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MECHANICS: LABORATORY

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UNIT
,

Measurements and Error Analysis 5

UNIT ,,
Graphing 23

EXPERIMENT 1

Measurement
of Length 30

EXPERIMENT
2

Determination of Moment of Inertia of a Fly Wheel about its Axis of Rotation 44

EXPERIMENT 3
Determination of Young’s Modulus by Bending of Beams 51

EXPERIMENT 4

Determination of the Modulus of Rigidity of a Wire using Maxwell’s Needle 65
EXPERIMENT 5
Determination of Elastic Constants of a Wire by Searle’s Method 72
EXPERIMENT 6
Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity using Bar Pendulum 80
EXPERIMENT 7
Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity by Kater’s Pendulum 89
EXPERIMENT 8
Study of the Motion of a Spring-Mass System: Determination of
Spring Constant and Acceleration due to Gravity 96
EXPERIMENT 9
Determination of Frequency of Tuning Fork using Sonometer 103
EXPERIMENT 10
Study of Lissajous Figures using a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 114
Course Design Committee
Prof. A.K. Ghatak (Retd.) Dr. Pragati Ashdheer Prof. Shubha Gokhale
IIT, Delhi Deptt. of Physics, School of Sciences
Hindu College, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Suresh Garg (Retd.) University of Delhi, Delhi
School of Sciences Dr. Sanjay Gupta
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Vijayshri School of Sciences
School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Naresh Kumar (Retd.) IGNOU, New Delhi
Deptt. of Physics, Dr. Subhalakshmi Lamba
Hindu College, University of Delhi, Prof. Sudip R. Jha School of Sciences
Delhi School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Block Preparation Team

Prof. Suresh Garg (Expt. 4, 5) Dr. Sanjay Gupta
Vice Chancellor (Unit ,, Expts. 2, 3, 6, 8, 9)
Usha Martin University School of Sciences
Ranchi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shubha Gokhale (Unit ,,, & Expts. 1, 7, 10)
School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators: Prof. Shubha Gokhale and Dr. Sanjay Gupta
Print Production
Sh. Sunil Kumar
A.R. (P), IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Mr. Gopal Arora for word processing.
August, 2019 (edition)
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-89499-94-0
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for educational
purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
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MECHANICS: LABORATORY – INTRODUCTION

In this laboratory course on Mechanics you will be performing various experiments related to
basic physics concepts you are learning in the theory course on Mechanics. We have
included some experiments on determination of acceleration due to gravity and certain
material properties like elastic constants of a wire, spring constant of a spring-mass system.
You will also be performing some experiments based on oscillations and waves. Besides
this, we have included two units on taking measurements, performing error analysis and
plotting the data using proper graphing techniques. Our focus is on training you to master the
skill of making precise measurements on fundamental quantities – length, mass and time –
and to inculcate the ability to analyze obtained data and understand the physical significance
of obtained results.
While taking measurements with different instruments and analysing data you should be
aware of the possible sources of error as well as how to correctly record and make
calculations taking into consideration the concept of significant figures. So, to give you a feel
for these aspects of experimentation, we have discussed the importance of error analysis
and method of writing the result with correct number of significant figures in Unit-,. Many a
times the analysis of experimental data is simpler if we represent it on proper graphs. Thus in
Unit-,, we have discussed best practices in graph plotting and making use of appropriate
graph formats like linear plots, semi-log plots and log-log plots.
While performing an experiment, it is very important to make right choice of the instruments
in order to get best possible results. An important consideration in selecting a particular
instrument is its ability to measure with the desired level of precision. The least count of an
instrument is one such parameter that plays a vital role in determining the precision of your
measurement. To illustrate the importance of this parameter in a measurement we have
included length measurement using various instruments like vernier callipers, screw gauge
and a travelling microscope in Experiment 1 of this course. In this experiment, you will also
be able to apply the corrections for the systematic errors caused during the measurements
as explained in Unit-,and arrive at more accurate results
In Experiment 2 you will use fly wheel to obtain the moment of inertia of a rotating body. In
the next three experiments you will learn to determine various elastic constants of a material
using different techniques. Young’s Modulus is one of the most important mechanical
properties of solids, particularly for building bridges and erecting columns in high rise
buildings. In Experiment 3, you will learn to determine the Young’s Modulus of a material by
using the method of bending of beams. The depression in the beam can be measured by a
microscope as well as an optical lever arrangement. In this experiment, while measuring
lengths using optical instruments, you will also learn to remove parallax and take correct
measurements. In Experiment 4 you will learn to use Maxwell’s needle to determine the
modulus of rigidity of a wire. It essentially uses dynamical method where time periods of the
oscillating needle are measured under different configurations. Apart from these two moduli,
there are two other elastic constants: Bulk modulus and Poisson ratio. In Experiment 5 you
will use Searle’s apparatus to determine all the four elastic constants.
In the following two experiments (Experiments 6 and 7), you will use the simple harmonic
motion performed by a homogeneous mass distributed system (bar pendulum) and
asymmetric mass distributed system (Kater’s pendulum) to determine the acceleration due to
gravity.
3

Springs have many uses in our daily life. In Experiment 8, you will calculate the spring
constant of a spring in two different ways: 6WDWLF0HWKRG, where we determine extension as a
function of load and '\QDPLF0HWKRG, where we measure the period of harmonic oscillations
of a spring-mass system.
We all know that life without music would have been less enjoyable. As a student of physics,
you would like to know as to how musical instruments likeVLWDU, violin, guitar and HNWDUD
generate music and what factors determine its quality. In Experiment 9 you will study the
dependence of frequency of vibrations of a stretched string on applied tension, its mass per
unit length and its vibrating length. You will also establish the relation between frequency and
wavelength for waves generated on a stretched wire.
In the last experiment (Experiment 10) of this laboratory course you will be studying the
Lissajous figures generated by superposition of two mutually perpendicular sinusoidal waves.
By studying the shapes of these figures, you will be able to determine the phase relation
between the two waves. You will also be able to obtain the frequency relation between two
different frequency waves by studying the Lissajous figures generated by them. In this
experiment you will have an opportunity to use the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), which
is a very commonly used electronic instrument in electronics laboratories. You will also get
an opportunity to build small electronic circuits to generate waves with phase difference.
The purpose of including these experiments in this laboratory course is to start from a
familiar situation and give you experience of planning the experiments with increasing levels
of sophistication. The basic purpose of this laboratory course is to inculcate the art of setting
up the apparatus, taking measurements, making simple calculations and analysing the
results. Moreover, you will appreciate that a lot of good physics can be understood with
simple experiments and activities.
We hope that you will have enjoyable experience in the laboratory.

4

Unit , Measurements and Error Analysis
UNIT ,

MEASUREMENTS AND
ERROR ANALYSIS
Structure

,.1 Introduction ,.5 Estimating the Magnitude of
Expected Learning Outcomes Error
,.2 Errors in Measurements ,.6 Propagation of Errors

Probable Error and Precision Error Propagation in Basic
Operations
Relative Error and Accuracy
Error Propagation in Angular
,.3 Reporting Results Measurements
Scientific Notations Error Propagation due to
Significant Digits Exponent of a Measured Quantity
,.4 Types of Errors ,.7 Summary
Systematic Errors ,.8 Terminal Questions
Random Errors ,.9 Solutions and Answers

,.1 INTRODUCTION
As a student of science, you may have done experiments in your school laboratory. You
know that many kinds of instruments are used to measure physical quantities. When we
measure various physical quantities, it is very important to understand the correct way to
make measurements and obtain correct readings. It is also a fact that even the best of the
measuring instruments do not yield the true values of the quantities being measured. This is
because of their limited accuracy and precision.
We express these measurements as approximate numbers such as 3.2 cm or 3.20 cm. Do

you know why we use numbers upto different decimal places and what distinguishes them?
While doing computations with these numbers special care is required. For example, the
ratio of two measurements such as 32.1/12 is expressed as 2.7 rather than 2.68 or 2.675. Do
you know the reason? The number of digits used in a measurement carry some significance
regarding the quality of measuring instrument.
In this laboratory course, you will handle various instruments to make measurements. So, it
is a good idea to learn some basic concepts related to any measurement. In this unit, 5
BPHCL-132 Mechanics: Laboratory
you will learn the meaning and usage of measured numbers, with particular
reference to precision and accuracy of the experimental result. It is also
important to report your measurements in appropriate manner. So in the first
two sections (Sec. ,.2 and ,.3) of this unit, you will learn the meaning of
precision, accuracy and about reporting the results in scientific notation with
significant digits.
You also know that every measuring device has a least count, which tells us of
its ability to measure a physical quantity up to a particular accuracy. It means
that the number obtained as a result of (a series of) measurement(s) cannot
be said to be ‘exact’ or ‘true’. Further, there can be defects in measuring
instruments and even a very careful experimentalist is susceptible to certain
personal errors. Both these factors give rise to experimental error.
The uncertainty in any number obtained from a measurement constitutes what

is referred to as error. It is important to note that within an experiment, the
error accumulates in different measurements. Therefore, in Sec. ,.4, you will
learn about the types and sources of errors. You will also learn how to
estimate and possibly eliminate or minimise and account for such errors. In
most physics experiments, our objective is to determine the relationship
among physical quantities. We carry out calculations using the observed
readings in appropriate formulae. In Sec. ,.5 we discuss about the propagation
of error during such calculations.
In this laboratory course, you will first perform length measurements and then
do experiments involving two or more physical quantities.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain why measurements result in approximate numbers;
distinguish between precision and accuracy;
report a measurement in scientific notations with correct number of
significant digits;
identify the sources of error; and
distinguish between random errors and systematic errors.
,.2 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

Firstly, an error may be caused due to a defect in the measuring instrument
itself, such as the zero error. Secondly, an error could be due to limitations of
human judgement and perception, such as in aligning the end of a rod to be
measured with the zero of the scale, or parallax in reading a value. To enable
you to better appreciate the inexact nature of measurement, let us consider
length measurement. Let us assume that we have a ‘perfect’ centimetre scale
which has clear and equal markings of millimetres. We wish to measure the
length of three arrows A, B and C shown in Fig. ,.1 using this scale. Let us
suppose that we are able to perfectly align the tails of the arrows with zero
marking on the scale. (This is impossible to achieve in practice. But let us
6

begin by considering an ideal situation to understand the process of
measurement.)

Fig. ,.1: The length of all the three (unequal) arrows A, B and C is reported as
4.3 cm. The shaded portion on the scale represents the range of error in
this measurement. (The scale is highly magnified.)
To measure the length of the arrows, we look at the arrow heads. The head of
arrow A is closer to the 4.3 cm mark than to the 4.2 cm mark. We will report
the length of arrow A as 4.3 cm to the nearest millimetre. Let us now measure
the length of arrow B. The head of arrow B is closer to 4.3 cm mark than to
4.4 cm mark. Therefore, we will report its length also as 4.3 cm. Similarly the
length of arrow C would be reported as 4.3 cm. Thus the lengths of all arrows,
though different, will be reported as 4.3 cm.
We can conclude that a measurement which is reported as 4.3 cm (which is in

the middle of R1 and R2) might possibly be in error by 0.05 cm (or one-half of
the unit of measure, which is 0.1 cm in this case) or less. It means that in the
measurement 4.3 cm, the last digit, 3 is in error. We can generalise this result:
no measurement can ever be exact; there will always be deviation from the
true value due to the limited accuracy of the measuring device/instrument. The
inaccuracy is reflected in the last digit.
,.2.1 Probable Error and Precision

We have seen that the maximum error, barring a human error in a
measurement, is half of the unit of measurement. The probable (or possible)
error is thus due to inherent imprecision in measuring devices called least
count of the instrument. Measurements having less probable error are more
precise. Since probable error is proportional to the smallest unit of
measure the instrument can measure (least count), the instrument
having smaller least count gives more precise measurement. A
measurement reported to one-hundredth of a centimetre, such as 5.32 cm is
more precise than a measurement reported to one-tenth of a centimetre, such
as 5.3 cm.
The probable error is half of the unit of measurement.
To be able to determine the precision of any measurement, you may like to

attempt an SAQ.
7
SAQ 1 – Precision in measurement
Consider the following pairs of measurement. Indicate which measurement in

each pair is more precise:
a) 17.9 cm or 19.87 cm
b) 16.5 s or 3.21 s
c) 20.56 qC or 32.22 qC
,.2.2 Relative Error and Accuracy

So far we have considered measurement of nearly equal lengths with
emphasis on precision. Let us now consider measurement of far
different lengths. Suppose that two measurements yield 3.2 cm and
98.6 cm using the same metre stick. The probable error in both these
measurements is equal to 0.05 cm. But the measurement 98.6 cm is
bigger than measurement 3.2 cm. Would you say that the 98.6 cm is
more accurate? Again, let us consider measurement of time in
seconds. How do the measurements 7.4 s and 98 s compare in terms
of accuracy? You must have noticed that, the probable error in
measuring 7.4 s is 0.05 s, whereas for 98 s, it is 0.5 s. To compare
such measurements, we introduce the term relative error, which is
defined as the ratio of probable error to the total measurement.
Probable Error
Relative Error
Total Measuremen t
In Table ,.1, we have calculated relative error in a few typical measurements.

The exact method of expressing the relative error will be discussed in
section ,.5.
Table ,.1: Calculation of relative error
Measurement Unit of measure Probable error Relative error
3.2 cm 0.1 cm 0.05 cm 0.02

98.6 cm 0.1 cm 0.05 cm 0.0005
7.4 s 0.1s 0.05 s 0.007

98 s 1s 0.5 s 0.005
Note that in the measurement of 3.2 cm and 98.6 cm, the unit of measure is
the same and we say that both measurements are equally precise. But the
relative error is less in the larger measurement (0.0005 compared to 0.02) and
it is said to be more accurate.
Comparison of measurement 7.4 s and 98 s is more revealing. The

measurement 7.4 s is more precise than the measurement 98 s (possible
8

errors 0.05 s and 0.5 s, respectively) but less accurate (relative error 0.007 as
compared to 0.005).
You will therefore appreciate that a smaller measurement needs to be more

precise for the same accuracy. This is why when measuring the dimensions
of a room, metre is used as unit of measurement, while in measuring inter-city
distances, the unit kilometre is used for the same accuracy.
Now try to ascertain the accuracy in the given pair of measurements in the
following SAQ.
SAQ 2 – Accuracy in measurement
Consider the following pairs of measurements. Indicate which measurement

in each pair is more accurate:
a) 40.0 cm or 8.0 cm
b) 0.85 m or 0.05 m
Note that in a measurement, errors can be introduced by

x the measuring instrument due to its inherent imprecision;
x limitations of an experimentalist; and
x external conditions.
After understanding the difference between precision and accuracy in

measurements based on probable and relative errors, we will now discuss
about reporting the observations (readings) taken by you in scientific way.
,.3 REPORTING RESULTS

, .3.1 Scientific Notations
In the scientific notations (SI system of measurement), a measurement is
expressed in decimal numerals. You may recall that in inter-atomic distances,
very small numbers are obtained, whereas in measuring interstellar distances,
we have to deal with very large numbers. In scientific notation, these numbers
are written as a number between one and ten using a decimal point notation
and then multiplied by an integral power of ten. For example, the diameter of
the sun is 1,390,000,000 metre and the diameter of hydrogen atom is only
0.000000000106 metre. In scientific notation, we write the diameter of the sun
as 1.39 u 109 m and the diameter of the hydrogen atom as 1.06 u 1010 m.
SAQ 3 – Expressing results in scientific notation

Express the mass of a water molecule, 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 03g, in
scientific notation.
You will appreciate that writing numbers in scientific notation makes

representation more convenient. Moreover, calculations become easier
because we can apply the laws of exponents readily.
9
,.3.2 Significant Digits

In Sec. ,.2.1, you have learnt that a measurement reported as 5.32 cm is more
precise than that reported as 5.3 cm. The number of digits in these
measurements is three and two, respectively. This suggests that the number
of digits used in reporting a measurement have some significance. Whenever
you report any measurement, it is important to express it in “correct” number of
significant digits. For example, suppose that you are measuring time with a
stop watch with least count 0.1 s and reporting readings by taking average of
(say) three events. If the time measurements are 5.5s, 5.7s, 6.0s respectively;
then the average is 5.733s. Note that these measurements have two
significant digits; so you will report the result as 5.7s with two significant digits.
There are certain rules for counting the significant digits. We now state these
with some examples.
x All zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant. The
measurement 107.005 m has six significant digits, whether it is written as
0.107005 km or 10700.5 cm.
x All zeros appearing on the immediate right of a decimal point, i.e. in front of
non-zero digits are not significant, when there is no non-zero digit on the
left of the decimal. Thus, 0.003 kg has one significant digit, as does 0.7s.
However, 0.103 m has three significant digits and so does 0.00783 m.
x All zeros following a non-zero number and to the right of the decimal point
are significant. The measurement 47.000 m has five significant digits while
700.000 kg has six significant digits.
You may now like to answer an SAQ.
SAQ 4 – Significant figures
Complete the Table ,.2 and answer the following questions:
Table ,.2
Sl. Measurement No. of Unit of Probable Relative

No. (m) Significant Measurement error error
Digits (m) (m)
1. 0.2 1 0.1 0.05 0.05m

0.25
0.2
0.2m
2. 0.20 2 0.01
3. 0.2000
4. 25
5. 250
6. 25000
7. 102
8. 1002
a) Is there a significance of ‘trailing’ zeros in the first three measurements?

