is a term which is both
inclusive and exclusive because on the basis of ones identity one can get included or excluded in a
group. No one can have a singular identity because one gains various identities on the basis of ones
nationality, gender, region, ethnicity, language, caste, class, etc. One can be identified on the basis of his
political, social, economic and ideological beliefs, too. A person can have multiple identities depending
on his association or affiliation with various groups. Identity is changeable and fluid.

Social Identity

Korostelina defines social identity as “a feeling of belonging to a social group, as a strong connection
with social category, and as an important part of our mind that affects our social perceptions and
behavior” (2007: 15). Korostelina views social identity as a space for protection of individuals from
‘solitude’, which it does by creating “boundaries and a sense of a common space within a group.” She
views identity as a tool of social analysis with all its limitations and is aware of the findings of the
researches which show social identity as “socially constructed and influenced by the processes of
existing social structures” rather than being “primordially intrinsic and inherent” (Ibid.). Korostelina is of
the opinion that despite their changing nature “social identities can be characterized as relatively stable
and fixed” (ibid.). This argument seems to be more convincing than that of those who do not recognize
the attempts of boundary creation, preservation and maintenance. These are the daily human actions
and no mere imagination. It is a different matter whether we call these boundaries a mental construct or
something else. Social identity, as Korostelina says, serves as “a link between an individual’s psychology
and the structures and processes of large social groups” (Ibid.: 17). The concept of identity is multi-
disciplinar.
Korostelina (2007: 75-76) is of the view that social identity contains the following components:

(1) In-group traditions and values (culture): This component is a reflection of the specificity of
interrelations within in-groups, cultural characteristics, values and beliefs, holidays and customs, ways of
life, and worldviews.

(2) In-group language: It connects the native language(s) of in-group, other common spoken languages,
and the influence of worldview and perception on individuals and groups through specific grammatical
orders and linguistic structures.

(3) Characteristics of in-group members: This component includes in-group prototypes as well as
stereotypes, valued individual features, and characteristics of the most prominent in-group members.

(4) In-group history: This element contains historical events, names and situations that are important in-
groups and that assist in defining their development, such as fairy tales, legends and heroes.

(5) In-group ideology: This component reflects the main ideas, goals, aspirations and aims of an in-
group.

(6) Interrelations with out-groups: This element contains the norms and traditions of interconnections
between in-groups and out-groups, such as the history of relationships, gains and loses resulting from
the interrelations.

(7) Reverberated identity: This refers to an in-group’s identity resulting from comparisons with out-
groups. It includes all in-group characteristics that develop in opposition to outgroup characteristics.

(8) Out-group image: This component reflects stereotypes, attitudes toward out-groups, and the
perceived characteristics, culture, and history of out-groups that help define intergroup borders and
stress differences between in-group and out-group.

The term ‘Tribe’ in Anthropology as defined by Wikipedia is a notional form of human social organization
based on a set of smaller groups, having temporary or permanent political integration, and is defined by
traditions of common descent, language, culture, and ideology. In different countries they are know by
different names. In India the tribals are known as the Adivasis. The ILO convention 107 describes the
tribals as those people “who are at a less advanced stage of development than those reached by the
other sections of national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own
customs and traditions” (Xaxa, 2008: 223-240).
FACTORS THAT CONSTITUTE TRIBAL IDENTITY

There are various factors that constitute one’s identity; for example nationality, origin, gender, religion,
culture, caste, class, and so on. These factors define the various categories that one can fall into. Factors
that constitute tribal Identity are as follow :-

1. Geographical territory:
This refers to the territorial and physical aspect of the tribal identity, which in common parlance
is known in the slogan of Jal-Jungle-Zamin (water-forest-land) symbiosis. Jal, Jungle and Zamin
are central to tribal identity. They are important factors in ascertaining and defining their
identity. They are more than mere natural resources to them. Their whole existence and
livelihood is centred on it. All the three are in one. One cannot be separated from the other. Of
all the three ‘land’ is the most important because their whole life is centred on it. Their rituals
and cultural practices are related to season, crops, plantation, trees and activities related to
farming. Forest and water, too, are sources of livelihood for them. They do not see them as
mere sources of sustenance but share a unique bond with it. In other terms, what sea is to a
fisherman, land is to a tribal.

