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Unit-12 Pipe Flow Problems

This document discusses various types of losses that can occur in pipelines in addition to frictional losses, including: 1) Minor losses due to changes in cross-section or direction of flow, which generate turbulence and dissipate energy. These losses depend on flow velocity and an empirical coefficient. 2) Loss due to sudden enlargement, derived from the momentum and energy equations as proportional to the velocity difference before and after enlargement. 3) Loss due to sudden contraction, consisting of acceleration loss upstream and deceleration loss downstream of the vena contracta, where the minimum cross-section occurs. Empirical coefficients are provided for contraction loss.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
289 views16 pages

Unit-12 Pipe Flow Problems

This document discusses various types of losses that can occur in pipelines in addition to frictional losses, including: 1) Minor losses due to changes in cross-section or direction of flow, which generate turbulence and dissipate energy. These losses depend on flow velocity and an empirical coefficient. 2) Loss due to sudden enlargement, derived from the momentum and energy equations as proportional to the velocity difference before and after enlargement. 3) Loss due to sudden contraction, consisting of acceleration loss upstream and deceleration loss downstream of the vena contracta, where the minimum cross-section occurs. Empirical coefficients are provided for contraction loss.

Uploaded by

Mohamed Kamel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT 12 PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Various Losses in Pipeline
12.2.1 Head Loss Due to Sudden Enlargement
122.2 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contxoction
12.2.3 Head Loss in G R d d Transitions
12.2.4 Head Loss in Pipe Fitlings
12.3 Equivalent Pipe Systems
12.4 Flow through Pipes in Series
12.5 Flow through Pipes in Parallel
12.6 Pipe Network
12.7 Three Reservoir Roblems
12.8 Turbulent Flow in Non-Circular Conduits
12.9 Power Requirements of a Pipeline
12.10 Power Delivered by a Pipeline
12.11 Nozzles
12.12 Illustrative Roblems
12.13 Summary
12.14 Key Words
12.15 Answers to SAQs

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit on pipe flow we studied basic concepts of fluid mechanics associated
with the frictional loss of energy in pipe flow. Now we shall use those concepts to obtain
solutions to different kinds of pipe flow problems.
Pipelines are used to convey fluids from one point to another. While conveying the fluids, the
pipelines also convey the energy (or power) of the flowing fluid. It is obvious that part of the
fluid power would be utilized in overcoming the frictional and form resistances in pipelines.
The form resistance is on account of the changes in the shape and or size of the pipeline, the
changes in the direction of flow and different types of fittings in the pipeline. The loss(es) of
head in overcoming the form resistances is termed the minor losges).
Pipe flow problems can be grouped into two categories depending upon whether the
solution is obtainable by direct computations or it requires a trial-anderror method.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
* compute frictional and minor losses in a pipeline of given size, characteristics
and for known discharge rate,
* compute the flow rate for known pipeline characteristics and the head loss,
* compute the diameter of the pipeline for known flow rate and the head loss,
* obtain the distribution of flow in a pipe network,
* solve three-reservoir problems, and
* solve problems related to transmission of fluid power.
Only incompressible flow has been considered for the subject matter of this unit.
Pipe Flow Problems

12.2 'VARIOUS LOSSES IN PIPELINES


In addition to the loss of head caused by friction in a pipeline, there are'losses due to change
in the cross-section and presence of bends, valves and different kinds of fittings. In a long
pipeline these additional losses (usually termed minor or secondary losses) may be a small
fraction of the ordinary friction loss and hence, are considered negligible in long pipelines.
The minor losses may, however, exceed the frictional losses in a shorter pipeline and should,
therefore, be accounted for in such situations. These minor losses are generally caused due
to sudden changes in the magnitude andtor direction of the velocity of flow. These changes,
in turn, generate large-scale turbulence in which the energy is dissipated as heat. The
turbulence so geneated affects the flow for a considerable distance downstream of the
section where the change in velocity occurred. For the purpose of analysing this complicated
flow, it is assumed that the effects of friction and the additional large-scale turbulence can be
separated and the additional loss (i.e. the minor loss) is assumed to occur at the device
causing it. The total head loss in a pipeline is, obviously, the sum of the friction loss for the
pipeline and the minor loss due to various fittings in the pipeline.
The minor losses, in general, cannot be determined theoretically (one exception is sudden
enlargement which can be analysed theoretically). Since the losses are proportional to the
square of the average velocity of flow (U) in turbulent flow, the minor losses (H,) are
generally expressed in the following form :

Here, K is an empirical coefficient which would depend on the type of fitting causing minor
loss and the Reynolds number representing the flow condition. Obviously, at high Reynolds
number, the value of K remains constant for a given type of fitting.