10

b) What about the significance of the zeros in the fifth and sixth
measurement?
c) What is the significance of zeros between non-zero digits in the seventh

and eighth measurements?
After solving SAQ 4, you must have realised that any number is significant,
when it affects the relative error. That is the measurement with more number
of significant digits have greater accuracy.
Sometimes we take a sequence of whole number measurements such as 32,

30, 28, 26. All these measurements have two non-zero significant digits,
except the measurement 30. In such special cases, zero is also significant
without any ambiguity.
Now you have understood that errors in measurements can crop up due to
various reasons. In the next section you will learn about different types of
errors.
,.4 TYPES OF ERRORS

So far you have learnt that errors can arise due to limitations of measuring
instruments as they cannot measure smaller than their least count. For
instance, a metre scale cannot measure less than 0.1 cm, a vernier callipers
measures a minimum length of 0.01 cm and a screw gauge cannot measure
distances less than 0.001 cm. Similarly, a thermometer can measure
temperature to a precision of half a degree Celsius. When measuring angles, a
simple protractor measures to a precision of one degree, but when a vernier is
attached to the protractor, as in a spectrometer, we can measure angles more
precisely, up to 30s.
In addition to the limitations listed above, which are inherent in the measuring
device, other sources of error could be (i) changes in environment, (ii) faulty
observation techniques, (iii) malfunctioning of measuring devices, etc.
The errors in any measurement can be classified in two broad categories:

Systematic Errors and Random Errors. Let us now learn about these in detail.
,.4.1 Systematic Errors

Systematic errors arise mostly due to the instruments used in the
measurement. They are also called ‘determinable’ errors and arise due to
identifiable causes. For this reason, these can, in principle, be eliminated or
corrected. These errors result in measured values being either consistently
high or low from the true value. You will typically encounter the systematic
errors in the form of following instrumental errors:
x Zero Error arises due to wear and tear caused by extensive use. The zero
of the vernier scale may not coincide with the zero of the main scale when
the jaws are put in contact. The magnitude and nature (positive or
negative) of the zero error can be easily determined and corrected. In case
of positive zero error, the zero of the vernier scale is on the right of the
11
zero of main scale and opposite is the case for negative zero error. So, for
positive zero error, we subtract (and add in case of negative zero error) the
value of error from the measured value.
x Backlash Error in a screw gauge, a travelling microscope or a
spherometer can arise due to wear and tear of a rotating part or defective
fitting in the instrument. In this case, a forward or backward rotation may
not produce the same result. This is minimised by rotating the screw head
of the measuring device in only one direction from the initial to the final
point of measurement.
x End Correction arises when the edge (zero marking) of a scale is not
distinctly visible due to wear out. This leads to an error if one tries to keep
the zero of the scale at the starting point. This can be eliminated easily by
shifting the reference point of the scale to a definite and distinct point (say,
1 cm mark).
x Errors due to changes in a physical quantity can take place during the
course of the experiment. For example, the resistance in electrical circuits
can change due to the heat generated on passing current through it. This
leads to errors that are generally difficult to calculate or compensate for.
However, this can be avoided to some extent by allowing the current to
flow in the circuit only when observations are being taken.
x Defective or improper calibration in instruments such as ammeter or
When an observer
experiences relative
voltmeter leads to errors in the measurement. In this case, there will be a
movement of an object constant difference between measured and true values. This arises due to
and its image, there manufacturing defect. The best option in such a situation is to calibrate the
exists a parallax between
instrument against a standard equipment.
them.
x Faulty observation can also arise due to parallax. To minimise error due
to parallax, you should note the reading along the line, which is normal to
both, the scale and the edge of the table on which scale is placed.
,.4.2 Random Errors

You must have noticed that if the same measurement is repeated for the same
quantity, you may get different readings with a scatter of values distributed
about some mean value. These are called random errors and can arise due
to accidental errors in the measurement process. The sources of random
errors cannot always be identified. However we list a few possible sources.
x The observational random errors arise due to error of judgment of the
observer while reading the smallest division in the scale (like the
coincident vernier division with the main scale division). To minimise
observational random errors, you should always take more readings and
calculate their mean or draw the best fit graph as explained in Sec. ,,.2.1
in the next unit.
If the values obtained in several measurements are x1, x2, x3, …, xN, the
average value is determined by adding all the values and dividing their
sum by the total number of observations:
x1 x 2 x3 ... xN
x (,.1)
N
12

x The environmental random errors can arise due to unpredictable
fluctuations in line voltage, sudden changes in temperature or mechanical
vibrations, etc. There could also be a random spread of readings due to
wear and tear or friction of mechanical part(s) of the system.
In the following SAQ you will classify some errors.
SAQ 5 – Classification of errors

Classify the following according to the type of error involved by putting a tick
in the appropriate column:
Sl. Measurement Type of Error

No. Systematic Random
i) A time interval measured using a
stop watch that is running slow
ii) The length of a piece of steel rod is
measured by several students in a
laboratory
iii) A steel scale expands on a hot day
to give a short reading of length
iv) The needle of a voltmeter is bent
such that it does not rest on zero
v) The number of nuclear particles
emitted per second by a sample of
radioactive element
When inexact values are used in a calculation, some error or uncertainty in the
result is inevitable. The quality of a measurement and reliability of the result so
obtained are determined by the magnitude of the estimated error. In scientific
work, it is customary to quote a result along with associated error in
measurement (with proper units) and upto the same order of magnitude.
We express the result of any measurement in a standard form along

with error using the following rules:
1) The error is stated up to one significant digit only.
2) The measurement is rounded off to the same order of accuracy
as the error.
3) The result of measurement is written with the decimal point after
the first significant figure.
4) The error is multiplied by the same power as the measurement.
If only rules (1) and (2) are followed, the form of result is correct but not
standard. Rules (3) and (4) convert the result to standard form. For example,
the standard form of result for measurement of length where metre scale is
used should be written as (4.6 r 0.1) cm.
Random errors can be quantified by statistical analysis and expressed as

absolute error or relative error. Let us now learn how to estimate these.
13
,.5 ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF ERROR

Refer to Table ,.3, where typical values of measurement of time period are
given. Just by looking at the data, could you identify the “true” value of the time
period? Probably not!
Table ,.3: A set of typical values of measurement
Sl. No. Data ( x i ) Deviation ǻx i xi x

(s) (s)
1. 2.69 0.01
2. 2.67 0.01
3. 2.68 0.00
4. 2.69 0.01
5. 2.68 0.00
6. 2.69 0.01
7. 2.66 0.02
8. 2.67 0.01
x = 2.68 ǻ[ = 0.009
The magnitude of the difference between the mean value of a physical

quantity and its individual measured value (listed in the last column under
‘Deviation’ in Table ,.3) is known as absolute error in the measurement. Let
us denote it by ' xi.
If N independent measurements of a quantity are labelled as x1, x2 ,....., xN , the
average value is given by Eq. (,.1). In summation notation, we can write
N
1
x xi (,.2)
N i 1
The symbol 6 (sigma) represents the sum of all measurements. As you can
see from Table ,.3, the average value of time period is 2.68 s. To calculate
absolute error, we calculate the modulus of individual deviations ǻ[ i xi x
from the average value (as listed in the last column). Then, these deviations
are added and their sum is divided by the total number of observations.
Mathematically, we can write,
N
ǻ[ i
ǻ[ i 1
(,.3)
N
For the data given in Table ,.3, the average value of absolute error is 0.009s.
So we express the result of measurement as (2.68 r 0.01) s. Note that
absolute error has the same units as the quantity measured.
In error analysis, a useful measure of deviation is the variance. That is,
variance is a measure of the spread of a distribution of observations. For N
observations, the variance in summation notation is given by
14
N
( xi ) 2
ı2 i 1
(,.4)
N
Once variance is known, its square root gives the standard deviations. It
represents the range over which measurements vary. In other words, the
standard deviation equals the magnitude of the uncertainty in the
measurements.
You must be wondering as to why we consider standard deviation and not
merely the average of deviations. This is because the individual deviations
(which are also an indication of error involved in measurement) may be
positive or negative. Since errors are additive in nature, it is more appropriate
to take average of squares of the deviations and calculate standard
deviation.
To give you a feel of the numbers, we would like you to answer the following
SAQ.
SAQ 6 – Standard deviation

The measurement of the length of a table yields the following data:
x1 = 135.0 cm, x2 = 136.5 cm, x3 = 134.0 cm, x4 = 134.5 cm
Calculate the standard deviation and express the final result with possible
error involved.
A better index of the accuracy of a measurement or equipment is relative

error, also called percentage error. In fact, quite often we express our result
by quoting the relative error rather than the absolute error. The relative error is
the ratio of absolute error to the mean measured value of the quantity
expressed in percent:
x
x 100
100. (,.5)
x
Note that we have written the relative error as Gx to distinguish it from the
absolute error. You will note that the relative error covers all or most of the
readings.
,.6 PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

You now know how to calculate error in the measurement of a directly
observable physical quantity. But in most experiments, you would be required
to measure two or more independent quantities to determine a physical
quantity of interest. Therefore, the error in the final result depends on the
errors in the measurement of individual parameters. In other words, the error in
each measurement will “propagate” and get reflected in the final result. The
actual analysis of propagation of errors is beyond the scope of this laboratory
work. We shall, therefore, quote only some useful rules.
,.6.1 Error Propagation in Basic Operations

To understand how error propagates through basic mathematical calculations,
we first consider addition and subtraction of two or more numbers.
15
Addition and subtraction
Suppose that two physical quantities A and B have measured values (A r ǻ$ )
and (B r ǻ% ) , respectively, where ǻ$ and ǻ% are their absolute errors. Let us
calculate the error ǻ= in their sum = = A + B.
We have by addition
= r '= = (A r 'A ) + (B r 'B ).
The maximum possible error in = is therefore
'= = 'A + 'B .
For the difference = = A B,

= r '= = (A r 'A ) (B r 'B )
= A B r 'A r 'B
or
r '= = r 'A r 'B (,.6)
The maximum value of the error '= is sum of individual errors ( 'A + 'B ).
Hence the rule for propagation of errors for a sum or a difference is: The
absolute error in the final result is the sum of the absolute errors in
individual quantities.
As such, Eq. (,.6) over-estimates the error. A more useful expression for '=
based on statistical analysis is
'= 'A 2 'B 2 (,.7)

Let us now calculate a propagating error in the following example.
XAMPLE I.1: PROPAGATION OF ERROS IN ADDITION
The measured values of two lengths L1 and L2 are (1.746 r 0.001) m and
(1.507 r 0.001) m, respectively. Calculate the total error in the
measurement of L1 + L2.
Solution
The error in measurement would be equal to the sum of errors in L1 and L2.
Thus
'L = 'L 1 + 'L 2 = (0.001 + 0.001) m = 0.002 m
and you can express the result as
L = (3.253 r 0.002) m
If you use statistical analysis, you will obtain
'L 'L 1 2 'L 2 2

( 0.001m) 2 ( 0.001m) 2
= 0.0014
= 0.001 m
Note that we have kept only positive root because errors are cumulative.
16

Multiplication and division
If a quantity E = A u B and the results of measurement of A and B are

(A r 'A ) and (B r 'B ), respectively, then we an write
E r 'E = (A r 'A ) u (B r 'B )
= AB r B 'A r A 'B r 'A 'B .
Dividing by E = AB throughout, we obtain
'E 'A 'B 'A 'B

1r 1r . (,.8)
E A B AB
'A 'B
Since 'A and 'B are small, the term can be neglected. Hence the
AB
maximum error in E is given by
'E 'A 'B

. (,.9)
E A B
Let us now consider the propagation of error when the operation of ‘division’ is
A
carried out. If we write E , the error 'E will also be given by Eq. (,.9).
B
'E 'A 'B

If you take logarithm of E = AB and differentiate it, you will get .
E A B
This is generally known as the logarithmic error.
If you make statistical analysis, you will get the following result:

'E § 'A · § ·
¨ ¸ ¨ 'B ¸ . (,.10)
E ¨ A ¸ ¨ B ¸
© ¹ © ¹
You can now conclude that when independent measurements are

multiplied or divided, the fractional error in the result is the square root
of the sum of the squares of fractional errors in individual quantities.
These results hold for absolute errors as well as relative errors.
Let us now see how error propagates in calculations involving operations of

both multiplication and division.
XAMPLE I.2 : ERROR PROPAGATION IN MULTIPLICATION

AND DIVISION
A particular physical quantity, in an experiment, is computed from the

XY
relation B . Take the values of X, Y and = measured in the laboratory
=
as:

17
X = 17 r 10%
Y = 100 r 6
and = = 15 r 3
Let us see how error propagates in such a situation.
Solution:
By converting the uncertainties to percentage, you will find that
(17 r 10%) u (100 r 6%)
B
(15 r 20%)
= 113.33 r 36%,
where we have added the uncertainties.
Proceeding further, you will note that 36% of 113.33 = 40.7988 so that
B = 113.33 r 40.80
This means that the uncertainty in the value of B is about 41. So, it
makes no sense to retain the digits after the decimal in the value of B
as well as the uncertainty. It is therefore more sensible to write:
B = 113 r 41.
,.6.2 Error Propagation in Angular Measurements

In your B.Sc. physics laboratory, you will get an opportunity to make very
accurate and high precision measurements of angles. This is particularly true
of experiments involving measurement of small physical quantities such as
wavelength using a grating and a spectrometer. A spectrometer has a fixed
circular protractor with a vernier moving over it. Usually the least count of a
th
spectrometer is 1 min of an arc or 1 of a degree. The calculations of error
16
propagation are the same as in other measurements, as illustrated below.
In a diffraction grating experiment, the wavelength O = N sinT, where N is the

number of rulings in the grating and T is the angle of diffraction for that O. Then
'O N cos T
cot T .
O N sin T
,.6.3 Error Propagation due to Exponent of a

Measured Quantity
Suppose we have to calculate the area of a square piece of land of side A. It is
given by s = A u A = A2. From Eq. (I.9), it readily follows that
's 'A 'A

s A A
'A
2 (,.11)
A
18
That is, the error in A2 is twice the error in A. You will obtain the same result if
you take the logarithm of both the sides:
log s = 2 log A
On differentiating and changing the differentials to ‘deltas’, we get Eq. (,.11).
For a wire, the diameter d is measured as (1.02 r 0.01) mm. Therefore, the
§ Sd 2 ·
error in the area of cross section ¨ ¸ will be twice the error in d, i.e.
¨ 4 ¸
© ¹
nearly 2%.
In general, if a quantity appears in an expression with a power n ( > 1), its

error contribution increases n-fold. This means that you should measure
quantities appearing with power 2 or more with a higher degree of accuracy.
Moreover, take a large number of readings. In case its magnitude is small, you
should take readings at different points/ perpendicular directions.
Now study the following example.

