Course

on
FCME006: Basics of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Sanjay Gupta & Dr. Abhishek Tevatia

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Netaji Subhas University of Technology
Room No.: 136/VI & 137/VI
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Unit III: Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering
Texts:
1. A Ghosh and A K Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Wiley Eastern, 1986.
2. P Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Foundry, Forming And Welding, Tata McGraw
Hill, 2008.
3. M.P. Groover, Introduction to manufacturing processes, John Wiley & Sons,
2012
4. Prashant P Date, Introduction to manufacturing technologies Principles and
technologies, Jaico publications, 2010 (new book)

References:
1. J S Campbell, Principles Of Manufacturing Materials And Processes, Tata
McGraw Hill, 1995.
2. P C Pandey and C K Singh, Production Engineering Sciences, Standard
Publishers Ltd., 2003.
3. S Kalpakjian and S R Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, Pearson education, 2009.
4. E. Paul Degarmo, J T Black, Ronald A Kohser, Materials and processes in
manufacturing, John wiley and sons, 8th edition, 1999
 Manufacturing
Arrived from the Latin word “manu factus”, meaning “made
by hand”.

Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into

products.
 WHY STUDY
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES?
The designer and the drafter must have a working knowledge
of the various processes that could produce a part in order to:
lower cost and reduce production time.
 Three Phases Of The
Manufacturing Process

Selection of
Product design Selection of
production methods
materials.
and techniques.
 The information needed to produce a
part, most often comes in the form of a:

Working
Drawing
 Three Main Stages of
The Production of a Machined Part

Rough Forming Casting, Forging, Welding

Finishing Drilling, machining, surfacing

Assembling The assembly of parts

 Lecture 17
Classification and use of
engineering materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
1- Metals and Alloys
2- Ceramics, Glasses,and Glass-ceramics
3- Polymers (plastics), Thermoplastics and Thermosets
4- Semiconductors
5- Composite Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
Material Properties
Representative strengths of various categories of
materials
Functional Classification of Materials
Metals: The Most Important Engineering
Materials Today
● They have properties that satisfy a wide variety of design
requirements

● The manufacturing processes by which they are shaped

into products have been developed and refined over many
years

● Engineers understand metals

 Why Metals Are Important
● High stiffness and strength - can be alloyed for high rigidity,
strength, and hardness

● Toughness - capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of

materials

● Good electrical conductivity - Metals are conductors

● Good thermal conductivity - conduct heat better than ceramics or

polymers

● Cost – the price of steel is very competitive with other engineering

materials
Classification of Metals
Ferrous Metals
Ferrous Metals
Non Ferrous Metals
 Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset
There are two types of plastic; Thermosetting
and Thermoset plastic.

To make a Plastic, or a polymer the materials

engineer joins lots and lots of monomers
together.

Plastics are versatile and flexible materials. All

plastics are based on polymers and they are
created by bonding molecules together.
 Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset

The terms monomer and polymer are very important in the plastics industry.

A MONOMER is a small molecule that combines chemically to other

monomers to form a polymer

Remember, all plastics are polymers.

Example - derived from oil - a hydrocarbon ethylene molecule can be seen in

the diagram

Many modern plastics are manufactured from oil.

Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset
 Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset

EXAMPLE THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

The Thermoset Plastic

Once 'set' these plastics cannot be reheated to soften, shape and mould.
The molecules of these plastics are cross linked in three dimensions and
this is why they cannot be reshaped or recycled. The bond between the
molecules is very strong.

Many adhesives (glues) are thermosetting plastics. A good example is

‘Araldite’ which is an epoxy resin that hardens when a second chemical is
added (a catalyst). It will bond most materials including woods and metals
as well as some plastics.
Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset
 Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset

EXAMPLE THERMOPLASTICS
The Thermoplastic: These plastics can be re-heated and therefore shaped in
various ways. They become mouldable after reheating as they do not
undergo significant chemical change. Reheating and shaping can be
repeated. The bond between the molecules is weak and become weaker
when reheated, allowing reshaping. Thermoplastics tend to be composed of
'long chain monomers'. These types of plastics can be recycled.

These plastics possess a common property, they soften when heated and
are often used in schools to vacuum form shapes. Usually, when heated and
formed into a shape - if reheated they return to their original shape.
Plastics; Thermosetting and Thermoset
Ceramics Materials
Ceramics Materials
Ceramics Materials
Application of Ceramics
Application of Ceramics
Application of Ceramics
Application of Ceramics
Composite Materials
Composite Materials
Composite Materials
Composite Materials
Composite Materials
 Representative examples, applications, and
properties for each category of materials

Material Properties Applications

Metals and Alloys Castable, machinable, Automobile engine blocks
vibration dampings

Ceramics, Glasses,and Optically transparent, Window glass

thermally insulating
Glass-ceramics

Polymers (plastics), Easily formed into thin, Food packaging

flexible, airtight film
Thermoplastics and
Thermosets
 Representative examples, applications, and
properties for each category of materials

Material Properties Applications

Semiconductors Unique electrical behavior Transistors and integrated
circuits

Composite Materials High strength to weight Automobile parts,

ratio Aeroplane parts
 Lecture 18

Basic principles and applications of

methods of manufacturing
CASTING
 Metal Casting Processes
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first
step in making most of the products.