2. Social organization:

The villagers are friends of one another. They are in solidarity with one another and with the entire
village in their joys and sorrows. In moments of need of one another, each family shows its solidarity
with the other in terms of ploughing the fields, sowing seeds, transplanting and harvesting. There
are many other economic and social activities in which there help out each other free of cost. This is
an important aspect of tribal identity. Adivasis have a strong sense of community. Community is the
centre of their life and activities. This sense of collectivity helps them rise above the narrow walls of
individualism and have respect for diversity, in order to counter divisive tendencies, hatred and
conflict. Community life is the foundation of their democratic system. According to S.M. Michael,
“The tribal society is not organized along the hierarchical line of class. It is not based on the basis of
occupation by birth. The tribal society is organized on kinship basis.” (Michael, 1992: 23)

3. Economic organization:

There is a tremendous collectively in the economic organisation of the tribals which is not found in
other communities. Rather than having individualistic approach in their economic enterprises,
tribals have a sense of social responsibility and co-operation. Their orientation is towards mutual
sharing rather than hoarding.
 4.Collective history:

The history of tribals is characterised by hospitality and accommodation even of outsiders. The
identity of the tribals is incomplete without taking into account their collective memories, which are
necessarily inclusive of their origin, struggles, happiness and glorious past. Their oral tales, songs,
folk tales, idioms, rituals are the medium through which their collective history is stored. The
collective history gives them a sense of belonging and be a part of their ancestral glory.

5. Political structure:

Tribals have their own system of governance, which is characterised by self-rule and
decentralisation of power. In this type of governance decision is taken by consensus and not by
election or majority-minority votes. For instance, among the Oraons of Jharkhand, there is the
system of traditional village Panchayat, which is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the
village. It takes care of the disputes taking place in the village. The system of Parha (confederation of
villages) comes into the picture when the nature of dispute is inter- village. When there are disputes
there are also socio-cultural mechanisms to resolve them. Often reconciliation takes place over a
leaf-cup of rice beer. This is the traditional identity of the tribal community.

6. Religious organisation:

Tribal religion is characterised by harmony with nature. There is a symbiotic relationship of the
tribals with nature, which is reflected in all their agricultural activities, hunting expeditions and rites
and rituals. The Tribals have their own religion and follow their own religious practices. For example,
the Oraons who are the indigenous people of Jharkhand have their own pahan (religious priest) and
God addressed as Dharmes. Each tribe has their own God and has distinct practices which identifies
or distinguishes them from other tribes. As a result of coming into contact with other cultural groups
and due to the processes of Sanskritization and Hinduisation, the tribals have incorporated or
adopted some of the practices of other cultural groups. Consequently, they are viewed by some as
‘Hindus’ which is wrong. Mere adoption of some of the alien cultural practices does not make them
Hindus.

7. Adivasi worldview:

Like any other cultural and religious groups tribals too, have their own philosophy of life which is
distinct from those of the others. Their way of life, values and ethos are different. They have their
own worldview about the origin of cosmos and human beings. They have their own notion about the
present life and the life after death. They have their own view about the Supreme Being and other
beings existent in this world. They have their own myth and other legends which form the basis of
their faith system and worldview.
8. Art and literature:
Life for tribals is a celebration even if the things do not go the way they would have liked it to
go. Literature, art and music are people’s artistic expression of life which are characterised by
collectivity, cooperation and participation. Their art is for arts sake which cannot be
commodified. It is a different matter that things are now changing due to the processes of
change. Literature and art also enforces ones identity because it not only showcases their
artistic genius but also projects their culture.

9. Linguistic identity:

Language is one of the main identity markers. It clearly distinguishes one from the other because
language is not just a means of communication but an important aspect of culture and identity.
Through language and words stories of human values, practices, songs, idioms are stored or
conveyed. Tribals are of the oral tradition unlike other cultural groups who follow the written
tradition. So, language becomes very important for the tribals because it is the only means through
which they pass on their traditional knowledge from one generation to another generation. If their
language gets lost, it is not a mere loss of language but a loss of ones history, traditional thought-
pattern, oral literature and rich indigenous knowledge which has been collected over the centuries.
Loss of language can be a death knell for a community.

