Unit-12 Pipe Flow Problems
Unit-12 Pipe Flow Problems
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Various Losses in Pipeline
12.2.1 Head Loss Due to Sudden Enlargement
122.2 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contxoction
12.2.3 Head Loss in G R d d Transitions
12.2.4 Head Loss in Pipe Fitlings
12.3 Equivalent Pipe Systems
12.4 Flow through Pipes in Series
12.5 Flow through Pipes in Parallel
12.6 Pipe Network
12.7 Three Reservoir Roblems
12.8 Turbulent Flow in Non-Circular Conduits
12.9 Power Requirements of a Pipeline
12.10 Power Delivered by a Pipeline
12.11 Nozzles
12.12 Illustrative Roblems
12.13 Summary
12.14 Key Words
12.15 Answers to SAQs
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit on pipe flow we studied basic concepts of fluid mechanics associated
with the frictional loss of energy in pipe flow. Now we shall use those concepts to obtain
solutions to different kinds of pipe flow problems.
Pipelines are used to convey fluids from one point to another. While conveying the fluids, the
pipelines also convey the energy (or power) of the flowing fluid. It is obvious that part of the
fluid power would be utilized in overcoming the frictional and form resistances in pipelines.
The form resistance is on account of the changes in the shape and or size of the pipeline, the
changes in the direction of flow and different types of fittings in the pipeline. The loss(es) of
head in overcoming the form resistances is termed the minor losges).
Pipe flow problems can be grouped into two categories depending upon whether the
solution is obtainable by direct computations or it requires a trial-anderror method.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
* compute frictional and minor losses in a pipeline of given size, characteristics
and for known discharge rate,
* compute the flow rate for known pipeline characteristics and the head loss,
* compute the diameter of the pipeline for known flow rate and the head loss,
* obtain the distribution of flow in a pipe network,
* solve three-reservoir problems, and
* solve problems related to transmission of fluid power.
Only incompressible flow has been considered for the subject matter of this unit.
Pipe Flow Problems
Here, K is an empirical coefficient which would depend on the type of fitting causing minor
loss and the Reynolds number representing the flow condition. Obviously, at high Reynolds
number, the value of K remains constant for a given type of fitting.
HYDRAULIC
II
Assuming that (i) the velocity distribution is uniform at sections 1 and 2, (ii) the mean
pressure of the eddying fluid is the same as the pressure at section 1 and (iii) the pipe axis is
horizontal, one can write the momentum equation for the control volume between sections 1
and 2 as follows :
Here, p represents the mean pressure, A the cross- sectional area, p the mass density, Q the
discharge rate and U is the mean velocity of flow. The subscripts indicate the section at
which the values are being considered.
From the energy equation, one obtains
(12.2)
28
This equation is known as Borda - Carnot equation.
The factor K,known as loss coefficient, depends only on the sizes of the two pipes. When a
pipeline discharges into a large reservoir, Figure 12.2, A, is very large compared to A , and,
therefore, K is unitv. Thus, exit loss is given as
TOTALENERGY
LINE
HYDRAULIC
M A D E LINE
U
-.- 0 -.-. -*
I, /
-c-"Ai a
12.2.2 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contraction
In the case of sudden contraction, Figure 12.3, there forms vena contracta immediately
downstream of the contraction and thereafter the jet expands. Upstream of the vena
contracta, the flow is accelerating and the energy loss is, therefore, relatively small compared
to the loss that occurs downstream of the vena contacta in which region the flow is
decelerating.
Rpe hlow Problems
The total loss of head is, obviously, the sum of these two losses, i.e.