Steps:
● Making mould cavity
● Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable
furnace.
● Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity
● allowed to solidify
● product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to
shape
 Metal Casting Processes
We should concentrate on the following for successful casting
operation:
1) Preparation of moulds of patterns
2) Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
3) Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
4) Defects and inspection
Metal Casting Processes
Typical Sand Mould
 Important Casting Terms
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which
the mould is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in
the moulding structure, it is referred to by various names such as
drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper moulding flask, cheek –
intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould

cavity is made with the help of pattern.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding
flasks that makes up the mould.
 Important Casting Terms
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in appropriate proportions.

Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material

sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould cavity to give a better
surface finish to the castings.

Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally

baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped
cavities in the castings.
 Important Casting Terms
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the
mould into which the molten metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the
pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls
the flow of metal into the mould.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried

from the sprue to the gate.
 Important Casting Terms
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity.

Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould
cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic
force.

Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the

castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
 Important Casting Terms
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and
gases.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings
The six basic steps in making sand castings are:

(i) Pattern making

(ii) Core making

(iii) Moulding

(iv) Melting and pouring

(v) Cleaning
 Steps in Making Sand Castings
Pattern making
● Pattern: Replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare
the mould cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to
make the mould. Made of either wood or metal.
● The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate
material, such as moulding sand, surrounding the pattern.
When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mould
cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.
● If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’,
are used to form these cavities.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings
Core making
Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus the void space is filled with molten metal and
eventually becomes the casting.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings
Moulding
Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for
receiving molten metal.
Moulding usually involves:
(i) preparing the consolidated sand mould around a pattern held
within a supporting metal frame,
(ii) removing the pattern to leave the mould cavity with cores.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings
Moulding Cont...
Mould cavity is the primary cavity.
The mould cavity contains the liquid metal and it acts as a negative
of the desired product.
The mould also contains secondary cavities for pouring and
channeling the liquid material in to the primary cavity and will act a
reservoir, if required.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings

Melting and Pouring

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as
melting. The molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where
the moulds are filled.
 Steps in Making Sand Castings

Cleaning

Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from

the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved
the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of
fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of
the casting for defects and general quality is performed.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould

1)The drag flask is placed on the board

2)Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board

3)Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould board. Dry facing
sand will provide a non-sticky layer.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould
4)Molding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and
then the drag is filled completely

5)Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers.

Peen hammers (used first close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used
for surface ramming) are used.

6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.
Too soft ramming will generate weak mould and imprint of the pattern will
not be good. Too hard ramming will not allow gases/air to escape and
hence bubbles are created in casting resulting in defects called ‘blows’.
Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be difficult.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould
7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is
leveled/removed with a straight bar known as strike rod.

8) Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as
well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during
pouring and solidification. Done by vent rod.

9) The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the
pattern.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould
10) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern
using locating pins. The cope flask is also located with the help of
pins. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and
on the pattern.
11) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some
distance from the pattern edge. Riser pin is placed at an
appropriate place.

12) Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done in the same
manner.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould
13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made
at the top to pour the liquid metal.

14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.

15) Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with
a gate cutter. A gate cutter is a piece of sheet metal bent to the
desired radius.
 Making a Simple Sand Mould
16) The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould
cavity in the drag. Rests in core prints.

17) Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.

 Advantages
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate
shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other
operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be
minimized.
2. Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and
inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal
process.
4. There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and
alloys that can only be processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully
casting + last machining.
5. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.
 Limitations
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by
sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique.
2. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take
into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish. Some of these processes are die casting process, investment
casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process, and shell
moulding process.
3. Metal casting is a labour intensive process
4. Automation: a question
 Lecture 19

Basic principles and applications of

methods of manufacturing
FORMING
 Metal Forming Processes
Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the
material is deformed plastically to take the shape of the die
geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called die,
punch etc. depending on the type of process.

Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of the

workpiece material is required.
General classification of metal forming processes
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in
massive shape change. The surface area-to-volume of the work is
relatively small. Mostly done in hot working conditions.

Bulk forming processes

1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire or rod drawing
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is
compressed between two rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that
the thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and
compresses it. The final product is in the form of sheet.
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies
containing shaped contours. The die shapes are imparted into the
final part.
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the
die opening to take the shape of the die hole as its cross section.
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the
workpiece is pulled through the die opening to take the
cross-section
 Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting
operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils. The
surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is relatively high.
Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the sheets.

Sheet forming processes

1. Bending
2. Deep (or cup) drawing
3. Shearing
 Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a
bend shape (angle shape) usually in a straight axis.
 Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Deep (or cup) drawing: In this
operation, forming of a flat metal
sheet into a hollow or concave
shape like a cup, is performed by
stretching the metal in some
regions. A blank-holder is used to
clamp the blank on the die, while
the punch pushes into the sheet
metal. The sheet is drawn into the
die hole taking the shape of the
cavity.
 Classification of basic sheet forming processes

Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.

 Cold working, Warm working, Hot working
Cold working: Generally done at room temperature or slightly
above RT.