XAMPLE I.3: ERROR PROPAGATION DUE TO EXPONENTS
L
The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T 2S . L is about
g
100 cm and is known to 1 mm accuracy. The period of oscillation is about 2 s.

The time of 100 oscillations is measured with a wrist watch having least count
of 1 s. Calculate the percentage error in the value of g.
Solution
You can rewrite the expression for T as
g 4S 2 L
T2
Therefore, the percentage error in g can be calculated using the relation
'g
100 100 'L 2 u 100 'T
g L T
'L 0.1 cm
The percentage error in L 100 100 u 0.1%
L 100 cm
and
'T 1s
the percentage error in T 100 100 u 0. 5 %
T un 2 u 100 s
Hence
'g
100 0 . 1 2 u 0. 5 1. 1 %
g
19
Note that we have multiplied T by n while calculating the percentage

error in T. Do you know why? This is because the actually measured
quantity is time for 100 oscillations (n u T) rather than T. If you take time
for one oscillation, the percentage error in T will be 50%. It means that
taking more oscillations per observation helps us to reduce error
in a measurement.
Let us now sum up what you have learnt in this unit.
,.7 SUMMARY
x Precision of any measurement depends on the least count of the
measuring instrument.
x The result of every measurement is expressed in numbers such that only
the last digit contains error.
x In scientific notation, a measurement is expressed as a decimal number
between one and ten multiplied by appropriate power of ten.
x Relative error is the ratio of probable error to total measurement.
Accuracy is related to relative error.
x Systematic errors can arise due to zero error, backlash error, end
correction, defective calibration or faulty observation procedures. Such
errors are identifiable. So these can be eliminated or accounted for.
x Random errors can arise due to error of judgement and environmental

factors during the performance of measurements. Such error results in a
scatter of values and to minimise these, we take a large number of
observations.
x While adding (or subtracting) approximate numbers, round off the sum (or
difference) to the same unit of measure as the least precise measurement.
x The magnitude of errors can be computed statistically. It is usually

expressed as a mean of deviations of observed values from the final value
or through standard deviation.
x Errors are cumulative and propagate in an experiment depending on the

number of measurements and measuring devices.
,.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. A physical quantity x is related to three other physical quantities a, b and c
through the relation
x ab2c 3
If the errors in a, b and c respectively are 1%, 3% and 2%, calculate the
percentage error in x.
2. In the measurement of viscosity of a liquid, we determine the rate of flow of
the liquid (volume flowing per second, V) through a capillary tube of radius
20

a and length L under constant pressure difference p. The expression for
viscosity is given by
Spa 4
K .
8LV
If the percentage errors in p, a, V and L respectively are 1%, 1%, 2% and
1%, calculate the percentage error in K.
,.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) 19.87 cm
b) 3.21 s
c) Equally precise
2. a) The relative errors are:
0.05 5 1
40 4000 800
and
0.05 5 1
8 800 160
Therefore, the measurement 40.0 cm is more accurate. However, both
measurements are equally precise.
b) The measurement 0.85 m is more accurate but as precise as 0.05 m.
3. 3 u 1023 g
4. No. of Unit of Probable

Sl. Measurement Relative error
significant measurement Error
No. (m) digits (m) (m)
0.05
1. 0.2 1 0.1 0.05 0.25
0. 2
0.005
2. 0.20 2 0.01 0.005 0.025
0.20
0.00005
3. 0.2000 4 0.0001 0.00005 0.00025
0.2000
0.5
4. 25 2 1 0.5 0.02
25
0. 5
5. 250 3 1 0.5 0.002
250
0.5
6. 25000 5 1 0.5 0.00002
25000
0. 5
7. 102 3 1 0.5 0.0049
102
0.5
8. 1002 4 1 0.5 0.000499
1002
a) They are significant.

b) They are also significant. As a rule, only those zeros are significant
which come from a measurement. Since the unit of measurement is 21
1 m in both these cases, the zeros trailing the numbers are arising out
of the measurement and hence are significant.
c) Significant.
5. i) systematic, ii) random, iii) random
iv) systematic v) random
6. Sl. Length (xi) 'xi = xi x ( ǻx i ) 2

No. (cm) (cm) (cm2)
1. 135.0 0 0
2. 136.5 +1.5 2.25

3. 134.0 1.0 1.0
4. 134.5 0.5 0.25
x
¦ xi 540
135.0
(ǻxi ) 3.5
N 4
(ǻxL )
(ǻ 3.5
0.9 1.0 cm.
N 4
The final result can be expressed as length = (135 r 1 cm)
Terminal Questions
1. To calculate the percent error, we note that
a = (a0 ± 1%)
b = (b0 ± 2 u 3%) and
c = (c0 ± 3 u 2%)
So the total percentage error in x is1+6+6 = 13%.
'K 'p 'a 'V 'l

2. 4x
K p a V l
? Percentage error in K is = 1+4+2+1 = 8%.
22

Unit ,, Graphing
UNIT ,,

GRAPHING
Structure

,,.1 Introduction ,,.3 Error Estimation on
Expected Learning Outcomes Graphical Plots
,,.2 Plotting a Graph ,,.4 Summary

Linear Plots ,,.5 Terminal Questions

Non-linear Plots
,,.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit , you learnt that the result of any measurement is expressed in the form of numbers.
When we perform any experiment, generally we try to establish a relationship between two or
more physical quantities to arrive at the results.
Many times, it is not possible for us to visualise the functional relationship between two
quantities by just looking at the experimental data. But if we plot a graph, it becomes very
easy, quick and convenient to predict the nature of relationship. Once such relationship is
known, we can even predict the value of a parameter for intermediate values of the
quantities, where we may not have taken actual observation. In fact, graphs can also be
used to minimise errors or locate inaccuracy in observations.
In many of the experiments you will be performing in this course, you will need to plot the
graphs of various quantities. There are certain good practices of plotting a graph, which
makes it readable and understandable to everybody. In this unit you will become familiar with
methods of plotting the graphs and writing correct legends. Hence we will advice you to go
through this unit carefully before starting the experiments in the laboratory.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
establish functional relationship between various physical quantities;
make a choice of appropriate scale on the graph;
depict the observations on the graph with error bar;
use the criterion of best fit in a straight line plot;
interpret a graph and determine the values of physical quantities of interest; and
carry out error estimation in slope and intercept on a plot.
23
,,.2 PLOTTING A GRAPH

In this section, we describe both linear and non-linear plots.
,,.2.1 Linear Plots

y A straight-line graph is the easiest to draw (Fig. ,,.1). The equation for a
B
straight line is y = mx + c, where m is the slope (gradient) and c is the intercept
on the y-axis. In Fig. ,,.1, the slope of the straight line is given by
A
C BC
m
P AC
and OP is its intercept c.
O x
You should use a graph-paper to draw the graphs. Generally the graph-paper
Fig. ,,.1: A straight line
has a grid of 1 cm u 1 cm squares printed on it. Each square is further divided
graph.
into 1 mm u 1 mm sub-parts. Such graph paper is referred to as linear graph
paper.
When drawing graphs, you must observe the following points:
i) Identify the independent and dependent variables. It is a customary to plot

the independent variable along the x-axis and the dependent variable
along the y-axis.
ii) You should choose the scales so that the points are suitably spread out on
the entire graph paper as shown in Fig. ,,.2a rather than being cramped
into a small portion as done in Fig. ,,.2b. For this, first of all note the
minimum and maximum values of the data to be plotted. Then round off
these numbers to slightly less than the minimum and slightly more than the
maximum. The resulting difference should be divided by the number of
divisions on the graph paper. For example, if you are to plot data between
6.4 s and 18.7 s on x-axis and corresponding y-axis readings range
between 32.8 cm and 57.4 cm then, it would be convenient to allow the
x-scale to run from 5 to 20 s rather than 0 to19 s and y-scale between 30
and 60 cm instead of 0 and 58 cm.
(a) (b)
Fig. ,,.2: Choice of scale a) proper; and b) improper.
iii) Draw axes clearly and write the name of the physical quantity to be
plotted, its symbol, unit and the scale used along each axis.
24
Unit ,, Graphing
iv) Use a plotting symbol such as a dot and encircle it to show the measured
position of points (See Fig. ,,.2a). In no case, the size of this circle should
exceed the size of the smallest square on the graph paper.
v) You should give the graph a suitable caption.
A
B
(a) (b)
Fig. ,,.3: Drawing graphs with more than one curve.
vi) If there is more than one curve on the graph, label different curves (Fig.
,,.3a). Alternatively, you can use different notations (dash dot, solid, dash)
to show different curves (Fig. ,,.3b).
vii) The curve drawn should be the simplest mean curve that fits the data. In
the graph shown in Fig. ,,.4, it is easy to see that the data points lie on a
straight line. This is referred to as best-fit curve. Note that the line may not Though drawing a best fit
necessarily pass through each observed point. However, it should pass curve for non-linear data
through the region of uncertainty for each point. This region of uncertainty may involve extensive
is depicted as an error bars (small vertical line representing the statistical treatment, the
uncertainty in the measurement) around each point in the figure. method explained here
gives fairly good fit of the
Distance-Time relationship linear data being plotted.
Distance (cm)
Time (s)
Fig. ,,.4: A best fit curve.
You can use this plotted curve to determine the value of a parameter, where
the reading is not taken by you. For example, in Fig. ,,.4, there is no
observation corresponding to time 12 s. However, you can conclude by
following the plotted curve that the distance of interest is 46 cm.
25
You will use these graphing techniques in some of the experiments of this
course such as the experiments on determination of Young’s Modulus by
bending of beam apparatus and spring constant by spring-mass system.
,,.2.2 Non-linear Plots

In Fig. ,,.4, we plotted distance along y-axis and time along x-axis on a linear
graph paper, since these quantities are linearly related. In some experiments,
however, we may get data where the relationship between the measured
variables is not linear and we have to plot a graph where the variables of
interest are related through a power-law. For example, in a simple pendulum,
the time and length are related by equation T = NƐ 1/2. In such cases, to draw a
graph between the time period and the length of the pendulum, you will have
to calculate square root for each value. This introduces another step in the
procedure, and is obviously cumbersome.
Many a times, the variables in a relation may vary over different powers. For
example, the voltage and current relationship for a forward biased
semiconductor diode is given by the equation:
ª qVD º
ID , S «exp 1» (,,.1)
¬ kT ¼
The direct plot of ID Vs VD will result into an exponential curve, however, if we
take the logarithm of current values, then, its plot with VD will result into linear
curve, as shown in Fig. ,,.5. Such plot is called a semi-log plot.
Fig. ,,.5: Semi-log plot of diode current vs. voltage.
Another example is found in Astronomy. According to Kepler’s law, the period

of a planet T (time for one revolution around the sun) is related to the semi-
major axis of it’s orbit (R) by the relation
R 3 = kT 2, (,,.2)
where k is constant.
If you consider the experimental data which shows how T depends on R, you
will observe that the latter varies by three orders of magnitude and T varies by
two orders of magnitude. In other words, the experimental data follows
26

Unit ,, Graphing
Eq. (,,.2). For a moment suppose you do not know the exact relationship
between the variables T and R. Then you can write
R = kT n, (,,.3)
where n is constant. In such cases, you can obtain the value of n by taking
logarithm of (Eq. ,,.3):
log R = log k + n log T (,,.4)
Now you can plot log R versus log T on a linear graph paper. The slope of
straight line obtained will give the value of exponent n. But again, as
mentioned above, taking logarithm of each experimental data is rather tedious.
For convenience, we use a log-log (Fig. ,,.6) graph paper in such cases, so
that the resultant curve is a straight line and we can easily calculate its slope
and intercepts.
Fig. ,,.6: Log-log graph of planet’s average distance from the Sun versus its
period of revolution around the Sun.
In your first year lab, you may not be required to use these and we therefore
end our discussion here.
,,.3 ERROR ESTIMATION ON GRAPHICAL PLOTS

In Fig. ,,.7 we have plotted the velocity, V, versus time period, T, which
represent a linear relationship between them. The result is plotted along with
the error bar around each data point.
To determine the error in the value of the slope of the straight line drawn on a
graph paper (linear, semi-log or log-log), you should draw two lines
representing the greatest and the least possible slopes which reasonably fit
the data.
For the graph in Fig. ,,.7, the error in the slope is defined as
maximum slope minimum slope
error in slope
2
27
Fig. ,,.7: Graph of velocity and time period with error bars.
Similarly,
(intercept of minimum slope line intercept of maximum slope line)
error in intercept
2
Let us now sum up what you have learnt in this unit.
,,.4 SUMMARY
x Graphical representation of observations eases data interpretation;
x A functional relationship, especially, a linear relationship, between the two

experimental parameters can be established by visual inspection;
x Log-log or semi-log plots can be used to depict non-linear relationships;
x Unknown parameter value within the experimental range of observation

can be deduced by plotting a graph; and
x Error in the slope and intercept can be obtained from a graphical

representation.
,,.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Draw the graph of the equation: y = 2x + 4. Draw the best fit straight line
and find its slope.
2. Plot the graph of y versus x for the following set of observation. Draw the
best fit straight line and obtain its slope. Write the equation of the line you
have drawn.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 4.1 6.1 7.9 10.0 11.9 13.9 16.0 18.1 20.0
28

Unit ,, Graphing
3. Plot the graph of y versus x for the following data and draw the best fit
straight line. Determine the slope and the equation of the straight line.
x 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
y 24 26.1 27.8 30 32.2 34 35.8 38.2 40
29

EXPERIMENT 1
MEASUREMENT
OF LENGTH
Structure

1.1 Introduction 1.3 Measurement of the Thickness of a
Expected Skills
Paper Sheet using a Screw Gauge
Working with a Screw Gauge
1.2 Measurement of the Thickness
of a Wooden Block using Measurements using Screw Gauge
Vernier Callipers 1.4 Measurement of the Internal
Working with Vernier Callipers Diameter of a Capillary using
Measurements using Vernier Callipers
Travelling Microscope
Working with Travelling Microscope
Measurements using Travelling
Microscope
1.1 INTRODUCTION
You must have performed various experiments in a physics laboratory during your school
days. You know that it is necessary to make different measurements while doing these
experiments. The simplest measurement is that of length. When we wish to know the
dimensions of a room or a piece of a land, we use a measuring tape; and we use a metre
scale when we buy some cloth. You would be familiar with such measurements and may
have used a measuring tape or a metre scale.
In the laboratory, however, you will need to measure small lengths, say, the diameter of a
bob or a metal wire or the diameter of a capillary. These require accuracy better than that
obtained with a metre scale – of the order of 0.01 cm or even less. For measuring small
lengths, we use devices like vernier callipers and screw gauge, depending on the accuracy
required. In some special cases, we also use travelling microscope. In this experiment, you
will learn how to use all these instruments for measuring length. You should remember for
all measuring instruments (used for measuring length or any other quantity) that,
x no measurement can be more accurate than the precision of the

measuring instrument; and
x there is a limitation on the accuracy with which data can be taken.