12.2.1 Head Loss Due to Sudden Enlargement


Consider the sudden enlargement of cross-section of pipeline as shown in Figure 12.1. Due
to sudden change in the boundary, the fluid emerging from the smaller pipe is unable to
follow the boundary. As a result, the flow separates and pockets of eddies are formed in the
comers. These eddies result in dissipation of energy as heat.

HYDRAULIC

II

Assuming that (i) the velocity distribution is uniform at sections 1 and 2, (ii) the mean
pressure of the eddying fluid is the same as the pressure at section 1 and (iii) the pipe axis is
horizontal, one can write the momentum equation for the control volume between sections 1
and 2 as follows :

Here, p represents the mean pressure, A the cross- sectional area, p the mass density, Q the
discharge rate and U is the mean velocity of flow. The subscripts indicate the section at
which the values are being considered.
From the energy equation, one obtains

-P1+ -u:+ z = -P2+ -u:+ Z + HL


Pi? 28 P8 28
2 2
.'. HL= P1
- - Pz Ul - + u2
P8 28
2 2
HL= u2 - ( U2- U l )+ u1- u2
8 28
2
.'. HL= ( u1 - (12)
28

(12.2)
28
This equation is known as Borda - Carnot equation.
The factor K,known as loss coefficient, depends only on the sizes of the two pipes. When a
pipeline discharges into a large reservoir, Figure 12.2, A, is very large compared to A , and,
therefore, K is unitv. Thus, exit loss is given as

TOTALENERGY
LINE
HYDRAULIC
M A D E LINE

U
-.- 0 -.-. -*
I, /

-c-"Ai a
12.2.2 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contraction
In the case of sudden contraction, Figure 12.3, there forms vena contracta immediately
downstream of the contraction and thereafter the jet expands. Upstream of the vena
contracta, the flow is accelerating and the energy loss is, therefore, relatively small compared
to the loss that occurs downstream of the vena contacta in which region the flow is
decelerating.
Rpe hlow Problems
The total loss of head is, obviously, the sum of these two losses, i.e.

Hence,

The loss coefficnet K for sudden contraction depends on the coefficient of contraction Cc
which, in turn, depends on the ratio of the areas A, /A, . The observed values of Cc and K are
given in Table 12.1. 1

Table 12.1 :The Coefficientof Contraction and Loss Coefficientfor Sharp-edged Sudden
Contraction

A2"4, cc K
0 0.617 0.50
0.1 0.624 0.46
0.2 0.632 0.41
0.3 0.643 0.36
0.4 0.659 0.30
0.5 0.681 0.24
0.6 0.712 0.18
0.7 0.755 0.12
0.8 0.813 0.06
0.9 0.892 0.02
1.o 1.ooo 0.00

When a pipeline is connected to a reservoir for receiving water from the reservoir, the ratio
A, /A, is almost zero and the loss coefficient is 0.5. Thus. for the sharp-edged entrance, the
L

entrance loss is taken as 0.5 2. Foi a rounded or bell-mouthed entry, the loss coefficient
-
22
can be as low as 0.02.

12.2.3 Head Loss in Gradual Transitions


Two pipes of different cross-sections are usually connected through a fitting which
accomplishes the change gradually. This fiiting is called transition which may be either
convergent or divergent. Convergent transition results in accelerating flow which converts
the potential energy into kinetic energy and is, therefore, inherently stable and free from
separation. The energy loss in gradual contraction is, therefore, very small and is given as

in which U, is the average velocity of flow in the contracted section.


In the diverging transitions, however, the flow is retarding and the kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy. Further, if the angle of expansion is larger than about 10".
the flow separate$ from the boundary and thus results in the formation of eddies. Hence, the
energy loss in the expanding transitions is relatively more. The head loss due to gradual
expansion can be expressed as

I in which the loss coefficient K depends upon the flow condition and the geometry of the
expansion. For relatively large Reynolds number, the loss coefficient depends only on the
I
geometry of the expansion. The variation of the loss coefficient K with the angle of expansion
for a conical diffuser is shown in Figure 12.4.
L

It may be noted that when 8 = 180" (i.e. sudden expansion ), K = 1.0.