Advantages compared to hot forming:

(1) closer tolerances can be achieved;
(2) good surface finish;
(3) because of strain hardening, higher strength and hardness is seen in part;
(4) grain flow during deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional
properties;
(5) since no heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel, electricity costs are
minimized,
(6) Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net
shaped forming.
 Cold working, Warm working, Hot working

Disadvantages of cold working:

(1) higher forces and power are required;
(2) strain hardening of the work metal limit the amount of forming
that can be done,
(3) sometimes cold forming-annealing-cold forming cycle should be
followed,
(4) the work piece is not ductile enough to be cold worked.
 Cold working, Warm working, Hot working
Warm working: In this case, forming is performed at temperatures
just above room temperature but below the recrystallization
temperature. The working temperature is taken to be 0.3 Tm where
Tm is the melting point of the workpiece.

Advantages:
(1) enhanced plastic deformation properties,
(2) lower forces required,
(3) intricate work geometries possible,
(4) annealing stages can be reduced.
 Cold working, Warm working, Hot working
Hot working: Involves deformation above recrystallization
temperature, between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.

Advantages: (1) significant plastic deformation can be given to the

sample, (2) significant change in workpiece shape, (3) lower forces are
required, (4) materials with premature failure can be hot formed, (5)
absence of strengthening due to work hardening.

Disadvantages: (1) shorter tool life, (2) poor surface finish, (3) lower
dimensional accuracy, (4) sample surface oxidation
 Lecture 19-20

Basic principles and applications of

methods of manufacturing
JOINING PROCESS
 Joining of Materials
Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding of
materials.

● They produce permanent joint between the parts to be

assembled.
● They cannot be separated easily by application of forces.
● They are mainly used to assemble many parts to make a
system.
 Welding Process
Welding is a metal joining process in which two or more parts are
joined or coalesced at their contacting surfaces by suitable
application of heat or/and pressure.

● Some times, welding is done just by applying heat alone, with no

pressure applied
● In some cases, both heat and pressure are applied; and in other
cases only pressure is applied, without any external heat.
● In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate
coalescence.
 Welding Process
Advantages of welding:
● Welding provides a permanent joint.
● Welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a
proper filler metal is used that has strength properties better
than that of parent base material and if defect less welding is
done.
● It is the economical way to join components in terms of material
usage and fabrication costs. Other methods of assembly
require, for example, drilling of holes and usage of rivets or
bolts which will produce a heavier structure.
 Welding Process
Disadvantages of welding:
● Labour costs are more since manual welding is done mostly.
● Dangerous to use because of presence of high heat and
pressure.
● Disassembly is not possible as welding produces strong joints.
● Some of the welding defects cannot be identified which will
reduce the strength.
 Classification of Welding Processes
Types of welding: Welding processes can be broadly classified into

(i) fusion welding, and

(ii) solid state welding

 Classification of Welding Processes

Solid State
fusion welding welding
 Fusion Welding
In fusion-welding processes, heat is applied to
melt the base metals. In many fusion welding
processes, a filler metal is added to the molten pool
during welding to facilitate the process and provide
strength to the welded joint.

When no filler metal is used, that fusion welding

operation is referred to as autogenous weld.
 Fusion Welding

Types of fusion welding

1. Arc welding
2. Resistance welding
3. Oxyfuel gas welding
4. electron beam welding
5. laser welding
 Morphology of fusion weld
A typical fusion weld has got few zones like (i) fusion zone, (ii) weld
interface, (iii) heat affected zone, (iv) unaffected base material.
 Morphology of fusion weld
Fusion zone: It consists of a mixture of filler metal and base metal
that have completely melted. A high degree of homogeneity is
present among the component metals that have been melted
during welding.
Weld interface: It is a narrow boundary that separates the fusion
zone from heat affected zone. This zone consists of a thin band of
base metal that was partially melted during the welding process but
immediately solidified without mixing with the metal in the fusion
zone. Its chemical composition is generally same as that of the
base metal.
 Morphology of fusion weld
Heat affected zone: This zone is between weld interface and base
material. This experience temperatures below melting point, but
sufficient enough to change the microstructure and hence the
mechanical properties.
The mechanical properties are such that most of the failures occur
in this region.

Base material: Unaffected because of heat generation and

preserve the initial microstructure.
Arc Welding: Working principle

Arc welding: In this operation, electric arc is used to produce

heat energy and the base metal is heated. Sometimes, both
pressure and heat are applied.
Arc Welding: Working principle
Arc Welding: Working principle
Arc Welding: Electrodes
Electrodes: Two types of electrodes are used: consumable and
non-consumable
Consumable electrodes: Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm
length and less than 10 mm diameter. This is the source of filler rod in arc
welding. The electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process
and added to the weld joint as filler metal. The consumable electrodes will
be changed periodically as it is consumed for each welding trials. This
becomes a disadvantage for welder and reduces the production rate.

Non-Consumable electrodes: The electrodes are not consumed during arc

welding. Though this is the case, some depletion occurs because of
vaporization. Filler metal must be supplied by means of a separate wire
that is fed into the weld pool.
Arc Welding: Arc Shielding
Shielding gas: This covers the arc, electrode tip and weld pool from
external atmosphere. The metals being joined are chemically reactive to
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the atmosphere. So the shielding is
done with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit exposure of the
weld metal to air.
Common shielding gas: Argon, Helium

Flux: Used mainly to protect the weld region from formation of oxides and
other unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and covers the weld region giving protection
and it should be removed by brushing as it is hardened.