10. Constitutional recognition:

The constitutional recognition for the tribals as ‘Scheduled tribes’ under Article 342 of the
Constitution, has a special significance. Before the independence of India they were identified or
constructed during the colonial regime as ‘tribes’, but now they are given a Constitutional and legal
status, which makes them eligible to benefit from certain provisions meant for their educational and
economic empowerment. In absence of this status, the tribals would have no identity as a Scheduled
Tribe, even if they considered themselves to be so. There are more than 600 Scheduled Tribes in
India but only certain tribes have been included in 9 the Scheduled Tribes list in the Constitution of
India. And the main criteria for including them in the scheduled tribes’ list as given by Verma
(1990:11) are: “Traditional occupation of a definite geographical area, (ii) distinctive culture which
includes whole spectrum of tribal way of life, i.e., language, customs, traditional, religious beliefs,
arts and crafts, etc., (iii) primitive traits depicting occupational pattern, economy, etc., and (iv) lack
of educational and techno-economic development.”
 Jaipal Singh Munda, in the Constituent Assembly debates, had preferred the use of the term Adivasi
instead of Scheduled Tribe. It was, however, not acceptable to Ambedkar, Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution, who explained that “the word Adivasi is really a general term which
has no specific legal dejure connotation”. On the other hand, the term “Scheduled tribe” has a fixed
meaning because it “enumerates the tribes”. He further said that “in the event of the matter being
taken to a court of law, there should be a precise definition as to who these Adivasis are.” It was
under these conditions that the adivasis are presently called “Scheduled Tribes” of India. (Verma,
1990:11)

Tribals faced suppression and oppression from various groups at various times in history. The extent and
degree of colonization has been different for different regions and it has continued even after the
independence of the country. In other words, the domination and the subjugation of the tribal people
have resulted in the increased marginalization and pauperization of the tribal people (Xaxa, 2008: 223-
240).

CRISIS OF IDENTITY

A crisis in identity takes place when the projected identity fails to get one identified by the other or
when multiple identities creates confusion and fails to project a coherent picture of a person. The
expression ‘identity struggles’ was used by Wallace to state the tension created by those interactions
which led to a discrepancy between an individual’s claimed identity and the identity attributed to him by
the others. The term “Identity diffusion” introduced by Eric Erikson is used to denote a splitting of the
self into multiple images which leads to a loss of centre, or a dispersion of identity. Identity diffusion
connotes a psychopathic state in which the individual suffers from a lack of identity confirmation and
alienation. Both states are the processes of facilitating identity formation or change. These definitions of
identity crisis fit in very well in the context of the tribals. From the colonial times onwards we discover
that rather than identifying tribes by their ethnic names, they have been given some other names. Thus,
identity from outside has been imposed upon them. In this process they have gone through crisis. The
imposed identity was quite different from what they thought themselves to be or derived from within.
The following are some of the factors that have threatened and are still threatening tribal identity:

1. A total breakdown of tribal social institutions during colonial period: With the coming of the
British, new and alien systems of governance and jurisprudence were introduced. Major
structural changes took place. The Khuntkatti/Bhuinhari lands, which were sacred to the tribals
and which could not be bought or sold, were introduced to the notion of private ownership. All
this damaged the psyche of the tribal societies.
2. Developmental processes: With globalisation and economic liberalisation came various changes in
the economic policies of the country. To meet the needs of the nation and the need to increase the
economic resources of the country, natural resources were and are still being tapped and exploited.
Since, most of the mineral and natural resources are concentrated in the tribal areas. Their lands have
been taken away for various developmental purposes because of which they have lost all their means of
livelihood and the traditional way of living. The Constitution of India provides measures to protect the
tribal rights, land and culture. Their areas have been designated as Fifth Scheduled Areas which enjoy
certain special rights to protect the tribals from invasion of their land, culture and way of life.
Unfortunately, those very rights are being violated and manipulated for economic gains by various
forces.

3. Loss of cultural practices/ritual: There is loss of tribal cultural practices. With the loss of land and its
natural surroundings, there has been a breakdown in their traditional form of living and practices. As a
result of which, some of their cultural practices are gradually getting lost; for example jani shikar
(hunting by women), which is a cultural practice/ritual whereby the women folk dress up like men and
go hunting in the forest. This is done by women once every twelve years in remembrance of Oraon
woman, who along with other women fought with the Turks and chased them away from Rohtasgarh.
These practices cannot be preformed these days because most of the forest areas are restricted for
public use and is no longer accessible to them. As a consequence, they are not able to perform those
practices and hence, they are losing them gradually but speedily.

4. Breakdown of community and traditional form of governance in contemporary times: There has been
a breakdown of the traditional form of organisation of the tribal villages because their land has been
taken away from them which were their main source of livelihood. As a result of which the villages are
disintegrating as people are either moving out of the villages for better opportunities and survival
purposes. The ones who are rehabilitated by the government, too, cannot setup the old system of
community because the new surrounding may not have the same natural surrounding which is essential
for organising and conducting it. Hence, there is a breakdown of the traditional community and
organisation. Their traditional practices are thus getting lost and hence, rendering them as people with
no culture (not cultureless or uncultured).
 5. Impoverishment and unemployment: Most of the developmental activities are taking place in the
tribal areas but unfortunately the tribals have remained backward as compared to the other
communities of India. Owing to the loss of lands, inaccessibility to forest and poor status of agriculture,
and lack of access to modern technology of farming due to lack of financial assistance, they have been
forced to work as bonded labourers or migrants in the mega cities of India. This condition of tribals is
not a state of poverty; this is impoverishment because the once land-rich tribals have now become
migrant labourers and rickshaw pullers due to the wrong model of development. Life is thus a constant
struggle for survival.