30

Experiment 1 Measurement of Length
This means that a measurement can never be exact and there will always be
deviations from the true value. That is, some uncertainty (error) is always present
in every measurement. So before you make measurements with any instrument,
you must have a clear idea of the concept of errors we have discussed in Unit ,
of this course. (You will learn that we always quote the result along with the
error.)
In the first part of this experiment you will learn how to measure the thickness of
a wooden block using vernier callipers (Sec. 1.2). Then you will learn how to
use a screw gauge to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper or the diameter
of a wire (Sec. 1.3).
Sometimes in the physics laboratory you have to measure very small distances
accurately, for example, the width of an interference fringe or the height to which
water rises in a capillary tube or a small displacement of a needle due to bending
of beam. For this we use a type of the compound microscope called the
travelling microscope. In the third and final part of this experiment, you will
learn how to focus a travelling microscope and make measurements using it
(Sec. 1.4). You will find out that while measuring the lengths with the help of a
travelling microscope, it does not physically touch the object under study, unlike
the vernier callipers or the screw gauge. Hence, here you will be performing
length measurements in the non-contact mode.
Expected Skills
The purpose of this experiment is to train you in handling the instruments used to
measure small lengths. After doing this experiment, you should be able to:
obtain the least count and estimate the zero error of vernier callipers
and use it to determine the thickness of an object;
obtain the least count and estimate the zero error of a screw gauge
and use it to determine the thickness of a paper sheet or diameter of
a wire; and
focus a travelling microscope and use it to make small length
measurements in the non-contact mode.
The apparatus required for this experiment is listed below.
Apparatus required
Vernier callipers, screw gauge, travelling microscope, a wooden block,
metallic wire/needle or a sheet of paper, a piece of glass capillary, a spirit
level and a stand with cork clamp.
In the first part of the experiment, we describe the vernier callipers, how to find its
least count and zero error, if any. You will also learn the procedure for measuring
the thickness of a wooden block using it.
1.2 MEASUREMENT OF THE THICKNESS OF A

WOODEN BLOCK USING VERNIER CALLIPERS
When you wish to measure lengths in the range of 5 mm to 10 cm, with a
precision better than 1 mm, then you should use vernier callipers. You will be
31

using the vernier callipers in some experiments in the laboratory; e.g. to
measure the radius of the metal bob used in simple pendulum, the inner /
outer diameters of the cylinders used as weights in torsional pendulum. In the
present experiment, you will measure the width of a wooden block using the
vernier callipers. Before you perform the actual experiment, it is important for
you to know about the construction and working of vernier callipers.
1.2.1 Working with Vernier Callipers

The vernier callipers is a steel apparatus which has two jaws A and B as
shown in Fig.1.1. Jaw A is fixed to a scale (main scale) of about 15 cm length
with millimetre markings on it. Jaw B is attached to a small movable scale
called the vernier scale, V. The object, whose length (a wooden block in our
case) is to be measured, is held between these two jaws. Measurement of
length is done by following the procedure given later in this section.
A B
Fig.1.1: Measurement of the thickness of a wooden block with vernier

callipers
While using any measuring instrument, it is very important to know its least
count and any systematic error caused due to instrument setting. In case of
length measuring instruments, there may be a mismatch between the zero
markings of the main scale and the moving scale. This is called the zero
error of the instrument. It is a systematic error, which can be corrected by
adding (or subtracting) it from the reading you are taking. Now we will discuss,
in brief, the method of obtaining the least count and zero error of vernier
callipers.
a) Least count
In simple vernier callipers, the vernier scale has 10 divisions which are equal
to 9 divisions or 9 mm of the main scale (Fig. 1.2). Thus, the value of each
vernier division is 0.9 mm and it is 0.1 mm shorter than one main scale
division. When the jaws are closed so as to touch each other, the zero of
Fig.1.2: Least count of a vernier callipers.
the main scale should coincide with the zero of the vernier scale. Since a
vernier division is shorter than a main scale division by 0.1 mm, the first
vernier division will lie 0.1 mm left to the first main scale division. Now if you

32

move the jaw B slowly to the right, such that this 0.1 mm difference
disappears, the jaw should have moved by 0.1 mm. This would also be the
width of the gap opened between the two jaws. So, the smallest length that
can be measured by the vernier callipers is 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm. This is called
the least count or the vernier constant of the instrument (vernier callipers).
The least count of vernier callipers is equal to the difference between the
lengths of one main scale division and one vernier scale division.
You will now learn to calculate the least count of vernier callipers. This method
can be used for any instrument carrying a pair of MS (main scale) and VS
(vernier scale).
Calculating the least count of vernier callipers

The least count (LC) of a vernier callipers is defined as
LC = Value of one Main Scale Division (MSD) Value of one

Vernier Scale Division (VSD) in terms of MSD
Study Fig. 1.2. Note that the value of 10 VSD is equal to the value of 9 MSD.
Therefore, we can say that in this case 1 VSD = (9/10) MSD. Hence, we can
write the expression for least count as
LC { 1MSD 1VSD = 1MSD (9/10) MSD = (1/10) MSD
For the vernier callipers shown in Fig.1.2, the value of 1MSD = 1 mm. Therefore,
§ 1·
LC ¨ ¸ mm 0.1 mm 0.01 cm (1.1a)
© 10 ¹
In your physics laboratory, you may come across some instruments in which
the vernier scale has more than 10 divisions and the value of 1 MSD is less
than 1 mm. One such familiar example is that of travelling microscope,
which you will handle in the later part of this experiment. On the travelling
microscope scale, 49 MSD correspond to 50 VSD and 1 MSD = 0.5 mm.
Therefore, the least count of the travelling microscope is
1 MSD – (49/50) MSD = (1/50) MSD = (0.5/50) mm = 0.01 mm= 0.001 cm

(1.1b)
Note that the denominator in the brackets of Equations (1.1a and b) is equal to
the total number of divisions on the VS. Therefore, in general, we can write
1
LC = u value of 1 MSD (1.2)
n
where n is the total number of divisions on the VS. Since n = 50 and 1 MSD
= 0.5 mm for a travelling microscope, we can write its least count (LC) as
1
LC u 0.5 mm 0.01mm 0.001 cm
50
Other instruments to which a vernier scale is fitted include spherometer, a
Fortin's barometer and a spectrometer. You will work with these instruments
while doing the experiments in your laboratory course.
33

b) Zero error
When the jaws of the vernier callipers are in contact, the zero mark of the MS
should coincide with the zero mark of VS (see Fig.1.3a). In some vernier
callipers this may not happen. In such a case, the vernier callipers is said to
have a zero error. The zero error must be determined and accounted for
while taking measurements with the vernier callipers.
Suppose that when the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of vernier
scale lies to the right of the main scale zero (Fig.1.3b). This error is called
positive zero error. To obtain the correct measurement we have to apply
zero correction. How do we do it? If the mth division of the vernier scale
coincides with a main scale division, the instrument is showing a reading equal
to m times the least count. The magnitude of the positive zero error in this
case is m x LC.
If the instrument (vernier callipers) has positive error, the zero error has to
be subtracted from any reading taken by the callipers.
(a)

(b)
(c)
Fig.1.3: a) No zero error as zero marks of MS and VS coincide; b) positive zero

error; c) negative zero error.
In case the zero of the vernier scale falls on the left of the zero of the main
scale, the vernier callipers is said to have negative zero error (Fig.1.3c).
Then
Magnitude of the negative zero error = (n m) u LC
where n is the total number of divisions on the vernier scale and the mth
vernier scale line coincides with a main scale line. For example, in Fig. 1.3c,
m = 7, and hence the magnitude of negative error is (10 7) u LC = 3 u LC.
In case of negative zero error, we apply correction by adding a value

equivalent to the error, to the observed reading of the instrument.
We assign positive zero error with + sign and negative zero error with sign.
So a general rule is that we always subtract the zero error with proper sign
from the observed reading.
In your school curriculum, you may have learnt about the vernier callipers. In
order to refresh your knowledge, perform the following steps:
34

x Identify the main scale (MS) and the vernier scale (VS) on the vernier
callipers and write the number of divisions on VS:
No. of divisions on the vernier scale =……………………………………..
x Note how many of MS divisions equal all VS divisions:
…. No. of divisions in the main scale = …. No. of division on vernier scale

Now calculate the least count of your vernier callipers as follows:
No. of divisions on main scale

x Calculate 1 VSD = ......... MSD
No. of divisions on vernier scale
x Note the value of 1 division on main scale = 1 MSD = …….. mm.
x Calculate the least count of vernier callipers using the formula:
Least Count = Value of (1 MSD 1 VSD) = ………… mm.
After finding out the least count of the vernier callipers, you will now use it to
measure the length of some small objects. For this part of the experiment, you
will need vernier callipers and a solid object like small piece of wood.
1.2.2 Measurements using Vernier Callipers

You should now follow the steps given below to measure the thickness of the
wooden block:
1. Bring the jaws of the vernier callipers in contact and note whether or not the
zeroes of the VS and MS coincide. In case they do not coincide, then it
possesses a zero error. Do not push the jaws together forcefully to make
them coincide. Doing so may damage the callipers. Find out the zero
error as described above and record it in Observation Table 1.1 with
appropriate sign (+ for positive and – for negative error). Remember that zero
error, whether positive or negative, is taken with its sign and always
subtracted from each measured value.
2. Record the least count in Observation Table 1.1.
3. Hold the block between the jaws, as shown in Fig.1.1.
4. Slide the vernier scale so that the jaw of the vernier scale touches the other
face of the block.
5. The position of the zero mark of the vernier scale, as read on the main
scale, gives a rough estimate of the thickness of the block. If the zero mark
of VS corresponds exactly to any particular marking on the MS, then that
reading of MS is the exact reading of the length. However, if the zero mark
on the vernier scale lies in-between the two markings, say, between
3.3 cm and 3.4 cm, as shown in Fig.1.4, then the thickness of the block is
more than 3.3 cm (called the main scale reading), but less than 3.4 cm.
You can find out how much more it is than 3.3 cm by noting the division on
the VS that coincides with a MS division. If the fourth division on the VS
coincides with an MS division, the thickness of the block would be
35

3.3 cm + 4 u 0.01 cm = 3.34 cm. (If the zero mark of VS corresponds
exactly to any particular marking on the MS, read the main scale. This
reading gives the thickness of the block.)
3 4 Main scale
0 5 10 Vernier scale
Fig.1.4: Reading a main scale and vernier scale.
In general, the distance between the two jaws of the vernier

callipers is given by:
MS reading + (vernier reading u least count)
Record your reading in Observation Table 1.1. The graduations on the vernier
scale are very fine and close together. Therefore, you may find it convenient
to use a magnifying glass to take readings.
6. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 at least four times at different points on the same
faces of the block. You must have realized that this exercise is to minimise
random errors.
7. Subtract the zero error (with proper sign), if any, from each measured value
to obtain correct value and note it in the Observation Table 1.1.
8. Calculate the mean of corrected values. This will give you the thickness of the
given block.
9. Calculate the percentage error using the procedure explained in Unit-, and
quote your result.
Observation Table 1.1: Measurement of thickness of a wooden block
Least count of the vernier Callipers = ………. cm
Zero error of the vernier Callipers = ……….. cm (with + or – sign)
Note that vernier scale
reading is just a number,
Sl. Main Vernier Thickness (cm)
while MS reading is in
the units of length. No. Scale (MS) Scale (VS) Measured Corrected reading
reading reading reading (Measured value
(cm) (=MS+LCuVS) Zero error)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Result: The thickness of the given block is ………..cm r………..cm

36

For proper handling of a vernier callipers, you should

x not apply excessive pressure on the jaws or over-stress them
while noting zero error or taking readings; and
x store them in the boxes provided by the manufacturer.
On completing this part of the experiment, you will discover that vernier callipers
can be used to measure lengths in the range 0-15 cm with an accuracy of
0.01 cm. When we need accuracy better than that obtained with vernier callipers,
we use a screw gauge. In the next part of this experiment, you will work with a
screw gauge.
1.3 MEASUREMENT OF THE THICKNESS OF A

PAPER SHEET USING SCREW GAUGE
When you want to measure extremely small lengths like diameter of a wire or
thickness of a paper, you need an instrument with better precision than that of
the vernier callipers. Later in this laboratory course, you will use a screw
gauge to measure the radius of thin wire and thickness of the beam in some
experiments. In this part of the experiment, you will learn how to measure the
thickness of a paper sheet (or diameter of a wire). But, before proceeding
further, you should know the parts of the screw gauge.
1.3.1 Working with a Screw Gauge
Fig.1.5 shows a screw gauge, in which a screw moves in accurately cut

grooves. Screw gauge consists of a spindle (screw), a U-shaped frame, a
hollow shaft (sleeve) or barrel on which a linear scale is engraved with
millimetre divisions. It acts as the main scale in the screw gauge. A cylindrical
collar called a thimble, is attached to the spindle. A circular scale with 100 (or
sometimes 50) divisions is engraved on this collar. When the thimble is
rotated, it gives linear displacement to the spindle. On one side of the frame a
flat stud called anvil is fitted. The object whose length is to be measured is
held between the anvil end A and the spindle end B. You can tighten the hold
properly by rotating the ratchet attached to the screw.
Fig.1.5: A screw gauge.
37

With a constant use, some wear and tear occurs in the movement of the screw
on the grooves. As a result, it is also possible that there may not be forward
linear motion of the screw until a certain rotation is given to the circular head.
This lagging behind of the linear motion with respect to the circular motion is
called backlash error. To avoid this, you should always rotate the screw
gauge in the same direction.
Like any other measuring instrument, a screw gauge also has a least count
and may sometimes possess positive or negative zero error. The three
important parameters we should know about a screw gauge are: pitch, least
count and zero error. We discuss these briefly before you start using this
instrument.
a) Pitch
The screw of the spindle is the most important part of a screw gauge. It
has very accurate threads cut on it which, on rotation, move the screw forward
or backward. The distance moved by the spindle in one complete
revolution of the screw is called the pitch, P, of the screw gauge (Fig.1.6).
If we rotate the thimble clock-wise, the spindle will move towards the anvil end
A. When the two touch each other, the zero mark on the circular scale should
coincide with the zero mark of the main scale. Now, if we rotate the thimble by
one complete anticlockwise rotation, the zero mark on the circular scale will
Fig. 1.6: Pitch of the once again coincide with the main scale mark, and the spindle end, B will be
screw gauge. separated from the anvil end, A. You can read this separation on the main
scale. It is equal to the pitch of the screw.
b) Least Count
Suppose the pitch of the screw is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions on the
circular scale. Now, if the thimble is rotated only through one division on the
circular scale, the distance moved by the spindle is:
(1/50) u pitch = (1/50) u (0.5mm) = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm
This is the smallest length that can be measured with a screw gauge. This is
its least count. Since the least count of a typical screw gauge is 0.01 mm or
10 micrometer, it is often called a micrometer screw gauge.
c) Zero Error
Similar to the vernier callipers, screw gauge can also suffer from a zero error.
When the anvil end A and spindle end B touch each other but the zeros of the
circular and main scales do not coincide, the screw gauge is said to have zero
error. When the ends A and B touch each other and the zeros of the main
scale and circular scale coincide, the screw gauge is said to have no zero
error (Fig.1.7a). The zero error is said to be positive if the zero of the circular
scale is below the zero of the main scale (Fig.1.7b). If the zero of the circular
scale is above that of the main scale, the zero error is said to be negative
(Fig.1.7c). As in the case of vernier callipers, the zero error (with its sign) is
always subtracted from the actual reading of the screw gauge. Hence,