SAQ 1
Why head loss in diverging transition is more than that in converging transition?

12.2.4 Head Loss in Pipe Fittings


In any pipeline, it is usual to use different kinds of fittings such as Tee joints, valves, bends
etc.. The head loss on account of these fittings can be expressed as

The value of K has to be determined experimentally for any type of fitting as it depends on
the Reynolds number as well as the geometry of the fitting. Some typical values of K for some
pipe fittings are given in Table 12.2.
Pipe Flow Problems

Table 12.2 :Typical Values of Loss Coefficient K for Pipe Fitings

Pipe Fitting K
Standard Tee joint 1.80
Standard 90"elbow 1.90
Standard 45' elbow 0.42
Return bend 2.20
Gate Valve fully open 0.19
Gate Valve 314 fully open 1.15
Gate Valve 112 fully open 5.60
Gate Valve 114 fully open 24 .O
1

12.3 EQUIVALENT PIPE SYSTEMS


Two pipe systems are said to be equivalent when the same amount of discharge flowing
through the two pipe systems causes the same head loss. This concept can be advantageously
used to express the form as well as friction effects in terms of an equivalent length of straight
pipe of uniform diameter which would result in the same head loss at the same rate of
discharge. The total head loss h, in a pipeline can always be expressed as

h,= K - u2
2g
in which K is a loss coefficient which includes the effects of all non-uniformities as well as
friction. Another pipeline of straight length 1, and uniform diameter D would be equivalent
to the given pipeline having total head loss h, only if the following relation is satisfied.

from which one obtains

Here, 1, is termed the equivalent length of pipe and f is the friction factor of the selected
equivalent pipeline.
Likewise two straight pipes of diameters D,and D,,length 1, and I, and friction factorsf, and
f,would be equivalent if

Similarly, pipes in series and pipes in parallel can be simplified to equivalent single pipe of
specified diameter having an equivalent pipe length 1,.
The concept of equivalent pipe length enables simplification of a compound pipeline into a
single pipeline of suitable length i.e. the equivalent pipe length.

SAQ 2
What is meant by "equivalent pipe length"?
Hoid Dynamics - I1
SAQ 3
When are the minor losses really minor ?
When is the terms "minor loss" a misnomer?

12.4 FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES


When pipes of different cross-sections are connected end to end to form a pipeline, so that
,the fluid flows through each in turn, the pipes are said to be in series. The total loss of head
for the entire pipeline would, obviously, be the sum of the friction and minor losses for each
pipe together with the losses that might occur at their junctions. The discharge would be the
same in all these pipes which have been connected in series.

12.5 FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN PARALLEL


When two or more pipes are connected so as to first divide the flow and subsequently bring
it together as shown in Figure 12.5, the pipes are said to be in parallel.

Flpre 125
Referring to the Figure, it is obvious that,

Q = Q, + Q, + Q3
and

Here, HL is the headloss between points A and Band HL , H4 and H,, are head losses in
the three pipes.
For known pipe and fluid characteristics, one can easily determine the total discharge Q for
known head loss HL by determining Q,, Q, and Q, as HLI, Hq and Hq are all equal to H,.
Other type of problems related to pipes in parallel concerns the distribution of the given
amount of total discharge Q and the determination of the head loss H,. Such problems can
be solved by the following procedure.
(i) Assume a suitable discharge Q; for pipe 1 and compute the head loss H; with the
assumed discharge Q;.
(ii) For known = HL ~ iobtain) Q; and Q;and determine
=

I: Q' = Q; + Q; + Q;.
Pipe Flow Problems
(iii) Distribute the total given discharge Q in the following manner