6. Distortion of identity: Tribals are a distinct category of people. They have their own ethnic identity.
Still, some right wing people claim that Tribals are Hindus which is a distortion of their identity. It should
be noted that tribes do not fall within the framework of the caste system of the Hindus. Tribals are
sometimes equated with Dalits, which is also not correct, because Dalit is a caste category whereas
Tribal is an ethnic category. The tribal converting to other religions is wrongly alleged to have lost
his/her identity, but the fact of the matter is that in a religious conversion one adopts another religion
and not another ethnic identity. Again, while they came to terms with the term ‘tribe’, which is basically
a colonial construct, some forces in India tried to label them as ‘Hindus’. This was another point of crisis
in history.

7. No constitutional recognition for some tribes: There are some tribes that have not been listed in the
Scheduled Tribes’ list notified by the President of India; for instance the Denotified tribes, also known as
criminal tribes. Similarly, the tribals who have moved away from their states of origin to other states for
economic reasons are considered as non-tribals. For instance, some tribes who have migrated more
than 150 years ago to the Assam tea gardens or to the Andaman islands, are not recognised by the State
as Scheduled Tribes. The same is the case with those tribals who have migrated to cities like Delhi for
better prospects. In their new destinations they are not recognised as Scheduled Tribes as a result of
which they lose all the benefits and facilities that to which a Scheduled Tribe is entitled. Hence, some of
the protective measures adopted by the government to uplift the Scheduled Tribes are failing because
of this crisis.

SOLUTION

The solution to Tribal identity crisis lies in the understanding of the worldview of the tribals and
respecting their cultural difference. Since, land is central to their identity steps should be taken so that
their land remains with them and the scheduled area laws and other tribal rights laws are seriously
implemented. Care should be taken so that their languages are promoted and measures be adopted to
create opportunities for them.
 One of the ways in which development and empowerment of the tribal areas and scheduled areas can
take place is to give leadership of development in the hands of the tribals themselves. In fact, as Nirmal
Minz (2007) says, “The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, No.
40 of 1996 (24th Dec. 1996), makes space for tribals’ participation in governance. This Act which is also
known as PESA 1996, provides for the extension of the provisions of part IX of the constitution relating
to the Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas”.

Further, No. 4 Exceptions and modification to part IX of the Constitution is the main body of this Act
that provides Gram Sabha as key place.

(a) Every village shall have a Gram Sabha consisting of persons whose names are included in the
electoral rolls of the Panchayat at the village level.

(b) Every Gram Sabha shall be empowered to safeguard and preserve the traditions and customs of the
people, their cultural identity, community resources and customary laws of dispute resolution.

(c) Gives the detailed power and functions of the Gram Sabha. It is hoped that selfrule alone will
preserve and promote their identities through Gram Sabha, a constitutional instrument in future. The
Adivasi identity across the country will be preserved in future.

For Minz, this is the ray of hope for the Adivasis. Tribal communities are going through a process of
crisis due to various economic and historical processes. However, due to the indiscreet and rampant
exploitation of resources not only the tribals but the entire universe is in danger of extinction. Hence,
tribals have some important lesson for the world. Minz (1994) portrays this very well in his paper. He
observes that industries and mining are necessary, but they cannot go on for 24 hours a day without any
rest for this earth. Balance in industry and mining is necessary if humans are to live on this earth. The
greed of the modern industrialists and miners will ultimately bring self destruction of the earth and all
that is in it, including the human beings. Minz further observes that this earth, the environment and eco-
system have been misunderstood as a machine, which functions by itself. That Man could manoeuvre it
as he liked. He claims that now we have accepted the Organismic view of the earth and the nature. That,
there is a living organic relationship between human beings, trees, animals, insects, water, air, sun shine
and the soil of this earth. The Adivasi have been holding these views from time immemorial and they
have understood human beings as an integral part of this macro-organism. It is precisely this value of
the tribals that is pro-life and pro-humanity. This is the contribution the tribal culture and spirituality
make to the humanity at large. This is the only solution to the survival of the tribals and also the world.