Additional function, other than giving protection: stabilize the arc, and
reduce spattering
Arc Welding: Power source & Polarity
Power source in arc welding:
Both AC and DC can be used; DC is advantageous as better arc control is
possible.

Polarity:
Straight polarity in which workpiece is positive and electrode is negative is
suitable for shallow penetration (like in sheets) and joints with wide gaps.

Reverse polarity in which workpiece is negative and electrode is positive

is suitable for deeper welds.
Arc Welding: with consumable electrodes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
● In this process, a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod which is
coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding, is used.
● Generally the filler metal has chemical composition very close to base metal.

● Filler rod coating: Coating consists of powdered cellulose (cotton and wood
powders) mixed with oxides, carbonates, combined using a silicate binder.
● This coating provides protective layer to the weld pool and stabilizes the arc.
● current: < 300 A; Voltage: 15 – 45 V.
● Applications: ship building, construction, machine structures etc.
● Materials: grades of steel, stainless steel etc. are welded. Al, Cu, Ti alloys are
not welding using SMAW.
● Disadvantages: repeated change of electrodes, current maintained in typical
range
Arc Welding: with consumable electrodes

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

Arc Welding: with consumable electrodes
Arc Welding: with consumable electrodes
Arc Welding: with consumable electrodes
Arc Welding: with non-consumable electrodes
Arc Welding: with non-consumable electrodes
Arc Welding: with non-consumable electrodes

Resistance welding: In this operation, electric resistance is

generated to the flow of current that generates heat energy
between two contacting surfaces that are held in pressure.
Gas welding / Oxyfuel gas welding
Gas welding / Oxyfuel gas welding
Gas welding / Oxyfuel gas welding
Gas welding / Oxyfuel gas welding
Other fusion welding processes
Other fusion welding processes
Other fusion welding processes
 Solid State Welding
● In this method, joining is done by coalescence resulting
from application of pressure only or a combination of heat
and pressure.

● Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is

less than the melting point of the metals being welded
(unlike in fusion welding).

● No filler metal is utilized.

 Diffusion Welding
Diffusion welding: Two part surfaces are held together
under pressure at elevated temperature and the parts join by
solid state diffusion.
 Friction Stir Welding
Friction welding/Stir welding: Joining occurs by the heat of
friction and plastic deformation between two surfaces.
 Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between
the two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic
frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting
surfaces
Weld Joints and Types
Weld Joints and types
Soldring and Brazing
 Soldering
● Solder is melted by using heat from an iron connected to a temperature
controller. It is heated up to temperatures beyond its melting point at around
600℉ which then causes it to melt, which then cools creating the soldered
joint.
● As well as creating strong electrical joints solder can also be removed using a
desoldering tool
● Solder is a metal alloy used to create strong permanent bonds; such as
copper joining in circuit boards and copper pipe joints. It can also be supplied
in two different types and diameters, lead and lead free and also can be
between .032” and .062”. Inside the solder core is the flux, a material used to
strengthen and improve its mechanical properties
● Tin, lead, brass or silver are the metals used in solder for soldering joints
 Soldering
● Occasionally at the site of the joint, there are impurities such as oil, dirt or
oxidation, the flux helps prevent oxidation and can sometimes chemically
clean the metal.

● The flux used is rosin flux which helps the mechanical strength and electrical
contact of electrical joints.

● Sometimes it is also possible to apply a ‘wetting agent’ to reduce the surface

tension.
 Brazing
● It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed
by capillary action between the faying (contact) surfaces of the metal
parts being joined.

● Base material does not melt in brazing, only the filler melts.

● In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) above

450°C, but below the melting point (solidus) of base metals to be
joined.
 Brazing
Advantages of Brazing

● Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.

● Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing
● Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable
by welding can be joined by brazing.
● Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically
fabricated with the help of brazing.
● Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or
gas tungsten arc spot or seam welding can be formed by brazing.
 Lecture 21 - 23

Working principles and applications

of machining operations
Turning, Milling, Shaping & Grinding
 Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry
remains
● Most common application: to shape metal parts
● Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all
manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity
of part geometries and geometric features
○ Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks
the precision and accuracy of machining
Machining: Some Machining Operation
 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND
MACHINE TOOLS
● Turning and Related Operations
● Drilling and Related Operations
● Milling
● Machining Centers and Turning Centers
● Other Machining Operations
● High Speed Machining
Turning: Definition
Turning is the process of machining external, or internal cylindrical
and conical surfaces in which the part is rotated as the tool is held
against it on a machine called a lathe.
Mathematically, each surface machined on a lathe is a surface of
revolution.