38

Final Reading = Reading Taken – Zero Error (with appropriate sign)
(b) (c)
(a)
Fig.1.7: Relative positions of the zeros of linear scale and circular scale of a screw
gauge when its spindle is in contact with anvil for a) no zero error;
b) positive zero error; and c) negative zero error.
The screw gauge is a sensitive device and you should use it carefully.
While handling a screw gauge, you should take care of some

important points:
x Do not over-tighten the gauge; and
x Adjust the screw gauge to the point where it should read zero. In
case it shows a different reading, note the error.
We hope you can now confidently work with a screw gauge and take necessary
precautions while using it to measure the length. For this part of the experiment
you will need a screw gauge and a thin object like sheet of paper or a piece of
wire or a pin.
1.3.2 Measurements using Screw Gauge

You should follow the steps listed below to measure the thickness of the given
object:
1. Take a screw gauge and check whether or not its ratchet functions properly.
If not, change the screw gauge.
2. Note the length of the smallest division on the linear (or main) scale and
record it in Observation Table 1.2. Rotate the screw through ten complete
rotations and note the distance advanced on the Main Scale on the screw.
From this, you can calculate the distance by which the screw (that is spindle)
moves in one complete rotation. This is the pitch of the screw. Note the total
number of divisions on the circular scale (CS). By dividing the pitch of the
screw by the total number of divisions on the circular scale, N, you will obtain
the least count (LC). Usually, the LC of a screw gauge is 0.001 cm.
3. Touch the anvil with spindle and note the zero error, if there is one. Note it
down with proper sign in the Observation Table 1.2.
4. Place the sheet/wire between the anvil and spindle. Tighten the screw so that
the object is just held between them. Do not apply excess pressure to tighten
the screw. You can apply optimum pressure for tightening by rotating the
ratchet.
39

5. Note the readings on the linear and circular scale and record them in
Observation Table 1.2.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 at least six times by taking the thickness
measurements at different places. In this way, you can account for non-
uniformity of the object thickness. Record all your observations in
7. Subtract the zero error (with its sign), if any, from each measured value.
Calculate the mean value of the thickness of the given sheet/wire.
8. Calculate the average value and error and record your result as before.
Observation Table 1.2: Measurement of thickness
The length of the smallest division on the

linear scale = ……..………... mm
Distance advanced by the screw when it is
given ten rotations = D = …………... mm
Pitch of the screw = P (= D/10) = ……………….. mm
Number of divisions on the circular scale (N) = ………………..
Pitch
Least count of the screw gauge LC = = …… mm = …… cm
N
Zero error (with + or – sign) = ………. mm
Sl. Linear Circular Thickness (mm)

No. scale scale Measured Corrected
reading reading u LC (=LS+CS) (Measured value
LS (mm) = CS (mm) Zero error)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Average thickness = ………. mm

Result: The thickness of the sheet is ……… cm r ……….. cm
So far, you have learnt about devices used for length measurement with greater
accuracy. In these cases, the object to be measured was always in contact with
the measuring instrument. Now we will discuss about travelling microscope,
which makes measurements in non-contact mode.
1.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE INTERNAL

DIAMETER OF A CAPILLARY USING
TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
In various experiments you need to measure small lengths from a little
distance away from the object. For example in the bending of beam
apparatus, you need to measure a minute displacement of a metal beam
40

caused by applied weights hanging to it. Also you need to precisely measure
the distance between the bright and dark fringes formed by interference
pattern in some optics experiments. For such measurements in non-contact
mode, we make use of a travelling microscope. In this part of the experiment,
you will be measuring the internal diameters of a glass capillary tube using it.
For this part of the experiment you will need a travelling microscope, spirit
level, stand and a piece of capillary tube. But, before doing the experiment,
you need to set the travelling microscope on your work table and understand
how it works.
1.4.1 Working with Travelling Microscope

In Fig.1.8 you see a picture of a typical travelling microscope. It is basically a
compound microscope which can be moved horizontally and vertically.
Fig.1.8: A travelling microscope.
It has two lenses: an eyepiece (E) and an objective (O). You can move it
vertically along PQ using the screw S1 and horizontally along RT using the
screw S2. The distance moved on the vertical scale is measured using the
main scale M1 and the associated vernier scale V1. The distance moved on the
horizontal scale is measured using the main scale M2 and the associated
vernier scale V2. You should view the microscope through the eyepiece while
the objective lens faces the object being viewed. You can focus the
microscope with the help of the screw S3 attached to its body.
1.4.2 Measurements using Travelling Microscope

Setting up the microscope
The eyepiece has a crosswire (shown as dotted lines in Fig. 1.9) which you
may focus by sliding the eyepiece in or out. Now, to set the microscope,
follow the steps given below:
Fig.1.9: Coinciding the
x There are four levelling screws (L) on the base of the microscope crosswire with a cross
(Fig.1.8). To start with you should ensure that the base of the travelling drawn on a piece of
microscope is perfectly horizontal by using a spirit level and these screws. paper.
41

x Next, check that there is a free movement of the microscope in both the
vertical and horizontal directions using the screws S1 and S2.
x Keep the microscope in the vertical position. Mark a cross on a small
piece of paper with a pen (shown by solid lines in Fig.1.9) and place it
below the objective.
x Gently move the eyepiece using the screw S3 to focus on the cross, such
that the crosswires of the eyepiece coinciding with centre of the cross and
are clearly visible. In this condition, the microscope is said to be focussed.
x Yet another thing you need to do before doing the actual experiment is to
calculate the least count of the two vernier scales V1 and V2. You can
calculate it using the formula for the least count. (Usually both the vernier
scales have the same least count.)
Now that you have set the microscope, you are ready to use it to measure the
inner diameter of a capillary tube.
Procedure of Measurement
1. Hold the capillary tube horizontal in the clamp of a retort stand, as shown
in Fig.1.10. Turn the microscope tube into horizontal position, such that
the objective faces the capillary and focus it on the end of the capillary,
which has a bore.
2. Adjust the travelling microscope to such a position that the vertical
crosswire is exactly at the centre of the bore and horizontal crosswire just
touches the bore at point A as shown in Fig. 1.11a. Note down the main
scale and vernier scale reading on the vertical scale (M1 and V1) of the
Fig. 1.10: Capillary tube
travelling microscope and enter the reading in the column A in
held in a retort stand.
B
C D
A
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1.11: Different positions of the crosswire of the travelling microscope while

measuring the diameter of a capillary tube.
3. Now using the screw S1, move the travelling microscope in the vertical
direction in such a way that the crosswire touches the point exactly
opposite to A (the point B in Fig. 1.11b). Note down the main scale and
vernier scale reading on the vertical scale of the microscope and enter the
reading in the column marked B in the observation table.
4. Next, bring back the horizontal crosswire in the middle of the bore and
move the travelling microscope in the horizontal direction using S2 in such

42

a way that vertical crosswire touches the bore at point C as shown in

Fig.1.11c. Note down the main scale and vernier scale reading on the
horizontal scale (M2 and V2) of the microscope in this position and enter
the reading in the column marked C.
5. Finally, move the travelling microscope in the horizontal direction in such

a way that the vertical cross wire touches the bore at the point exactly
opposite to C (point D in Fig. 1.11d). Note down the main scale and
vernier scale reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope and enter
the reading in the column marked D.
6. Using the above readings, you can calculate the inner diameter of the
tube in vertical and horizontal directions. By calculating the mean of the
vertical and horizontal readings, you can find the internal diameter of the
tube.
7. Repeat steps 2-5 two more times to get 3 sets of readings and calculate
the average diameter of the capillary tube.
Observations
Least count of vernier scale V1:
value of one MSD on M1

LC1 = …………. cm.
number of divisions on the vernier scaleV1
Least count of V2:
value of one MSD on M 2

LC2 = …………. cm
number of divisions on the vernier scaleV2
Note that:
Reading = MS (main scale reading) +
VS (vernier scale reading) × LC (LC1 or LC2)
Observation Table 1.3: Microscope readings
Number of Microscope readings for Internal diameter

Observations crosswire in position
A B C D Vertical Horizontal Diameter
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) Y=BA X=DC =(X+Y)/2
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. d1=
2. d2=
3. d3=
d1 d 2 d 3
Average diameter= cm = …………………. cm.
3
43
BPHCL-132

EXPERIMENT 2
Mechanics: Laboratory

DETERMINATION OF
MOMENT OF INERTIA
OF A FLYWHEEL ABOUT
ITS AXIS OF ROTATION
Structure

2.1 Introduction 2.3 Procedure for Measuring
Moment of Inertia
Expected Skills
2.2 Theory of Flywheel
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Experiment 1, you have learnt how to measured lengths of small orders using apparatus/
devices like vernier calliper and screw gauge. In some special cases, you make use of
travelling microscope as well. Time and mass are other fundamental quantities in Physics.
You will be learning how to measure mass in other experiments of this lab. In this
experiment, you will get an opportunity to determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel. In
this process you will be measuring diameter of the axle of the flywheel and time for the
number of rotations that the flywheel makes before it comes to rest. We begin our discussion
by presenting the general concept of moment of inertia and the moment of inertia of a
flywheel in particular, for completeness. We shall then explain the procedure for doing the
experiment.
Expected Skills
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
investigate how the moment of inertia depends on the mass suspended from the cord
and the distance through which it falls; and
determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel.
44

Experiment 2 Determination of Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel about its Axis of Rotation
Apparatus required
A flywheel, weight box (about 100 g, 200 g, 300 g etc.), stop watch, meter
scale, a cord/string, vernier callipers.
2.2 THEORY OF FLYWHEEL

In Unit 12 of the theory course on Mechanics, you have learnt the concept of
inertia. According to Newton’s first law, every object continues to be in a state
of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It
means that every object offers resistance to change in its state of motion or
rest. This resistance or inertness of bodies to change in motion or state of rest
is called inertia. Inertia is directly proportional to the mass of the body. That is,
in translational motion, mass is a measure of inertia. In rotational motion,
where a body rotates about a fixed axis, the resistance offered depends not
only on its mass but also on the distances of various parts of the body from the
axis of rotation. The resistance of a body to change in rotational motion is
called moment of inertia (MI). So we can say that the moment of inertia is the
rotational analogue of mass. You have learnt about it in Block 3 of the theory
course on Mechanics. It has applications in drawing water from a well for
irrigation where bullocks move in a circular path. In practice, a flywheel is fixed
on the axle of moving parts of machines. It helps to steady the motion; absorb
energy when a machine runs faster and supplies energy when it tends to slow
down. Let us determine the expression of the MI of a flywheel.
Moment of inertia of a flywheel
Study Fig. 2.1. It shows a rigid body of mass M rotating about a fixed axis
passing through O. Note that M ¦ mi where mi is the mass of the i th
particle. All individual particles of thei rigid body describe circular paths about vi
the axis of rotation. Note that the linear velocity and distance from the axis of ri
rotation are different for each particle but the angular velocity (Z) of all
O
particles is the same.
Z
The kinetic energy of a particle situated at a distance ri from the axis of rotation
1
and moving with linear speed vi is mi v i2 . Since vi = ri Z, we can write the
2 Fig. 2.1: A rigid body.
1
expression of kinetic energy as mi ri2Z2 . Thus, the expression of total kinetic
2
energy (KE) of the body rotating about a fixed axis is
1
KE ¦ 2 mi ri2Z2
If Z is constant, we can rewrite it as
1 2 1 2
KE
2
Ȧ ¦
mi ri2
2
Ȧ ,
i
45


where ,is the moment of inertia: , ¦ mi ri2 of the body about the axis of
rotation.
The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is defined as the sum
of the products miri2 taken for all particles making up the body; mi is the
mass of the ith particle, and ri, its distance from the axis of rotation.
Note that the moment of inertia is not a constant quantity. It depends on the
manner in which the mass is distributed about the axis of rotation. For example,
1 2
the moment of inertia of a cylinder about its own axis is Mr (Fig. 2.2a) while
2
its moment of inertia about an axis passing through its middle point and
§ A2 r 2 ·
perpendicular to the cylinder’s axis is M ¨¨ ¸ as shown in
12 4 ¸
© ¹
Fig. (2.2b).
1
, Mr 2
2
§ A2 r 2 ·¸
M¨
¨ 12 4 ¸
© ¹
(b)
(a)
Fig. 2.2: Moment of inertia of a cylinder (a) about its own axis; (b) about an axis
passing through its middle point and perpendicular to the cylinder’s axis.
The flywheel
A flywheel is a heavy wheel with an axle as shown in Fig. 2.3. The mass of the
flywheel is concentrated mostly in the rim. In your physics laboratory, you will
notice that the wheel is set up in a wall with axle at a suitable height from the
ground.
One end of a string is fixed to a small peg/pin on the axle and its other end
carries a mass M. The string is completely wrapped around the axle. When the
mass M is released, the string unwinds itself, thus setting the flywheel in rotation.