Hence,
The loss coefficnet K for sudden contraction depends on the coefficient of contraction Cc
which, in turn, depends on the ratio of the areas A, /A, . The observed values of Cc and K are
given in Table 12.1. 1
Table 12.1 :The Coefficientof Contraction and Loss Coefficientfor Sharp-edged Sudden
Contraction
A2"4, cc K
0 0.617 0.50
0.1 0.624 0.46
0.2 0.632 0.41
0.3 0.643 0.36
0.4 0.659 0.30
0.5 0.681 0.24
0.6 0.712 0.18
0.7 0.755 0.12
0.8 0.813 0.06
0.9 0.892 0.02
1.o 1.ooo 0.00
When a pipeline is connected to a reservoir for receiving water from the reservoir, the ratio
A, /A, is almost zero and the loss coefficient is 0.5. Thus. for the sharp-edged entrance, the
L
entrance loss is taken as 0.5 2. Foi a rounded or bell-mouthed entry, the loss coefficient
-
22
can be as low as 0.02.
I in which the loss coefficient K depends upon the flow condition and the geometry of the
expansion. For relatively large Reynolds number, the loss coefficient depends only on the
I
geometry of the expansion. The variation of the loss coefficient K with the angle of expansion
for a conical diffuser is shown in Figure 12.4.
L
The value of K has to be determined experimentally for any type of fitting as it depends on
the Reynolds number as well as the geometry of the fitting. Some typical values of K for some
pipe fittings are given in Table 12.2.
Pipe Flow Problems
Pipe Fitting K
Standard Tee joint 1.80
Standard 90"elbow 1.90
Standard 45' elbow 0.42
Return bend 2.20
Gate Valve fully open 0.19
Gate Valve 314 fully open 1.15
Gate Valve 112 fully open 5.60
Gate Valve 114 fully open 24 .O
1
h,= K - u2
2g
in which K is a loss coefficient which includes the effects of all non-uniformities as well as
friction. Another pipeline of straight length 1, and uniform diameter D would be equivalent
to the given pipeline having total head loss h, only if the following relation is satisfied.
Here, 1, is termed the equivalent length of pipe and f is the friction factor of the selected
equivalent pipeline.
Likewise two straight pipes of diameters D,and D,,length 1, and I, and friction factorsf, and
f,would be equivalent if
Similarly, pipes in series and pipes in parallel can be simplified to equivalent single pipe of
specified diameter having an equivalent pipe length 1,.
The concept of equivalent pipe length enables simplification of a compound pipeline into a
single pipeline of suitable length i.e. the equivalent pipe length.
SAQ 2
What is meant by "equivalent pipe length"?
Hoid Dynamics - I1
SAQ 3
When are the minor losses really minor ?
When is the terms "minor loss" a misnomer?
Flpre 125
Referring to the Figure, it is obvious that,
Q = Q, + Q, + Q3
and
Here, HL is the headloss between points A and Band HL , H4 and H,, are head losses in
the three pipes.
For known pipe and fluid characteristics, one can easily determine the total discharge Q for
known head loss HL by determining Q,, Q, and Q, as HLI, Hq and Hq are all equal to H,.
Other type of problems related to pipes in parallel concerns the distribution of the given
amount of total discharge Q and the determination of the head loss H,. Such problems can
be solved by the following procedure.
(i) Assume a suitable discharge Q; for pipe 1 and compute the head loss H; with the
assumed discharge Q;.
(ii) For known = HL ~ iobtain) Q; and Q;and determine
=
I: Q' = Q; + Q; + Q;.
Pipe Flow Problems
(iii) Distribute the total given discharge Q in the following manner
(iv) Check the correctness of the discharges Q,, Q, and Q, by computing the loss in each
pipe.
In such problems, minor losses may be either completely neglected or could be considered
by adding their equivalent pipe length to the actual length of the relevant pipe.
12.6 PIPE NETWORK
For distribution of municipal water, a network of pipelines is used. In addition, the friction
equation must also be satisfied for each pipe. It should be noted that Darcy's formula for
friction loss takes no account of the direction of flow. When the direction of flow is in doubt,
one has to assume it and see if the assumption yields physically possible solution. These pipe
networks often are difficult problems to analyse, The fundamental principles of continuity
and uniqueness of the head at any junction form the basis of solution of pipe networks.