Lathe is a machine on which

turning operation is performed
Turning: Lathe Machine
Turning: Principle of lathe

It operates on the principle

of a rotating work piece and a
fixed cutting tool. The cutting
tool is feed into the
workpiece which rotates
about its own axis causing
the workpiece to form the
desired shape
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Main parts of Lathe Machine
1. Bed
2. Headstock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Lead screw
6. Leg
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Parts of Lathe
Turning: Tool
Turning: Tool
Turning: Operations on lathe machine
Operation on lathe machine
(a) Straight turning
(b) Taper turning
(c) Profiling
(d) Grooving
(e) Facing
(f) Face grooving
(g) Cutting with form tool
(h) Boring and internal grooving
(i) Drilling
(j) Cutting off
(k) Threading
(l) Knurling
Shaping: Working Principle
Shaping: Working Principle
Shaping: Working Principle
Shaping: Working Principle
Shaping: Parts of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Parts of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Parts of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Parts of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Parts of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Type of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Type of Shaper Machine
Shaping: Type of Shaper Machine
Milling: Working Principle
Milling: Type of Machines
Milling: Type of Machines
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Type of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Construction of Machine
Milling: Cutter
Milling: Cutter
Milling: Classification Cutter
Milling: Classification Cutter
Milling: Cutter
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Milling: Machining Operations
Grinding: Principal
• It’s a metal cutting operation performed by
means of a rotating abrasive wheel that acts
as a cutting tool.
• Used to finish work pieces which must show a
high surface quality, accuracy of shape, and
dimension.
Grinding: Types
Grinding is done on surfaces of almost all conceivable shapes
and materials of all kinds.
May be classified broadly in 2 groups.
• Rough or non-precision grinding
Common form of rough grinding are
a. Snagging(considerable amount of metal is removed
without regard to the accuracy of the finished surface).
b. Off-hand grinding(the work piece is held in the
operators hand.)
• Precision grinding- concerned with producing good surface
finish and high accuracy.
Grinding: Types
• TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES
1. External cylindrical grinding-produces a straight or tapered surface
on a work piece
2. Internal cylindrical grinding-produces internal cylindrical holes and
tapers.
3. Surface grinding-produces flat surface.
4. Form grinding-is done with specially shaped grinding wheels that
grinds the formed surfaces as in grinding gear threads,splined
shafts, holes and spheres.
Grinding: Types
Grinding: Types
Grinding: Types
Grinding: Types
Grinding: Operations
According to the quality of surface finish it may classified as
1- Rough grinders, whose chief work is the removal of stock without any
reference to the accuracy of the results.
(a)Floor stand and bench grinders
(b)Portable and flexible shaft grinders
(c)Swing frame grinders
(d)Abrasive belt grinders
Grinding: Operations
2-Precision grinders, are those that finish parts to a very accurate
dimension.
According to the type of surface generated or work done they may be
classified as follows-
1. Cylindrical grinders
a) Centre-type(plane)
b) Centre-type(universal)
c) Centre-less
2. Internal grinders
a) Chucking(plain)
b) Planetary
c) Centre-less
Grinding: Operations
3-Surface grinders
(a)Reciprocating table
(i)Horizontal spindle
(ii)Vertical spindle
(b)Rotating table
(i)Horizontal spindle
(ii)Vertical spindle
4-Tool and cutter grinders
(a) universal
(b) Special
5-Special grinding machines
Grinding: Principal

• Horizontal spindle and rotating table

• Vertical spindle and rotating table

• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

Grinding: Principal
Grinding:
HorizontalPrincipal
spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

A:rotation of grinding
A wheel
B: reciprocation of
worktable
C D C: transverse feed
D: down feed

B
Grinding: Principal

C
A
Vertical spindle
reciprocating
table surface
grinder
B
Grinding: Principal

Surface grinding in Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface

grinder
Grinding: Principal
D
A
C
Surface grinding in
horizontal spindle
rotary table
surface grinder

B
Grinding: Principal
• Centre-less grinding is a method of grinding exterior
cylindrical , tapered and formed surfaces on work pieces that
are not held and rotated on centre.
• The principal elements of an centre-less grinder are-
1-Grinding wheel
2-Regulating or back up wheel
3-The work rest
Both wheels are rotated in the same direction.
Grinding: Principal
• The work rest is located between the wheels.
• The work rest is placed upon the work rest and the later,
together with the regulating wheel is fed forward, forcing the
work against the grinding wheel.
• The axial movement of the work past the grinding wheel is
obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle from
horizontal.
• An angular adjustment of 0 to 8 or 10 degrees is provided in
the machine for this purpose.
Grinding: Principal
• The actual feed(S) can be calculated by the formula
• S=πdn sinα
S=feed in mm per minute.
n=revolutions per minute.
d=diameter of the regulating wheel in mm.
α=angle of inclination of wheel.
Grinding: Center less grinding

centre-less grinding may be in one of the 3

ways.
• Through feed centre less grinding.
• In feed centre less grinding.
• End feed centre less grinding.
Grinding: Center less grinding
ADVANTAGE
1-As a true floating condition exists during the grinding process, less metal
needs to be removed.
2-There is no tendency for chatter or deflection of the work piece.
3-Small or slender work pieces can de ground easily.
4-No centre holes, no chucking or mounting of the work on mandrels or other
holding devices are required.
5-The process is continued and adapted for production work.
6-The size of the work is easily controlled.
7-A low order of skill is needed in the operation of the machine.
Grinding: Center less grinding
DISADVANTAGE
1-In hollow work there is no certainty that the outside diameter
will be concentric with the inside diameter.
2-Work having multiple diameters is not easily handled.
 Centre-less through feed grinding
Grinding: Center less grinding
A C
B

A: rotation of grinding
wheel
B: workpiece rotation
C: reciprocation of
worktable
Grinding: Center less grinding
Grinding: Center less grinding
Grinding: Center less grinding
• Through feed Centre less Grinding

• There is no need for having and maintaining centres and centre holes.