(iv) Check the correctness of the discharges Q,, Q, and Q, by computing the loss in each
pipe.
In such problems, minor losses may be either completely neglected or could be considered
by adding their equivalent pipe length to the actual length of the relevant pipe.
12.6 PIPE NETWORK
For distribution of municipal water, a network of pipelines is used. In addition, the friction
equation must also be satisfied for each pipe. It should be noted that Darcy's formula for
friction loss takes no account of the direction of flow. When the direction of flow is in doubt,
one has to assume it and see if the assumption yields physically possible solution. These pipe
networks often are difficult problems to analyse, The fundamental principles of continuity
and uniqueness of the head at any junction form the basis of solution of pipe networks.
According to the principle of continuity, the total incoming discharge at any junction is equal
to the total outgoing discharge at that junction. The uniqueness of the head at a given
junction requires that the net head loss (or the algebraic sum of the head loss) round any
closed loop in the network must be zero. For the purpose of obtaining the net headloss, the
headloss in a pipe of a given loop may be considered as positive if the flow in the pipe is
clockwise. One has to obtain the distribution of discharge (magnitude as well as direction
and flow) in different pipes of the network for known pipe characteristics. Since the flow
direction in many of the pipes of a pipe network may be unknown, it is often very
time-consuming if one sdves the resulting equations by ordinary trial and error method,
Hardy Cross has developed a systematic method of computation which gives results of
acceptable accuracy with relatively small number of trials. The method consists of the
following steps :
1. By careful inspection, assume the most reasonable distribution of flows which satisfies
the continuity principle at every junction.
2. Obtain head loss h, (usually due to friction i.e. h,) in each pipe by writing

where r is a constant for each pipe. n is usually taken as 2.0. While minor losses within
any circuit may be included, the minor losses at the junction points are neglected.
3. Compute the algebraic sum of the head losses around each elementary circuit i.e.
Chf= CrQn

considering losses from clockwise flows as positive and those from counter clockwise
flows as negative.
4. Adjust the flow in each circuit by a correction A Q to balance the head loss in the circuit
so that

A Q is determined in the following manner :


For any pipe, one may write

where Q is the correct discharge and"Q, is the assumed discharge. Then, for each pipe,

h, = rQn = r( Q,+ A Q ) " = r ( Q;+ n Q;- ' A Q + . . .)


IfAQ is small compared with Q,, one may neglect the terms of the series after the
second term and

Now for a circuit, with AQ the same for all pipes,

It should be noted that the numerator of this equation is to be summed algebraically with
due regard to sign and the denominator is summed arithnatically. The direction of
AQ is, obviously, clockwise when it is positive and counter clockwise when negative.
5. After each circuit is given a first correction, the losses will still not balance because of
the interaction of one circuit upon another due to which pipes, common to two circuits,
receive two independent and different corrections - one for each circuit. The procedure
is, therefore, repeated until the corrections become negligible small.

12.7 THREE RESERVOIR PROBLEMS


Pipe system, involving flow among three reservoirs, consists of three pipes meeting at a
junction (Figure 12.6). The flow in such a pipe system can also be analysed by satisfying the
continuity principle at any junction, uniqueness of head at any point and the Darcy's
equation for each pipe. Because of uncertainty in the flow direction in one or more pipes of
the pipe system, the solution of three reservoir problem requires trial.

1 DATUM LEVEL t
Ffgure 12.6
In Figure 12.6, three reservoirs A, B and C are connected to common junction J by pipes 1,
2 and 3 in which the head losses are hfl , hf2 and hf3 respectively. The characteristics of
pipes 1, 2 and 3 as well as surface levels in reservoirs A, B and C are known. The head at
junction
J is unknown.
For such pipe system, following method is used for the solution :
Since the head at A is the highest and that at C the lowest the direction of flow in pipes 1 and
3 is as indicated by the arrows. The direction of flow in pipe 2, however, is not immediately
evident. If h j , the head at J, is intermediate between the heads at A and B then flow occurs
from J to B and for steady conditions the following equations apply :
Pipe Flow Problems
1
I
Since h, is a function of Q, these four equations involve the four unknowns hj , Q,, Q, and Q,.
Even when f is assumed constant and minor losses are neglected so that

albegraic solution is tedious (and for more than four pipes impossible). Trial values of h,
substituted in the first three equations, however, yield values of Q,,Q, and Q, to be checked I

in the fourth equation. If the calculated value of Q, exceeds Q, + Q,, for example, the flow I
rate towards J is too great and a larger trial value of hj is required. Values of Q, - (Q, + Q,)
may be plotted against h, as in Figure 12.7 znd the value of h, for which Q, - (Q, + Q,) = 0
readily found. If, however, the direction of flow in pipe 2 was incorrectly assumed no
solution is obtainable.