Axle

Fig. 2.3: A flywheel with an axle.
46
As the mass M falls, the rate of rotation of the flywheel increases till it
becomes maximum when the string leaves the axle and the mass drops off.
Suppose that the vertical height through which mass M drops before the string
leaves the axle is h. So we can say that weight Mg, falls through a vertical
height h and loses potential energy, PE (= Mgh). It is used in imparting linear
velocity to the mass and the angular velocity to the flywheel. We denote these
by v and Z, respectively, at the instant the mass drops off.
SAQ 1
What considerations lead us to choose an appropriate mass?
We can say that potential energy is used up in
§1 ·
i) imparting rotational kinetic energy ¨ ,Ȧ2 ¸ to the flywheel, where , is
©2 ¹
the moment of inertia of the flywheel about the axis of rotation and Z,
its angular speed,
ii) doing work against friction at the axle, and
1 2
iii) generating kinetic energy in the falling weight Mv .
2
You will note that the flywheel continues to rotate after the weight is detached After the mass detaches,
from the peg. Suppose it makes n rotations in time t before coming to rest. its angular velocity
2 n decreases on account of
Then the average angular velocity of the flywheel is . Assuming that the friction and after some
t
time t, the flywheel finally
motion of the flywheel is uniformly retarded by the frictional force at the axle comes to rest. At the time
and once the final angular velocity is zero, its initial angular velocity must be of detachment of the
(see margin remark) mass, the angular velocity
4Sn of the wheel is Z and when
Z (2.1) it comes to rest its angular
t
velocity is zero. Hence, if
1
Now, the kinetic energy of the flywheel is ,Ȧ2 and this is dissipated in n the force of friction is
2 steady, the motion of the
rotations of the wheel. The energy lost per rotation in overcoming friction is flywheel is uniformly
1 ,Ȧ2 retarded and the average
.
2 n angular velocity during this
interval is equal to Z/2.
If at the start of the motion the string was wrapped n1 times round the axle, the Thus
potential energy of the falling weight used up in overcoming friction is Z/2 = 2Sn/t Z = 4Sn/t
§ 1 ,Ȧ2 ·
n1¨ ¸. Also if v is the velocity of the falling weight at the moment it leaves
¨2 n ¸
© ¹
1 2
the peg, its kinetic energy is given by Mv . Hence, we can write
2
1 2 n1 1 2 1
Mgh ,Ȧ ,Ȧ Mv 2 (2.2)
2 n 2 2
On substituting v rZ, we can rewrite Eq. (2.2) as
47

1 2§ n · 1
Mgh ,Ȧ ¨ 1 1 ¸ Mr 2Ȧ2
2 © n¹ 2
where r is the radius of the axle.
On rearranging the terms of the above expression, we get
2Mgh
Mr 2
Ȧ 2 2Mgh Mr 2
, (2.3)
§ n · 2§ n1 · § n1 ·
¨1 1 ¸ Ȧ ¨1 ¸ ¨1 ¸
© n¹ © n¹ © n¹
Thus by observing time t and taking the values of n and n1 for the flywheel, the
moment of inertia can be calculated using Eq. (2.3).
2.3 PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING MOMENT OF

INERTIA
Follow the steps given below:
1. Take a vernier callipers and determine its least count. You have learnt this
in Experiment 1.
x Identify the main scale (MS) and the vernier scale (VS) on the callipers
and write the number of divisions on VS:
No. of divisions in the vernier scale = …………………………………….
C x Note how many of MS divisions equal all VS divisions:

d1
... No. of divisions in the main scale = .. No. of divisions on vernier scale
x Calculate the least count of your vernier callipers.
A B
Measure the diameter of the axle in two mutually perpendicular directions

as shown in Fig. 2.4 at a number of positions. Record your observations
d2
D taking care of zero error (if any) in the Observation Table 2.1. Determine its
Fig. 2.4: Axle of the mean value. Note that a small error in the value of r will influence the result
flywheel. adversely because the expression of , contains r 2 term.
2. Take a string whose length is less than the height of the axle from the floor.
3. Make a loop at one end of the string and put it round the peg (a brass pin
fitted on the axle of the flywheel as shown in Fig. 2.3).
4. Rotate the wheel anticlockwise with hand and wrap the string evenly and
uniformly around the axle. Make sure that there is no overlapping of or
gaps between various loops. When almost the whole string has been
wound, mark on the string where its contact with the axle just ceases.
Count the number of turns wound and note them under n1 in Observation
Table 2.2. It is expected that in your experiment value of n1 will be
constant.
5. Attach a mass say, 100 g on the free end of the string.
6. When the mass is just below the rim, make a reference mark on the wall.
48

7. Release the mass. You will note that the string gets unwrapped and the
flywheel moves in clockwise direction.
8. If you are working in pairs, one of you should start counting the number of
rotations of the flywheel and the other one should start the stop watch at
the moment the mass detaches. Count the number of rotations (n) that the
flywheel makes before it comes to rest. Stop the stop-watch just when the
flywheel comes to rest.
9. Record the time for which the flywheel continues to rotate after the
detachment of the mass (t).
10. Measure the length of the string between the loop and the mark at the
other end, h, the distance descended by the mass. Record the readings in
11. Repeat steps 4-10 by making the flywheel rotate in the anticlockwise
direction.
12. Repeat steps 4-11 by attaching different masses on the string.
Observation Table 2.1: Measurement of the diameter of the axle of the
flywheel
Least count of the vernier callipers = ……………………… cm
Zero error (With proper sign + or ) = ……………………… cm
S.No. Reading along AB Reading along CD (d1+d2)/2
d1(cm) d2(cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean diameter (d) =……………………….cm

(% error)=…………………….
Mean radius of the axle r = d/2 = …………. cm
Observation Table 2.2: Measurement of h, n, n1 and t

Least count of stop-watch = ……….s
Set Mass Rotation Height n1 n t (s)

No. M(g) h(cm)
Measured Average Measured Average
Clock-wise
1 100
Anti-clockwise
Clockwise
2 200
Anti-clockwise
49


Calculations:
The moment of inertia of the flywheel can be obtained using Eq. (2.3). In this
equation, the value of Z is substituted. Hence, the expression can be rewritten
as
2Mgh Mr 2
,
( 4 ʌn )2 § n · § n1 ·
¨1 ¸
¨1 1 ¸ n¹
t 2 © n¹ ©
Calculate the values of moment of inertia (, ) for all the sets separately using

the above formula. Report your result by taking the mean value of ,.
Result:
Mean value of moment of inertia (, ) of the flywheel about its axis is
= ……….g cm2 = ………kg m2
Precautions for Minimization of Error
1. The string should be uniformly and evenly wound on the axle.

2. The stop-watch should be started at the instant when the string
leaves the peg.
3. The loop slipped over the peg on the horizontal axle should be loose
so that when the string has unwound itself completely, there is no
tendency for the string to rewind in the opposite direction.
4. The axle should be oiled well to minimize friction.

SAQ 2
How does moment of inertia depend upon the axis of rotation?
50

3
Experiment 3 Determination of Young’s Modulus by Bending of Beams
EXPERIMENT

DETERMINATION OF
YOUNG’S MODULUS BY
BENDING OF BEAMS
Structure

3.1 Introduction 3.3 Procedure for Measuring
Expected Skills Depression in a Beam using a
Microscope
3.2 Theory of Cantilever
3.4 Measurement of Depression in
Working Principle of a Cantilever
a Beam using a Telescope and
Bending Moment an Optical Lever
Depression at the Free End of a 3.5 Comparison of Accuracies
Cantilever
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have learnt about the concept of moment of inertia and
measured the moment of inertia of a flywheel. In some experiments of this course you will
measure certain elastic properties of matter about which you have studied in school physics.
In this experiment you will learn to determine Young’s modulus of a material by the method
of bending of beams. Young’s modulus is an indicator of how elastic a one-dimensional
object is when a force is exerted along its length. In the Sec. 3.2, we briefly describe the
underlying theory. In Sec. 3.3, we describe the procedure for measuring depression in a
beam using a microscope. In Sec. 3.4, you will learn how to perform the experiment and take
measurement of depression in a beam using a telescope and an optical lever. Finally in Sec.
3.5, you will compare the accuracies in measurement of depression using microscope and
telescope methods.
In the next experiment, you will learn to measure the modulus of rigidity of a wire using
Maxwell’s needle.
Expected Skills
focus a microscope and a telescope on a given object;
remove parallax error;
51


measure small depressions;
measure depression of the beam using (i) a microscope and (ii) a
telescope and optical lever arrangement and compare the accuracies of
the two methods; and
calculate the value of Young’s modulus of elasticity.
The apparatus required for this experiment is given below.
Apparatus required
A rectangular steel beam, two knife-edges, a travelling microscope, a pin,
an optical lever and scale arrangement, a telescope, metre scale, a
hanger for hanging weights in the middle of the beam, a set of
half-kilogram weights, vernier callipers and a screw gauge.
Let us now describe the underlying theory of this experiment.
3.2 THEORY OF CANTILEVER
If you press a rubber ball or a piece of sponge, you will observe that their
shape undergoes a change. What happens when you stop pressing them? You
will observe that they regain their original shape. In fact, all bodies can, more or
less, be deformed by a suitably applied force and when the deforming force is
removed, they tend to recover their original state. The simplest case of
deformation is observed when we stretch a wire fixed at one end. Addition of
further weight at its other end increases its length. When the suspended
weight is removed from the wire, it tends to come back to its original length.
You may similarly have observed that a train running over a bridge produces a
depression in the rails. However, they attain their normal state once the train
has passed. It means that a body opposes any change in its shape and/or size
by an external force. And once the external force is removed, the body tends to
regain its original normal state. This property is called elasticity. Greater the
force necessary to produce deformation in the body, more elastic it is said
to be.
When a body is subjected to a deforming force, an opposing force comes into

The maximum stress a play and tends to resist the effect of applied force. In equilibrium state, the
material can sustain restoring force is equal to the applied external force. The restoring force per
without undergoing unit area set up inside the body is called stress. The fractional change in the
permanent deformation length, volume or shape of the body is termed as strain. For example, when a
is termed as its elastic
wire is stretched by applying a force along its length, i.e., normal to its
limit.
cross-sectional area, the change occurs in its length. The change in length per
unit original length of the wire is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of stress
to longitudinal strain, within the elastic limit, is called Young’s modulus. The
value of Young’s modulus depends on the nature of the material rather than
the physical dimensions of the sample.
52
The knowledge of Young’s modulus is vital for bridge design as we need to A beam is a bar of
know the precise deformation (depression) in a loaded structure and its parts. uniform cross-section
Refer to Fig. 3.1. When a train passes over the bridge, the beam bends. Its (circular or rectangular)
upper surface is compressed whereas the lower surface is stretched. These of a homogeneous,
deformations are transmitted to other parts of the bridge also. Young’s isotropic (same
modulus also enables us to know the stress which a body, say the connecting properties at all points
and in all directions)
rod or piston of a steam engine or a girder, can bear. (You must have
elastic material.
observed the girders and beams used in bridges and high rise buildings. The
girders are manufactured with their cross-section in the form of the letter ,. In a
beam of rectangular cross-section, the longer side is used as the depth.) In
this experiment you will learn to determine the Young’s Modulus using bending
of the beam.
Fig. 3.1: A railway engine moving over a railway bridge produces depression in
the beam.
When a beam is supported near its ends and loaded at the centre, it shows
maximum depression at the loaded point. However, the depression produced
in the beam depends on its material; in a steel beam, it is so small that you
cannot observe it with unaided eye. Refer to Fig. 3.2, which shows a beam
Fig. 3.2: A beam
supported on two knife-edges indicated by A and B. Suppose that it is loaded
supported near the two
in the middle at C with a weight W. The reaction at each knife edge can be ends and loaded at the
taken to be (W/2) in the upward direction. In this position, the beam may be centre.
considered as equivalent to two inverted cantilevers (read the margin remark),
fixed at C. The bending in these two cantilevers will be produced by the A cantilever is a beam
reaction load – acting upwards at A and B. Therefore, it is important for us to fixed horizontally at one
know how the bending is produced in a cantilever and on what factors it end.
depends.
3.2.1 Working Principle of a Cantilever
Consider the cantilever shown in Fig. 3.3a. Suppose that, weight W1 is acting
at the free end. As soon as the beam is loaded, it bends. Do you know why?
To discover answer to this question, consider the section P1QRP2 of the beam.
Since the load W1 has been applied at the free end of the beam, the restoring
force acts vertically upward along P2 P1. These two forces, the load and the
restoring force, being equal and opposite, form a couple. You will recall from
your school physics and Unit 12 of Block 3 of the theory course on Mechanics
that a couple has the tendency to rotate a body. However, a cantilever cannot
53

rotate because it is fixed at one end. Therefore, the beam bends in the
clockwise direction. This is indicated by the arrow. For this reason, this couple
is called bending couple and the moment of this couple is called bending
moment.
You may now ask: How can a beam be in equilibrium when a couple acts?
This can happen when a balancing couple is acting on the beam. To know
how balancing couple is formed, let us understand what changes take place in
the interior of the beam when its free end is loaded. For this purpose, imagine
the beam to be made up of a large number of small elements placed one
above the other. These small elements are called filaments. When a
cantilever is loaded, the filaments in the upper-half of the beam are stretched
and the filaments in the lower-half are compressed. However, a surface
(or filament) exists in the middle, which is neither stretched nor compressed.
This surface, known as neutral surface, is denoted by EF in Fig. 3.3b.

(a) (b)
Fig.3.3: a) When a cantilever is loaded, it bends; b) filaments in the interior of a
cantilever under the action of a bending couple.
Due to changes induced by the couple, restoring forces are developed in the
filaments, as shown in Fig. 3.4. Above the neutral surface, these forces act
towards the fixed end of the beam and tend to oppose extension. On the other
hand, below the neutral surface, restoring forces act towards the loaded end
and oppose further compression. These two sets of forces act in opposite
directions and their moments about the neutral surface are directed in the
Fig. 3.4: The moments anticlockwise direction (indicated by dotted arrows). This direction is opposite
of forces about the to that in which the beam has been bent due to the bending couple. This set of
neutral axis indicated forces constitutes balancing couple and tends to restore the beam to its
by dashed line oppose original condition. When the beam is in equilibrium, the moment of couple is
bending.
equal to the bending moment. You may now like to know the factors on which
the bending moment depends.
3.2.2 Bending Moment

Consider a small portion of the beam shown in Fig. 3.5a. It is bent in the form
of an arc. Suppose that an element ab on the neutral surface subtends an
angle T at the centre of curvature. Also let R be the radius of curvature of the
part a0b0 of the neutral surface. Then the length of portion acbcof a filament,
54

which is at a distance z from the neutral surface (filament), can be expressed

as acbc = (R + z) T.
When the beam is not bent, the length of this filament is equal to the length RT
of the neutral filament. Therefore, increase in length can be written as
acbc a0b0 = (R + z) T R T = z T (3.1)

Hence
Increase in length zT z
Longitudinal strain = (3.2)
Original length RT R
Now consider a section LMNT, which is perpendicular to the length of the

beam and its plane of bending, as shown in Fig. 3.5b. In this section, consider
a small element of area a at a distance z from the neutral surface. The strain
produced in the filament passing through this area will be z/R.
Small area a

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5: a) A small portion of the beam in strained condition; and

b) LMNT is the cross-section of the beam perpendicular to
its length and the plane of bending.
From the preceding sub-section, you may recall that whenever the length of a
filament increases, a force acts on the filament towards the fixed end of the
beam. You can calculate the magnitude of this force by noting that
Y Stress
Longitudinal strain
so that stress is a product of Young’s modulus of the material of the beam and
longitudinal strain. This shows that stress on area a is
z
S Y (3.3)
R
And the magnitude of force acting on area a is given by
z
F Area u Stress aY (3.4)
R
Moment of this force about the neutral surface is equal to the product of force
and its distance from the neutral surface:
z z2
M Ya z Ya (3.5)
R R
The total moment of the forces acting on all the filaments in the section LMNT
(or in the beam) is given by:
55