• Work pieces can be loaded and unloaded from the machine rapidly.

• Backing up the work piece by the regulating wheel and work rest blade
practically eliminates any deflection of the workpiece.

• Minimum wear is observed in view of the large grinding wheels used

• Work pieces may often be loaded into the machine by the automatic
feeding devices.
 The grinding
Grinding: Wheel wheel
• A grinding wheel is a multi point cutting tool with a cutting action similar
to that of a milling cutter except that the cutting points are irregularly
shaped and randomly distributed over the active face of the wheel.
• Every grinding wheel has 2 constituents-
• ABRASIVE that does the cutting
• BOND that holds the abrasive grains.
• A grinding wheel consists of a large number of abrasive particle called
grains, held together by a suitable agent called the bond.
 Classification
Grinding: Principalof grinding wheels
• Grinding wheels are classified according to their:-
1- Size and shape
2- Type of abrasive used
3- Grain size
4- Type of bond
5- Grade or hardness
6- Structure
 (1)grindingWheel
Grinding: wheel-size and shape

• The size of a grinding wheel is given in terms of

-its outside diameter.
-the diameter of the spindle hole.
-the width of the face.
The shapes of the wheel should be such that it permits proper
contact between the wheel and all of the surface that must be
ground.
Grinding: Wheel
Grinding: Wheel
Grinding: Wheel
• An abrasive is a hard and tough substance.
• It has many sharp edges.
• Abrasive grains possess the following properties:
(a)Penetration hardness-ability of the abrasive to scratch or cut
a softer material.
(b)Fracture resistance-ability of the abrasive to resist breaking or
cracking under load.
(c)Wear resistance-Ability of the abrasive grain to maintain
sharpness.
Grinding: Wheel
• Abrasives are of the following types-
(a)Natural
(i)Sand stone
(ii)Emery(50-60%crystalline AL2O3+iron oxide)
(iii)Corundum(75-90% crystalline aluminium oxide+iron oxide)
(iv)Diamond
(v)Garnet
(b)Synthetic
(i)Silicon carbide(sic)
(ii) Aluminium oxide
(iii)Boron carbide
(iv)Cubic boron nitride
 GrainWheel
Grinding: size or grit size
• After manufacture, the abrasive material is reduced to small particle by
the action of roll or jaw crushers.
• Standardized sizing of grits or grains is a accomplished by sorting or
grading the material as it passes through screens.
• Screen mesh sizes range from 4 to as small as 1000 grits or even finer are
classified as follows-
Grinding: Wheel
Coarse:10,12,14,16,20,24
Medium:30,36,46,54,60
Fine:70,80,90,100,120,150,180
Very fine:220,240,280,320,400,500,600,….
The grain size selection depends upon the type of materials to be ground,
the finish desired and the amount of metal to be removed.
Coarse grain wheels are used for rapid removal of metal on softer
materials.
Fine grain wheels are used on small diameter work to produce small fillets
or for are also fine finishes. Fine wheels are preferred for grinding hard
materials.
 4-TypeWheel
Grinding: of bond
• A bond is an abrasive substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains
together in the form of sharpening or grinding wheels. Bond is the
substance which imparts the quality of hardness or softness to grinding
wheel.
• Several types of bonding materials used for making grinding wheels,
1-Vitrified bond
2-Silicate bond
3-Shellac bond
4-Resinoid bond
5-Rubber bond
6-Oxychloride bond
 Standard marking
Grinding: Wheelsystem for grinding wheels
• The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels has
been prepaired with a view to establishing a uniform system
of marking of grinding wheels to designate their various
characteristics to give a general indication of hardness and grit
size of any wheel as compared with another.
• Each marking shall consist of the seven symbols, denoting the
following in succession as shown in figure.
Grinding: Wheel
1-Manufacturer’s symbol indicating exact nature of abrasive.
2-Type of abrasive.
3-Grain size.
4-Grade.
5-Structure.
6-Type of bond.
7-Manufacturer’s own wheel identification mark.
Grinding: Wheel
 Selection
Grinding: of grinding wheels
Wheel
• The proper selection of a grinding wheel is very important to
achieve optimum grinding efficiency.
• As per Indian standard, the following factors may serve as a guide
for wheel selection.
1)CONSTANT FACTORS
(a)Material to be ground
(b)Amount of stock to be removed and finish required.
(c)Area of contact
(d)Type of grinding machine.
Grinding: Wheel
2)VARIABLE FACTORS
(a)Wheel speed
(b)Work speed
(c)Condition of the machine-capacity and rigidity
(d)Personal factor
3)Severity of grinding operation.
4)Type of bond to be used.
5)Abrasive grain size, grade and structure.
6)Whether grinding is wet or dry.
Grinding:
WheelWheel
balancing
• In view of the high rotational speeds used, any residual unbalance left
would be harmful for the machine part and also produces poor surface
finish.