Figure 12.7
For the, opposite direction of flow in pipe 2 the equations are :

It will be noticed that the two sets of equations (12.13) and (12.14), become identical when
z, = hj and Q, = 0. A preliminary rrial with h, = z, may, therefore, be used to determine the
direction of flow in pipe 2. If the trial value of Q, is greater than that of Q,, that is, if the flow
rate towards J exceeds that leaving J, then a greater value of h, is required to restore the
balance. On the other hand, if Q, < Q, when hj is set equal to z, , then hj is actually
less than 2,

12.8 TURBULENT FLOW IN NON-CIRCULAR CONDUITS


Normally the conduits for carrying a fluid are circular in shape and one can use Darcy-
Weisbach equation alongwith Moody's diagram for solving flow problems. Experiments have
indicated that the relations developed for circular pipes yield reasonable results if the
diameter is replaced by another term known as equivalentdiameter such that the hydraulic
mean readius R (i.e. the ratio of area of ckoss- section A and the wetted perimeter P )
remains the same. For a circular section
Fluid Dynamics - I1
This means that the equivalentdiameter of a non-circular pipe is four times its hydraulic
i mean radius. Thus, Darcy-Weisbach equation, for non-circular conduits, is written as

and the Reynolds number would be calculated as

t It should, however, be noted that this kind of simplification yields only approximate results
depending upon the deviation of non-circular shape from the circular shape. This is on
I
account of the assumption involved in the concept of equivalentdiameter that the mean
shear stress at the boundary is the same as for a circular section. Further, this concept is not

I applicable to laminar flows.

12.9 POWER REQUIREMENm OF A PIPELINE


Problems of flow through pipes involve the estimation of power required to maintain a
! certain flow through the pipe. Since power P is the rate of doing work, it is equivalent to the
I
I product of force (i.e. - *.
ax
A1 ) and the mean velocity U,i.e.

I
or P = Q ( P ~~ 2 )

For inclined pipes, ( p, - p 2 is replaced by P g (h, - h2)


I
:. P = p g Q (h, - h,)
I Here, power P is in watts and Q in m h p in kglm3 and h is in metres.

12.10 POWER DELIVERED BY A PIPELINE


Pipelines are often used to transmit water from higher elevation to lower elevation. In the
process the water loses its potential energy, part of which is lost in overcoming friction in the
pipe and the remaining in the turbine. Thus, if z is the elevation difference and hf is the
head loss due to friction in a pipe line carrying discharge Q , then the power P delivered to
the turbine is

dP -
For maximum power delivery, - - 0.
dQ

This means that the power delivered by a given pipe is maximum when the flow is such that
one-third of the static head is consumed in friction. However, such a wastage would not be
desirable and the pipelines are of such a size that these could deliver water with a loss of
only a few percent.
Pipe Flow Problems

12.11 NOZZLES
A nozzle is a converging tube which is usually fitted at the end of a pipeline to obtain a high
velocity jet at the end of the pipeline. The pressure at the exit end of the nozzle is
atmospheric. A practical example of nozzle is the flow from a reservoir to an impulse turbine
through a penstock that ends in a nozzle.

12.12 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS


Example 12.1 :
A 300 m m diameter pipe with friction factor of 0.02 has a pipe fitting with loss
coefficient of 1.9 and 200 mm diameter pipe of 50 m length with friction factor of
0.022.Determine their equivalent lengths in terms of 300 mm diameter pipe.
Solution :
Since

Equivalent length for the pipe fiiting = 0.3 = 28.5m


0.02
Also, since

:. Equivalent length of 50 m pipe in terms of 300 mm diameter pipe

:.Equivalent length for the fitting and 200 mm diameter pipe in terms of 300 mm
diameter pipe = 28.5 + 417.66
= 446.16m.

Example 12.2 :
Determine the size of galvanised steel pipe needed to carry water for a distance of
180m at 85 lit./s with a head loss of 9.0.Take k, = 0.15mm.