According to the principle of continuity, the total incoming discharge at any junction is equal
to the total outgoing discharge at that junction. The uniqueness of the head at a given
junction requires that the net head loss (or the algebraic sum of the head loss) round any
closed loop in the network must be zero. For the purpose of obtaining the net headloss, the
headloss in a pipe of a given loop may be considered as positive if the flow in the pipe is
clockwise. One has to obtain the distribution of discharge (magnitude as well as direction
and flow) in different pipes of the network for known pipe characteristics. Since the flow
direction in many of the pipes of a pipe network may be unknown, it is often very
time-consuming if one sdves the resulting equations by ordinary trial and error method,
Hardy Cross has developed a systematic method of computation which gives results of
acceptable accuracy with relatively small number of trials. The method consists of the
following steps :
1. By careful inspection, assume the most reasonable distribution of flows which satisfies
the continuity principle at every junction.
2. Obtain head loss h, (usually due to friction i.e. h,) in each pipe by writing
where r is a constant for each pipe. n is usually taken as 2.0. While minor losses within
any circuit may be included, the minor losses at the junction points are neglected.
3. Compute the algebraic sum of the head losses around each elementary circuit i.e.
Chf= CrQn
considering losses from clockwise flows as positive and those from counter clockwise
flows as negative.
4. Adjust the flow in each circuit by a correction A Q to balance the head loss in the circuit
so that
where Q is the correct discharge and"Q, is the assumed discharge. Then, for each pipe,
It should be noted that the numerator of this equation is to be summed algebraically with
due regard to sign and the denominator is summed arithnatically. The direction of
AQ is, obviously, clockwise when it is positive and counter clockwise when negative.
5. After each circuit is given a first correction, the losses will still not balance because of
the interaction of one circuit upon another due to which pipes, common to two circuits,
receive two independent and different corrections - one for each circuit. The procedure
is, therefore, repeated until the corrections become negligible small.
1 DATUM LEVEL t
Ffgure 12.6
In Figure 12.6, three reservoirs A, B and C are connected to common junction J by pipes 1,
2 and 3 in which the head losses are hfl , hf2 and hf3 respectively. The characteristics of
pipes 1, 2 and 3 as well as surface levels in reservoirs A, B and C are known. The head at
junction
J is unknown.
For such pipe system, following method is used for the solution :
Since the head at A is the highest and that at C the lowest the direction of flow in pipes 1 and
3 is as indicated by the arrows. The direction of flow in pipe 2, however, is not immediately
evident. If h j , the head at J, is intermediate between the heads at A and B then flow occurs
from J to B and for steady conditions the following equations apply :
Pipe Flow Problems
1
I
Since h, is a function of Q, these four equations involve the four unknowns hj , Q,, Q, and Q,.
Even when f is assumed constant and minor losses are neglected so that
albegraic solution is tedious (and for more than four pipes impossible). Trial values of h,
substituted in the first three equations, however, yield values of Q,,Q, and Q, to be checked I
in the fourth equation. If the calculated value of Q, exceeds Q, + Q,, for example, the flow I
rate towards J is too great and a larger trial value of hj is required. Values of Q, - (Q, + Q,)
may be plotted against h, as in Figure 12.7 znd the value of h, for which Q, - (Q, + Q,) = 0
readily found. If, however, the direction of flow in pipe 2 was incorrectly assumed no
solution is obtainable.