• Static balancing

• Dynamic balancing
 Glazing
Grinding: and loading in wheels
Wheel
• After use, the wheel becomes DULL or GLAZED.
• Glazing of the wheel is a condition in which the face or cutting edge
takes a glass-like appearance. that is, the cutting points of the
abrasives have become dull or worn down to the bond. Continued
work with a wheel that glazes increases the smoothness of the
wheel face and decreases its cutting capacity.
• Glazing takes place when a wheel is too hard or revolves at too fast
a speed.
• The remedy for glazing is to decrease the speed or to use a softer
wheel.
Grinding: Wheel
• The wheel may also become “loaded“ the cutting face of a loaded wheel
has particles of the metal being ground adhering to it, the openings or
pores of the wheel face having been filled up with metal, thus preventing
the wheel from cutting freely.
• Loading may be caused by grinding a soft material or by using a wheel of
too hard a bond and running it too slowly.
• It may also be caused by taking cuts that are too deep and by not using the
right cutting fluid.
• The remedy for loading is to increase the speed of the wheel or use a
softer wheel.
 Dressing
Grinding: and truing
Wheel

• A simple dressing is done by means of small steel

disks, which are free to rotate at the end of a stick.

• To obtain a true surface of the grind wheel in

terms of either the form or concentricity can be
achieved with the help of a diamond dressing tool.
Grinding: Wheel
 Lecture 24-25
Automation in Manufacturing
TOPICS COVERED IN THIS LECTURE

❏ Definition of Automation
❏ Type of Automation
Automation Manufacturing System
Fixed Automation
Programmable Automation
Flexible Automation
Computerized Manufacturing System
❏ Reasons for Automation
❏ Automation Principles and Strategies
USA Principals
Ten Strategies for Automation
Definition of Automation

What is Automation ?
Automation is defined as the technology
concerned with the application of mechanical,
electronics/ electrical and computer-based
system to operate and control the production and
manufacturing system.

Before, we start with automation we have to

understand manufacturing and production.

Definition of Automation Cont...

● The word manufacturing is derived from Latin manufactus, means made

by hand.
● Manufacturing now involves making products from raw materials by
using various kinds of machines to carry out a variety of operations in
a well organized and coordinated manner.
● Manufacturing is the process of conversion of raw materials into final
products.
● Here product means something that is produced to satisfy human
needs.
Definition of Automation Cont...
Definition of Automation Cont...

There is often confusion about the use of word Production and Manufacturing
Production refers to the transformation processes by which goods and products
and services are created.
Eg. : Factories, Hospitals, Offices, Educational Institutions etc.
Manufacturing refers to only the technological transformation processes by which
useful goods or products are created.
Eg. : Fabrication, Building construction and Chemical Processing
Definition of Automation Cont...

Importance of Automation in Industry

❏ Today’s customers are demanding more variety and higher levels of flexibility
in the products. Due to these demands and competition in the market,
manufacturers are thriving to launch new/modified products to survive. It is
reducing the product life as well as lead-time to manufacture a product. It is
therefore essential to automate the manufacturing and assembly operations
of a product.
Definition of Automation Cont...

❏ There are various activities

involved in the product
manufacturing process.
These are shown in figure.
❏ These activities can be
classified into two groups
viz. design and
manufacturing activities.
Definition of Automation Cont...
❏ Automation in any system concurrently employs the disciplines of mechanical,
electrical, control and computer engineering at the stage of design itself.
❏ Mechanical discipline is employed in terms of various machines and
mechanisms, where as electrical engineering as various electric prime
movers viz. AC/DC, servo motors and other systems is used.
❏ Control engineering helps in the development of various electronics-based
control systems to enhance or replace the mechanics of the mechanical
systems.
Definition of Automation Cont...
❏ Computers are widely used to write various softwares to control the control
systems; product design and development activities; materials and
manufacturing resource planning, record keeping, market survey, and other
sales related activities.
❏ Using computer aided design (CAD) / computer aided analysis (CAE) tools,
three-dimensional models of products can easily be developed.
❏ These models can then be analyzed and can be simulated to study their
performances using numerical tools.
❏ These numerical tools are being continuously updated or enriched with the
real-life performances of the similar kind of products.
Definition of Automation Cont...
❏ Automation in the machine tools has reduced the human intervention in the
machining operation and improved the process efficiency and product quality.
Therefore it is important to study the principles of mechatronics and to learn
how to apply them in the automation of a manufacturing system.
❏ Automation based systems in manufacturing automatic process planning,
automatic part programming, manufacturing resource planning, etc.
❏ Automated systems in other production line such as automatic inspection and
quality assurance, automatic packaging, record making, and automatic dispatch.
Opportunities of Automation and Computerization in a Production System

Facilities: The facilities of the production system consist of the factory, the
equipment in the factory and the way the equipment is organized

Manufacturing Support System: This

is the set of procedures used by the
company to manage production and to
solve the technical and logistics
problems encountered in ordering
materials, moving work through the
factory and ensuring that products meet
quality standards.
Types of Automation

The elements of automation in the production systems can be classified into

two categories:

❏ Automation of Manufacturing System in the factory

❏ Computerization of the Manufacturing support system

Automated Manufacturing System

❏ Automated manufacturing systems operates in the factory on the physical

product.
❏ They perform operation such as Processing, Assembly, Inspection and
Material Handling
❏ They are called automated because they perform their operations with a
reduced level of human participation compared with the corresponding
manual process
Computerization of the Manufacturing Support System
The aim of computerization of the manufacturing support system is to reduce the
manual and clerical effort in
● Product Design
● Manufacturing Planning and control
● The business functions, etc.