2
¦ az
2
is moment of ¦ Yaz
R
Y
R
¦ az 2 Y ,
R
g (3.6)
inertia, ,g of the beam
about the neutral
surface. Therefore, it is
2
where , g ¦ az 2 is the moment of inertia of the beam. Thus, the bending
equal to AK , where A is
moment of the beam is given by Y , g .
area of cross section of R
the beam and K is its
radius of gyration about You may now like to know the relation between moment of the restoring
the neutral surface. For
couple and the depression at the free end of the cantilever.
a rectangular cross-
section, A = b u d and
2
3.2.3 Depression at the Free End of a Cantilever
2 d
K , where b is
12
Refer to Fig. 3.6. It shows a cantilever of length Ɛloaded at the free end. AB
length and d is width of
the rectangular portion. represents its neutral axis. Let us choose the x-axis along its length and the
3 y-axis vertically downwards. When the free end of the cantilever is loaded with
2 bd
? ,g AK (i) a load W1, the maximum depression occurs at its free end. The neutral axis
12
For a circular cross- takes new position ABc and the end B is depressed by G. Consider a section P
2
section, A = Sr and of the beam at a distance x from end A. Due to the load W1, the bending
2 r
2 moment acting on this section is given by
K = where r is its
4 W1 u PB = W1 (Ɛ x)
radius.
4
Y, g
2 r Since the beam is in equilibrium, this must be equal to , the moment of
,g AK (ii) R
4
resistance to bending. Thus, we can write
Y ,g
W1 A x (3.7)
R
x x
x
Refer to any elementary
book on differential
calculus. The complete
expression for radius of
curvature is given by
1 (d 2 y / dx 2 )
3
R 2 2
dy
d
1 Fig. 3.6: A cantilever of length Ɛloaded at the free end.
d
dx
Since the neutral surface remains unstretched, its radius of curvature (R) at
For small bending, 1 d 2y
any given point is given by the relation (read the margin remark).
dy R d x2
1 and we can
dx
Substituting this value of R in Eq. (3.7), we get
ignore it in comparison
to one in the d 2y
denominator of above W1(A x ) YIg
expression. This leads d x2
us to simple expression. d 2y W1
1 d y
2 or (A x) (3.8)
2 YIg
2
dx
R dx
d
Integrating Eq. (3.8) twice with respect to x (read the margin remark), we get
the value of depression (G) at the free end:
56
W1 A3
G (3.9) Integrating Eq. (3.8) with
3YIg
respect to x we get
W1 A 3
Thus the depression at the free end of the cantilever is . dy W1 § 2 ·
3YI g ¨ Ax x ¸ C1
dx Y, g ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹
SAQ 1 – Depression in a cantilever where C1 is constant of
integration.
By looking at Eq. (3.9), list the factors on which the depression at the free end dy
of a cantilever depends. When x = 0, 0
dx
Hence C1 = 0
Now refer again to Fig. 3.2. If the length of the beam AB is L, the length of 2
dy W1 x
both cantilevers (AC or BC) will be L/2. Since the reaction at each knife-edge ? Ax
dx Y ,g 2
is W / 2, we can assume that each cantilever (AC or BC) is loaded at the free
At the free end of the
end by a load W/2. Then Eq. (3.9) can be used to calculate elevation ' of A or
beam (x = Ɛ), y = G.
B above C by substituting W1 = W/2 and Ɛ = L/2: Hence again integrating,
3 between the applicable
W §L· limits we have
¨ ¸
2 ©2¹ A§
' G W1 ¨
·
x2 ¸
3Y, g ³ dy
0 Y, g ³ ¨
¨
©
Ax
2 ¸¸
¹
dx
3 0
WL
3 3
48Y, g W1 A A
?
Y ,g 2 6
The elevation of A or B above C is the same as the depression of C below A 3
W1A
and B. Therefore, on rearranging the above result, you can write
3Y, g
WL3
Y
48 ', g
For a beam with a rectangular cross section of width b and depth d,

,g = bd 3/12. Hence, in terms of the dimensions of the beam, the expression
for Young's modulus simplifies to
WL3
Y (3.10)
4ǻbd 3
From this result, you will note that to determine Young’s modulus, you have to
measure the depression at the centre of the beam when it is loaded with a
known weight W. For steel bars, the magnitude of depression is very small,
and has to be measured very accurately. For this purpose, you will learn how
to use a microscope, telescope and the optical lever arrangement. Let us now
describe the procedure for measuring '.
3.3 PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING

DEPRESSION IN A BEAM USING A
MICROSCOPE
Follow the steps given below to measure the bending of beam by a
microscope:
1. Place the given beam horizontally on the knife-edges, as shown in
Fig. 3.7. See that equal (but small) portions of the beam project beyond
the knife-edges and the smaller side of its cross-section is vertical. 57

2. Suspend a hanger for loading the beam, exactly at the centre, between
the two knife-edges. Attach a small pin (vertically) at the centre of the
beam with the help of wax for reading the position of the beam as shown
in the figure.
3. Focus the travelling microscope on the pin and coincide its horizontal
cross-wire with the tip of the pin. If you are not able to focus the
microscope on the pin, you should seek the help of your counsellor.
4. Before you start taking observations, you should calculate the least count
of the vernier callipers of the travelling microscope. For this purpose, note
the value of the smallest division of the main scale of the microscope and
the number of divisions on the vernier scale. The difference between the
value of one smallest division of the main scale and value of one division
of vernier scale gives its least count. Once you have focused the tip of
the pin and coincided it with the horizontal cross-wire, you are ready to
perform your experiment.
Fig. 3.7: Experimental arrangement for measuring depression of the beam using
a microscope.
5. Read the main scale and the vernier scale readings. This is the reading
when no load is placed in the hanger. Record it in Observation Table 3.1.
6. Next, without disturbing anything at all, place a weight of half-a-kilogram in
the hanger. Is the tip of the pin visible in the field of view of the
microscope? If so, does the tip of the pin coincide with the horizontal
cross-wire? We expect that the tip will not coincide with the horizontal
cross-wire because the beam has been depressed at the centre. You
should observe that a gap appears between the tip of the pin and the
horizontal cross-wire. Move the microscope vertically and make the tip of
the pin to again coincide with the horizontal cross-wire of the microscope.
Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings. Record these in
Increase the load in equal steps of half-a-kilogram. Note the position of
the pin by coinciding it with the horizontal cross-wire every time.
7. Now remove the weights gently in the same steps and note the
microscope readings again.
58
8. Repeat step 7 till there is no weight on the hanger. Note that the weight
should be placed or removed from the hanger very gently.
SAQ 2 – Elastic limit

Why is it necessary to take reading with decreasing load as well?
Observation Table 3.1: Measurement of depression using a microscope

Value of 1 small division of the main scale of the microscope (x) = …. cm
No. of vernier scale divisions (n) = …...
Least count of the microscope (x/n) = ….cm
Microscope reading when the tip of

Sl. No. Load placed the pin coincides with the horizontal Depression
on the hanger cross-wire ' (cm)
W (g) with load with load
Mean
increasing decreasing
(cm)
(cm) (cm)
1. 0
2. 500
3. 1,000
4. 1,500
5. 2,000
6. 2,500
7. 3,000
8. 3,500
This will give you two readings for each load: one with load increasing and the
other with load decreasing. Calculate the mean of these two readings for a given
load. Calculate the depression produced in the beam for each load by subtracting
the initial mean reading from the mean reading for that particular load.
Plot a graph between the load (along x-axis) and depression (along y-axis).
We expect the plot to be a straight line. Draw the best straight line passing as
closely as possible through the observed points, as shown in Fig. 3.8.
Calculate the slope of the straight line by choosing two widely separated
points. The slope will give you the value of '/W.
Fig. 3.8: Graph between depression (') and load (W).

59

3.4 MEASUREMENT OF DEPRESSION IN A
BEAM USING A TELESCOPE AND AN
OPTICAL LEVER
To measure depression in a beam using a telescope, you will require an
optical lever and scale arrangement. (An optical lever consists of a plane
mirror mounted on a tripod stand.) To set up the apparatus follow the steps
below.
1. Place the beam as in Step 1 of Sec. 3.3 of this experiment.
2. Remove the vertical pin and replace it by an optical lever such that the two
legs supporting the mirror M rest on the fixed horizontal base F behind the
beam and the third leg L rests on the beam at its centre C, as shown in
Fig. 3.9. What will happen if you place the two legs supporting the mirror
on the beam and the third leg on the base? If you do so, the depression
will not correspond to the one at the centre. It is important to adjust the
mirror so that it is vertical and parallel to the length of the beam.
Fig. 3.9: Experimental arrangement for measuring depression of a beam using a

telescope and an optical lever.
When a load is placed on the hanger, depression is produced in the

beam. As a result, the leg of the optical lever touching the centre of the
beam would go down. This would tilt the mirror forward. So, to know the
depression in this part of the experiment, you have to measure the angle
through which the mirror tilts. This requires the use of a telescope and a
scale arrangement.
3. Fix a vertical scale in front of the mirror at a distance of about one metre
on a rigid stand so that its image is visible in the mirror. Place the
telescope close to the scale and at the same height as the mirror. Focus
the eye piece so that the horizontal cross-wire of the telescope is distinctly
visible. Now focus the telescope on the image of the scale in the mirror.
For focusing this, you may have to turn the mirror slightly about its
horizontal axis. If you are not able to focus the image of the scale clearly,
60
you should not waste time. Seek guidance of your counsellor and you
should practice it a few times on your own thereafter. When you can
clearly see the image of a scale in the mirror through the telescope, note
the position of the horizontal cross-wire on the image of the scale and
record it in Observation Table 3.2.
What does the position of the horizontal cross-wire signify? Refer to

Fig. 3.10. Here M1 is the initial position of the plane mirror. This means
that what you have recorded is in fact division A of the scale.
Fig. 3.10: Illustrating the principle of optical lever.

We know that when a
4. Now gently place a load of 500 g on the hanger. This would depress the beam of light is incident
beam slightly. As a result of this, the mirror will tilt forward through an on a plane mirror, which
is turned through an
angle, say T. Now, Instead of division A of the scale, you will see another
angle T about a vertical
division on the scale, say B (see Fig. 3.10) in the telescope after reflection axis in its plane, the
from the plane mirror. Record its position in Observation Table 3.2. reflected ray turns
through twice the angle.
5. Increase the load on the hanger in equal steps of half kg. Note down the
position of the horizontal cross-wire of the telescope on the image of the
scale after each addition of load.
6. Now decrease the load on the hanger in the same steps and note the
position of the horizontal cross-wire on the image of the scale in the mirror
every time. Record it in Observation Table 3.2. For each load, calculate
the mean values of the two readings – one taken while increasing the load
and the other while decreasing the load – of the cross-wire thus obtained.
Calculate d for each load by subtracting the initial mean reading (d0) from
the mean reading for that particular load.
7. If distance between the two divisions A and B on the scale is d and D is

the distance between the mirror and scale, then
2T d
D
If the third leg is at a perpendicular distance x from the hind legs P and Q,
the depression, ', of the beam for the given load is given by
61

xd
' = xT (3.11)
2D
From this relation we find that once x, d and D are known, ' can be
readily computed.
8. Measure the distance D between the mirror and the scale and write it in
Observation Table 3.2. To measure x, you should place the optical lever
on a sheet of paper and press it lightly so that impressions of its feet are
obtained on it. From these impressions, determine the perpendicular
distance of the front foot of the optical lever from the line joining the hind
legs. Using Eq. (3.11) you can readily know the depression (') of the
beam for each load and record it in Observation Table 3.2.
Observation Table 3.2: Measurement of depression using a telescope

and an optical lever
Distance D of the scale from the mirror of optical lever =........................….. cm

Perpendicular distance x of the front foot of the optical
lever from the line joining the other two legs =………............….. cm
Sl. Load (W) Position of the horizontal cross-wire G= VG0 xd

No. placed on of the telescope on the image of the ˂
(cm) '
the hanger scale (cm)
(cm)
(g) with with Mean
increasing decreasing
(s)
load load
1. 0 d0 =…
2. 500
3. 1,000
4. 1,500
5. 2,000
6. 2,500
7. 3,000
8. 3,500
Plot a graph between load (W) along the x-axis and depression (') along the
y-axis. You should preferably use the same scale as you have used in case of
W' graph for a microscope. Calculate the slope of the straight line thus
obtained. We expect it to be same as that obtained in Sec. 3.3.
62

3.5 COMPARISON OF ACCURACIES

Now, you have to calculate Young’s modulus in both cases. To do so, you
should measure the thickness and width of the beam and its length between
the knife edges. To measure the length of the beam between the knife edges,
you can use a metre scale. Using different parts of the scale, repeat the
measurement several times and get the mean value. Record your readings in
Observation Table 3.3(a).
Observation Table 3.3(a): Length (L) of the beam between knife-edges

A and B.
Sl. Scale reading for the Scale reading for the Length
No. knife-edge A knife-edge B (x2[1) cm
x1 (cm) x2(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
.
.
Mean length L (cm) = …………… + …….
Use a screw gauge to measure the thickness of the beam at several places
along its length. Make your own Observation Table 3.3(b) similar to the
Observation Table 1.2 described in Experiment 1 and calculate the mean
thickness.
Observation Table 3.3(b): Measurement of thickness (d) of the beam
using screw gauge
Least count of the screw gauge =……...cm
Zero error (if any) with proper sign =……...cm
Mean thickness = …………cm

Corrected value (if zero correction is made) = …………cm
Take at least four readings to measure the width of the beam with vernier
callipers at several places. Record the readings in Observation Table 3.3(c)
prepared by you based on Observation Table 1.1 in Experiment 1. Calculate
the mean value.
Observation Table 3.3(c): Measurement of width (b) of the beam using

vernier callipers
Least count of the vernier callipers = ……..cm
Zero error (if any) with proper sign =……...cm
Mean width = ……….cm + ……………… cm

63


SAQ 3 – Measurement
of small lengths
Suppose that a good screw gauge or vernier callipers is not available in your
lab to measure d and b. Which device a metre scale, a microscope or the
telescope will you use or recommend? Justify your answer.
Knowing L, b, d and the slopes of the straight lines obtained using a

microscope and a telescope, you can easily calculate Young’s modulus of the
material of the beam using Eq. (3.10):
L3 1
Y u =………….. dynes cm2
3 slope
4bd
=………….. N m2
Result: Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam using microscope
=……..N m2
Result: Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam using telescope
and optical lever =……. N m2
Which of these results is closer to the standard value? Theoretically, the
accuracy to which the depression is measured using a microscope is equal to
the least count (L.C.) of the microscope. Suppose that L.C. of microscope is
0.001 cm.
In the case of optical lever arrangement, the least count of vertical scale is
0.1 cm. This is multiplied by the factor x/2D (see Observation Table 3.2).
x 3
If D = 1m = 100 cm and x = 3 cm, then 0.015 . So the least count
2D 200
of measurement of depression by the optical lever arrangement
= 0.1 u 0.015 = 0.0015 cm.
This shows that measurement of depression with microscope (and hence
value of Y) is more accurate than with an optical lever arrangement. But the
optical lever method can be made to give better results than microscope
method. For this you have to think of a way to improve the least count for the
measurement of depression by optical lever arrangement. You may, for
instance, use a half-millimetre scale instead of mm scale. The least count of
the measurement of depression with the optical lever arrangement depends on
(i) the length of tilting arm of the optical lever, x, and (ii) the distance between
the mirror and the scale D. It may not be possible to adjust x unless you can
use another optical lever. However, if we use a high power telescope so that D
can be as large as possible, say 3 m, the optical-lever method can yield more
accurate results.
64

Experiment 4
4
Determination of the Modulus of Rigidity of a Wire using Maxwell’s Needle
EXPERIMENT

DETERMINATION OF
THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
OF A WIRE USING
MAXWELL’S NEEDLE
Structure

4.1 Introduction 4.3 Theory of Modulus of Rigidity
Expected Skills 4.4 Experiment with Maxwell’s
4.2 Familiarization with Maxwell’s Needle Apparatus
Needle Apparatus
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have learnt how to determine Young’s modulus of steel
using the method of bending of beams. The depression produced in the beam loaded with
weights at the centre could be measured either using a travelling microscope or an optical
lever arrangement. You may recall that this information is vital in the construction of buildings
as well as bridges. In this experiment you will determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire
using Maxwell’s needle apparatus. When you visit the physics laboratory at your study
centre, look out for equipment wherein modulus of rigidity plays some role in the
determination of a physical quantity. In particular, look out for torsional pendulum, which
is used to determine modulus of rigidity of a wire and Searle’s apparatus to determine
elastic constants. You can also look for ballistic galvanometer, which is used to study weakly
damped motion
Expected Skills
set up Maxwell’s needle apparatus;

configure it for different mass distributions;
measure the diameter of wire with a screw gauge;
use physical balance for measuring mass; and
take time period readings for harmonic oscillations.
65