Figure 12.7
For the, opposite direction of flow in pipe 2 the equations are :
It will be noticed that the two sets of equations (12.13) and (12.14), become identical when
z, = hj and Q, = 0. A preliminary rrial with h, = z, may, therefore, be used to determine the
direction of flow in pipe 2. If the trial value of Q, is greater than that of Q,, that is, if the flow
rate towards J exceeds that leaving J, then a greater value of h, is required to restore the
balance. On the other hand, if Q, < Q, when hj is set equal to z, , then hj is actually
less than 2,
t It should, however, be noted that this kind of simplification yields only approximate results
depending upon the deviation of non-circular shape from the circular shape. This is on
I
account of the assumption involved in the concept of equivalentdiameter that the mean
shear stress at the boundary is the same as for a circular section. Further, this concept is not
I
or P = Q ( P ~~ 2 )
dP -
For maximum power delivery, - - 0.
dQ
This means that the power delivered by a given pipe is maximum when the flow is such that
one-third of the static head is consumed in friction. However, such a wastage would not be
desirable and the pipelines are of such a size that these could deliver water with a loss of
only a few percent.
Pipe Flow Problems
12.11 NOZZLES
A nozzle is a converging tube which is usually fitted at the end of a pipeline to obtain a high
velocity jet at the end of the pipeline. The pressure at the exit end of the nozzle is
atmospheric. A practical example of nozzle is the flow from a reservoir to an impulse turbine
through a penstock that ends in a nozzle.
:.Equivalent length for the fitting and 200 mm diameter pipe in terms of 300 mm
diameter pipe = 28.5 + 417.66
= 446.16m.
Example 12.2 :
Determine the size of galvanised steel pipe needed to carry water for a distance of
180m at 85 lit./s with a head loss of 9.0.Take k, = 0.15mm.
Solution :
Assume
k
From Moody's diagram for Re = 5.48 x lo5 and '
D
= 0.000812, the value off is 0.019.
Assumption is O.K.
Hence D = 0.1846 m
Example 12.3 :
Determine the head loss due to the flow of 100 lit./s of water through 100 metre
length of 15 cm diameter pipe having relative roughness of 0.01.
Solution :
Using Moody's diagram for Re = 8.49 x ld and k ID = 0.01, one obtains f = 0.038
= 41.35 m of water
Example 124:
Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network as shown in Figure 12.8 : Assume
n=2
Figure 12.8
Pipe Flow Problems
Solution :
Let the distribution be as follows :
65,
4
I
,20
20
FSgum 129 (a)
For C i d t A For C i d t B
Q', 2rQo ef 2r Qo
2x 4d= 3200 2 x 2 x 40= 160 4x4d=6400 2x4x40=320
2 x 2 d = 800 Z X 2 x 2O= 80 - 3 2~d = -1200 2 x 3 x 20= 120
- 4 4d=
~ -6400 2~ 4 x 40= 320 - 1 P~= -25 2~ l x 5 = 10
x re:= -2400 x 2rQ,= 560 x re:= 5175 21Qo= 450
Applying
-
these corrections to the assumed distribution, the new distribution IS as follows :
Q: 2r Qo re; 2r Qo
2 x 44.32 = 3925 2 x 2 x 44.3 = 177.2 - 3 x 31.5~= - 2976.75 2 x 3 x 31.5 = 189
2 x 2 ~ . 3=~ 1181 2 x 2 x 24.3 = 97.2 - 1x 16.5~= - 272.25 2 x 1 x 16.5 = 33
- 4 x 24.22 = - 2342.56 2x 4x 24.2= 193.6 + 4x 24.22 = 2342.56 2 x 4 x 2A.2 = 193.6
xr~:=2763.44 x2rQO=468 r&= - 906.44 I:2rQ,= 415.6
AQ=
2763.44
= -5.9 = -[ - 415.6 ]
906.44 = + 2.2
Applying these corrections to the urevious distribution, the revised distribution is as follows:
FSpn 1210
Solution :
= 22.47 m
:. Elevation of reservoir level C = 66.53 - 22.47
= 44.06 m.
12.13 SUMMARY
In this Unit we studied the concepts related to hydraulic losses on account of different types
of pipe fittings. The methods to solve different kinds of pipe flow problems including pipe
network and three reservoir problems were illustrated. There is no alternative to solving
many problems on pipe flow to comprehend the methods illustrated in this Unit.