Manufacturing Support Application are the

indirect applications in which the computer is
used in support of production operations in
the plant, but there is no direct interface
between the computer and the
manufacturing process.
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...
Assignment
Question 1: Study the product life cycle diagram and elaborate the various design
and manufacturing activities for a product: four-wheel automobile (a passenger
car) or a mobile cell phone.

Question 2: Identify a automation system being used by you in your daily routine.
Analyze its elements and state its importance in the functioning of that system.
Automated Manufacturing System

❏ Automated manufacturing systems operates in the factory on the physical

product.
❏ They perform operation such as Processing, Assembly, Inspection and
Material Handling
❏ They are called automated because they perform their operations with a
reduced level of human participation compared with the corresponding
manual process
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...
Examples of Automated Manufacturing Systems: Automatic Machine Tools
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Automatic Transfer line

Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Automated Assembly Line

Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Robots to Perform Processing

Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Automated Material Handling

Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Automated Inspection System

Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

AMS can be classified into three basic types

❖ Fixed Automation

❖ Programmable Automation

❖ Flexible Automation
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...
Fixed Automation
Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly)
operations is fixed by the equipment configuration
Features of Fixed Automation
● High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
● High Production rate
● Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety
Examples of Fixed Automation
● Machining Transfer Lines
● Automated Assembly Lines
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...
Programmable Automation
In programmable automation, the operation sequence is controlled by a program,
which is the set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the
system.
Features of Programmable Automation
● High initial investment in general purpose equipment
● Lower production rates than fixed automation
● Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration
● Most suitable for batch production
Examples of Programmable Automation
Numerical Controlled Machines, Industrial Robots, Programmable Logical Controllers.
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...

Flexible Automation
Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible
automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts with virtually no time
lost for changeovers from one part style to the next.
Features of Flexible Automation
● High initial investment.
● Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.
● Flexibility to deal with product design variations.
● Medium production rates.
Automated Manufacturing System Cont...
Computerization of the Manufacturing Support System
The aim of computerization of the manufacturing support system is to reduce the
manual and clerical effort in
● Product Design
● Manufacturing Planning and control
● The business functions, etc.

Manufacturing Support Application are the

indirect applications in which the computer is
used in support of production operations in
the plant, but there is no direct interface
between the computer and the
manufacturing process.
Computerization of the Manufacturing Support System Cont...

The use of computer in manufacturing system is:

❏ Design the Product (CAD)

❏ Control the Operations (CAM)

❏ Plan the Production (CAPP)

❏ Perform the various business related functions (MIS)

Computerization of the Manufacturing Support System Cont...
Computer Aided Design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer system to
assist in the creation, modification, analysis or optimization of design.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer software to
control machine tool and related machinery in the manufacturing of workpiece.
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is used to determine when to order
the raw materials and purchased components and how many should be ordered to
achieve the production schedule.
Management Information System (MIS) is a computerized database of financial
information organized and programmed in such a way that it produces regular
reports on operations for every level of management in a company.
Reasons for Implementing Automation in Industries

❏ To increase the labor productivity

❏ To reduce the labor cost
❏ To migrate the effect of labor shortages.
❏ To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks
❏ To improve worker safety
❏ To improve the product quality
❏ To reduce manufacturing lead time
❏ To accomplish processes that can not be done manually
❏ To avoid the high cost of not automating
Automation Principles and Strategies

For dealing with the automation projects there are two approaches
❏ USA principals
❏ Ten Strategies for automation and production system
USA Principles: The USA principle is a common sense approach to automation
projects
Understand the existing process
Simplify the process

Automate the process

USA Principles cont...

Understand the existing process

What are the inputs?
What are the outputs?
What exactly happens to the work unit between input and output?
What is the function of the process?
What are the upstream and downstream operations in the production sequence,
and can they be combined with the process under consideration?
USA Principles cont...

Simplify the process

Once the existing process is understood, then the search can begins for ways to
simplify.

Automate the process

Once the process has been reduced to its simplest from, then automation can be
considered.
Ten Strategies
1.Specialization of operations
2.Combined operations
3.Simultaneous operations
4.Integration of operations
5.Increased flexibility
6.Improved Material Handling and Storage
7.Online Inspection
8.Process Control and Optimization
9.Plant Operations Control
10.Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Assignment
Case study 1 Visit to your nearby tool room or CNC work shop and prepare a
case study on a real life example on tool wear monitoring system employed in the
same.

Case study 2 Differentiate between an FMS and a CIM system. Prepare a report
on how automation can enhance the productivity of a mold-making tool room to
cater the changing customer demands in terms of shape, size and quality of
molds.