Solution :

Substituting the values,

Taking v = 1.0~1u6 m2/s


-
Fluid Dynamics 11

Assume

k
From Moody's diagram for Re = 5.48 x lo5 and '
D
= 0.000812, the value off is 0.019.
Assumption is O.K.
Hence D = 0.1846 m
Example 12.3 :
Determine the head loss due to the flow of 100 lit./s of water through 100 metre
length of 15 cm diameter pipe having relative roughness of 0.01.

Solution :

Using Moody's diagram for Re = 8.49 x ld and k ID = 0.01, one obtains f = 0.038

= 41.35 m of water

Example 124:
Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network as shown in Figure 12.8 : Assume
n=2

Figure 12.8
Pipe Flow Problems
Solution :
Let the distribution be as follows :
65,
4
I
,20

20
FSgum 129 (a)
For C i d t A For C i d t B

Q', 2rQo ef 2r Qo
2x 4d= 3200 2 x 2 x 40= 160 4x4d=6400 2x4x40=320
2 x 2 d = 800 Z X 2 x 2O= 80 - 3 2~d = -1200 2 x 3 x 20= 120
- 4 4d=
~ -6400 2~ 4 x 40= 320 - 1 P~= -25 2~ l x 5 = 10
x re:= -2400 x 2rQ,= 560 x re:= 5175 21Qo= 450

AQ= I?[- -m = 4.3 AQ= -[=I


5175 = -11.5

Applying
-
these corrections to the assumed distribution, the new distribution IS as follows :

Fipre 129 (b)


For Circuit A For Circuit B

Q: 2r Qo re; 2r Qo
2 x 44.32 = 3925 2 x 2 x 44.3 = 177.2 - 3 x 31.5~= - 2976.75 2 x 3 x 31.5 = 189
2 x 2 ~ . 3=~ 1181 2 x 2 x 24.3 = 97.2 - 1x 16.5~= - 272.25 2 x 1 x 16.5 = 33
- 4 x 24.22 = - 2342.56 2x 4x 24.2= 193.6 + 4x 24.22 = 2342.56 2 x 4 x 2A.2 = 193.6
xr~:=2763.44 x2rQO=468 r&= - 906.44 I:2rQ,= 415.6

AQ=
2763.44
= -5.9 = -[ - 415.6 ]
906.44 = + 2.2

Applying these corrections to the urevious distribution, the revised distribution is as follows:

Rgure 129 (c)


On further calculation in the same manner one would finally obtain the following
disrribution with acceptable level of error.

-re 12s (d)


Examples12.5 :
For the problem shown in Figure 12.10, find elevation of level of the reservoir C and
distribution of discharge. Assume f = 0.03 for all pipes.

FSpn 1210
Solution :

Velocity in pipe &om reservoir A = -


X
3 -
- 3.82 rn/s
(1.0)'

Therefore, total head at P = 100 - 33.47 = 66.53 m


Hence the flow would be from reservoir B to P with head loss h, equal to 80-66.53 = 13.47 m
2
Pipe Flow Roblems

= 22.47 m
:. Elevation of reservoir level C = 66.53 - 22.47
= 44.06 m.
12.13 SUMMARY
In this Unit we studied the concepts related to hydraulic losses on account of different types
of pipe fittings. The methods to solve different kinds of pipe flow problems including pipe
network and three reservoir problems were illustrated. There is no alternative to solving
many problems on pipe flow to comprehend the methods illustrated in this Unit.

12.14 KEY WORDS


Pipe Fittings : Bends, elbows, joints, valves etc., in a pipe line
systems are known as pipe fittings.
Equivalent Pipe : A hypothetical pipe line of uniform diameter resulting
in the same head loss as ilr the actual pipe line.
Pipe Netwrk : Pipes of different length and diameters connected in
different ways.
Three Reservoir Problem : Problems involving flow among three reservoirs,
consists of three pipes meeting at a junction.
Minor Loss : Hydraulic loss in pipe lines on account of different
forms and fittings in pipe line and other than those
due to friction.

12.15 ANSWERS TO SAOs


SAQ 1
See text (Sec. 12.2.3)
SAQ 2
See text (Sec. 12.3)
SAQ 3
For long pipelines the combined loss due to all pipe fittings, termed "minor
loss" is small compared to the loss due to friction. But, for short pipe lengths,
the reverse may be true and the minor loss may be larger than the loss due to
friction.

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