The apparatus required to measure modulus of rigidity using Maxwell’s needle
is listed below.
Apparatus required
Maxwell’s needle, a thin long wire whose modulus of rigidity is to be

determined, metre scale, stop watch, physical balance, weight box,
screw gauge, knitting needle fitted vertically on a stand, telescope.
4.2 FAMILIARIZATION WITH MAXWELL’S

NEEDLE APPARATUS
In this experiment Maxwell’s needle is used to determine the modulus of
rigidity of a wire. It essentially uses dynamical method where time periods of
the needle are measured under different configurations.
Refer to Fig. 4.1. You will note that Maxwell’s needle consists of a hollow
brass tube of length L. It is suspended horizontally by a wire fixed to its centre.
The other end of the wire is clamped to a rigid support. The tube carries four
cylinders of identical length (= L/4). Two cylinders (H, H) are hollow of mass
m1, say. Other two cylinders are solid (S, S) and their mass
m2 > m1. A plane mirror M is fixed at the middle of the needle on its top.
Usually a knitting needle is placed vertically and its image can be seen in the
mirror through a telescope mounted at adequate height/position. You will be
required to use a stop watch to note down the time taken by the Maxwell’s
needle to complete certain number of oscillations and a screw gauge to
measure the radius of the wire.
M M
You may recall from your
+2 physics that H S S H S H H S
Stress
Elasticity
Strain L L
Stress is defined as (a) (b)
restoring force developed
Fig. 4.1: Maxwell’s needle apparatus
within the body per unit
area and strain is
fractional change in Before going to the procedure of measurements, let us briefly discuss the
length, volume or shape theory behind this experiment.
of a body. The
corresponding strains are
characterized by Young’s 4.3 THEORY OF MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
modulus, bulk modulus
and modulus of rigidity. We know that all bodies are deformed when a force is applied on them.
Depending on the direction of application of force, we define different elastic
constants. For instance, when the magnitude of applied force is within the
66

Experiment 4 Determination of the Modulus of Rigidity of a Wire using Maxwell’s Needle
elastic limit, all bodies regain their original state on removal of deforming force
due to the restoring force that develops in the body. Young’s modulus, Y,
characterises the effect of applied force in the form of change in length. It is
defined as the ratio of stress to longitudinal strain.
When the applied force produces a change in the shape of a body, leaving its
volume constant, the strain is characterised by the angle of shear. Then the
ratio of stress to shearing strain defines the modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus. We will use Maxwell’s needle to measure the modulus of rigidity of
a wire. For this purpose, we use it in different configurations by changing the
position of its cylinders, thereby changing the mass distribution on needle.
The solid cylinders are placed in the inner positions and the hollow cylinders
in the outer positions in the tube as shown in Fig. 4.1a. When the wire is
twisted, the system begins to execute torsional oscillations about the wire as
the axis of oscillation. The motion of the Maxwell’s needle will be simple
harmonic and the time period of oscillation is given by
T1 2ʌ , 1 / C (4.1)
where ,1 is moment of inertia of the suspended system and C is restoring

couple per unit twist of the wire due to torsional reaction.
Next, the arrangement of solid and hollow cylinders is interchanged so that

solid cylinders are on the outside and the hollow cylinders are in the interior
(Fig. 4.1b). If the needle is made to oscillate again with changed configuration,
we expect the time period to be different from the earlier one. Do you know
that the moment of inertia will be different from the earlier case as mass
distribution about the axis of rotation has changed? If we denote the moment
of inertia in this case by ,2 and make Maxwell’s needle to oscillate as before,
the new time period will be given by
T2 2S , 2 / C (4.2)
On squaring Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) and combining the resulting expressions, we
can write
4S 2
T22 T12 ( , 2 ,1 )
C
4S2 ( , 2 ,1)
C (4.3)
T22 T12
We can relate the restoring couple per unit twist with modulus of rigidity. To do
so, we think of what happens when the wire is twisted in a plane perpendicular
to its length. Due to elasticity, an equal and opposite torque develops in the
wire. In the equilibrium position, the twisting couple is equal and opposite to
the restoring couple. The restoring torque per unit radian is given by
S nr 4
C (4.4)
2A
67

where n is the modulus of rigidity, r is the radius of the wire and A is its length.
On combining Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4), we can write

8SA ( , 2 ,1)
n (4.5)
(T22 T12 ) r 4
From this result, you will note that to determine n, we must know ,1 and ,2.
Normally, it is not easy to determine the moment of inertia of a body accurately
and any error gets magnified because of the difference ( , 2 ,1) . However, in
this method, we can counter this difficulty by expressing the difference
( , 2 ,1) in terms of the difference of masses of the cylinders ( m2 m1) and
the length of the Maxwell needle tube. To understand this, note that the
centres of mass of the inner and outer cylinders lie at distance L/8 and 3L/8,
Principle of parallel respectively, from the axis of oscillation. Therefore, the essential change from
axes states that the
moment of inertia of a
the first configuration, where solid cylinders occupy the inner positions, to the
body about any axis is second configuration, when they occupy the outer positions, consists of
equal to its moment of transferring mass ( m2 m1) from a distance L/8 to a distance 3L/8 from the
inertia about a parallel axis of oscillation on either side of it. Due to this, the moment of inertia of the
axis through its centre of
loaded tube changes. Using the principle of parallel axis (read the margin
mass plus the product of
the mass of the body and remark) in the instant case, we can write
the square of the
ª§ 3L ·2 § L ·2 º
distance between the two ,2 ,1 2(m2 m1)«¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ». (4.6)
axes. You may have «¬© 8 ¹ © 8 ¹ »¼
studied this principle in
your Class 12. Note that we have multiplied the mass by a factor of 2 to account for the
change taking place on both sides of the axis of rotation.
On simplification, we can rewrite Eq. (4.6) as
§ 9L2 L2 ·
, 2 ,1 2 (m2 m1) u ¨ ¸
¨ 64 64 ¸
© ¹
L2
(m2 m1) (4.7)
4
On combining Eqs. (4.5) and (4.7), we get
2SA (m2 m1) L2

n (4.8)
(T22 T12 ) r 4
Eq. (4.8) expresses modulus of rigidity in terms of A, m1, m2 , L,T1,T2 and r .

These physical quantities can be determined accurately and therefore
Maxwell’s needle provides us a fairly precise method for determination of
modulus of rigidity. Note that
1. The physical quantities occur with different powers. For instance, radius of
the wire occurs in the fourth power and a small error in its determination
will affect the result significantly. Therefore, you must determine its value
very carefully and we recommend the use of a screw gauge for this
purpose.
68

2. In the formula of modulus of rigidity, difference of the squares of time

periods occurs in the denominator. Since it will be very small, it is
important to obtain values of T1 and T2 by noting time for 20 oscillations.
4.4 EXPERIMENT WITH MAXWELL’S NEEDLE

APPARATUS
To measure the modulus of rigidity using Maxwell’s needle, you should
perform the following steps:
1. Take a long kink-free wire (about 1 m) of the material whose modulus of

rigidity is to be determined. (If there is any kink, it must be removed before
you begin your experiment. A simple method could be to hold the wire in
the folds of a handkerchief and pull it along the length. If you succeed, fine.
Otherwise, request your Counsellor to get it changed.)
2. Suspend the wire from a rigid support and fasten the mid point of hollow
tube of Maxwell’s needle to its other end. You must ensure that the needle
is horizontal and the mirror faces you.
3. Place a knitting needle in front of the mirror so that its tip is in the middle of
the mirror. (It will act as an indicator while counting the number of
oscillations.) Now focus a telescope from a distance of about 1.5 m on the
image of the tip of the needle formed in the mirror and remove parallax, if
any.
4. Using the weighing balance measure the masses of two hollow and two
solid cylinders separately. Note the masses of hollow cylinders under m1
and that of solid cylinders under m2 in Observation Table 4.1. Calculate
average masses of m1 and m2.
5. Put the solid cylinders SS in the middle and the hollow cylinders HH on the
outer side. You must ensure that
i) the Maxwell’s needle is horizontal, and
ii) no part of the cylinders projects outside the tube.
(If the needle is not horizontal, up and down motion of the needle will
lead to erroneous results.)
6. Push one end of Maxwell’s needle slightly backward in a horizontal plane
and let it go. The needle will begin to execute torsional oscillations.
7. When the motion becomes steady, i.e. there is neither up and down nor
lateral motion, determine the time for 20 oscillations (t1). To do so, you
should start the stop watch when the image of the needle crosses towards
left or right vertical cross-wire of the telescope and count the time taken for
20 oscillations. (You must have learnt to use a stop watch in your +2
classes.) Record your reading in the Observation Table 4.1A. You should
switch off the fan while taking readings.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 at least five times.
69

9. Next repeat steps 6 to 8 above by interchanging the position of hollow and
solid cylinders and noting the readings for 20 oscillations under t2.
10. Measure the length of Maxwell’s tube (L) as well as the length of the wire
(A) and record these in Observation Table 4.1.
C 11. Since the fourth power of the radius of the wire occurs in the formula of
rigidity modulus and its value is very small, you must measure its diameter
very accurately. Take readings for at least five different positions along the
A B length of the wire using a screw gauge. For greater accuracy, measure the
diameter at each position in two mutually perpendicular directions, AB and
CD as shown in Fig. 4.2. This will help you to minimise the effect of non-
D uniformity in the cross-section of the wire.
Fig. 4.2: Cross section
of a wire 12. Calculate the modulus of rigidity using Eq. (4.8).
Observation Table 4.1

Length of the wire, A = ……………………… cm
Length of Maxwell’s tube, L = ……………………… cm
..... .....
Average mass of hollow cylinders, m1 ........ g
2
..... .....
Average mass of solid cylinders, m2 ........ g
2
A. Determination of Time Periods
No. of oscillations, n = 20
Least count of stop watch = …….. s
Sl.No. Time t1 for n Time t2 for n t1 t2

T1(s) T2 (s)
oscillations oscillations n n
(s) (s)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average value of T1 = ………… s
Average value of T2 = ………… s

70

B. Determination of Radius of Wire

Least count of screw gauge = ………….. cm
Sl.No. Diameter (cm) Radius (cm)

Along AB Along CD Along AB Along AB
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average radius along AB, r1 = …………….. cm
Average radius along CD, r2 = …………….. cm
r1 r2
Mean value r cm
2
Calculations:
Modulus of rigidity of wire (from Eq. 4.8)
2SA (m2 m1) L2

n
(T22 T12 ) r 4
Result: The modulus of rigidity of wire = …………. u 1011 dyne cm2.
71

5

EXPERIMENT
DETERMINATION OF
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
OF A WIRE BY
SEARLE’S METHOD
Structure

5.3 Theory of Elastic Constants
5.1 Introduction
5.4 Measurements with Searle’s
Expected Skills
Apparatus
5.2 Familiarisation with Searle’s
5.5 Calculations
Apparatus
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier experiments, you have learnt how to determine Young’s
Within elastic limits, bulk
modulus (Y) and modulus of rigidity (n) of a material using the modulus is defined as
method of bending of beams and Maxwell’s needle, respectively. the ratio of stress to
There are two other elastic constants: Bulk modulus (K) and volume strain:
Poisson ratio (V). You may now ask: Can we determine all these Stress F/A
elastic constants in one experiment? The answer to this question is K
Vol. Strain ( 'V / V )
yes, we can. In a physics laboratory, Searle’s apparatus is used to Poisson ratio is defined
determine Y, n, V and K. In this experiment you will learn to use it as the ratio of lateral
for obtaining various elastic constants. strain to linear or
tangential strain. It is
Expected Skills denoted by the symbol V.
Its value lies between 0.2
After performing this experiment, you should be able to: and 0.4 and it has no
list the constituents of Searle’s apparatus; units.
assemble Searle’s apparatus;

set up the constraint system and bring it in oscillation
mode and obtain the value of Young’s modulus;
set up the apparatus to take measurements for determining modulus of rigidity;
determine Poisson ratio from the values of Young’s modulus and modulus of rigidity;
and
calculate the bulk modulus from obtained values of Young’s modulus and Poisson
72 ratio.

Experiment 5 Determination of Elastic Constants of a Wire by Searle’s Method
We now list the apparatus required to perform this experiment.
Apparatus required
Two identical rods (bars) of circular (or square) cross-section with

arrangement to hang, a thin wire of about 30 cm length, a stop watch, a
screw gauge, a vernier callipers, inextensible thread, metre scale, weight
box and a physical balance.
5.2 FAMILIARIZATION WITH SEARLE’S

APPARATUS
Refer to Fig. 5.1a. It shows two identical rods AB and CD joined at their
centres by a wire FH (of length L). We have to determine elastic constants of
the material of this wire. This system is suspended horizontally from a rigid
support by two parallel torsionless vertical inextensible threads, E F c and
G H c , preferably of silk, so that when the wire is straight and the system is in
equilibrium position, the rods will be parallel to one-another in the plane
ABDC. The threads are attached to small needle holes at F c and H c at the
middle of the rods. The rods are turned through a small equal angle (T) in
opposite directions in a horizontal plane. For this, ends A and C are drawn
towards each other, as shown in Fig. 5.1b.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.1: Searle’s apparatus for determination of elastic constants:

a) equilibrium position; and b) instantaneous constrained
configuration.
In this constrained condition, the wire FH bends into a circular arc. As A and
C are released, the rods begin to execute torsional oscillations. By taking the
reading of time period of these oscillations, we can arrive at the elastic
constants of the wire. Now we will discuss briefly the theory governing these
measurements.
73


5.3 THEORY OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS
When we set the rods in torsional oscillations, the middle points of bars
remain essentially at rest. However, if the amplitude of oscillations is small,
the arc will almost resemble a straight line. This means that the distance
between the lower ends F and H of the supporting threads remains
practically constant implying that the threads in Fig. 5.1b remain vertical
during the oscillations of the rods/bars. This suggests that under small
oscillation approximation, no horizontal components of tensions in the
threads act on the wire.
Note that the mass of the wire is negligible compared with that of the rods
and the mid-points of the rods remain at rest, i.e., there is no horizontal or
vertical motion. Therefore, the action of the wire on either rod manifests as a
couple. The moment of this couple is the same at every point of the wire and
it bends into a circular arc.
If the radius of the arc is R and the angle of deflection of each rod from its
respective equilibrium position is T, we can write
L R 2T (5.1a)
where L is length of the wire and 2T denotes the angle subtended by the wire
at the centre of curvature of the circular arc into which it bends.
By rearranging Eq. (5.1a), we can write
L
R (5.1b)
2T
In the experiment of bending of beam (Sec. 3.2.2), we have already obtained
the expression for the bending moment of a beam (Eq. 3.6). Applying the
same arguments, the bending moment of the wire and the couple exerted by
it on each rod is given by:
Y ,g Sr 4 Y S r 4T
G Y (5.2)
R 4R 2L
where Y is Young’s modulus for the material of the wire and , g ( Sr 4 / 4) is
the geometrical moment of inertia of the area of cross-section of the wire
about an axis passing through the centre of the area and normal to the plane
of bending.
d 2T
This couple produces an angular acceleration in each rod directed
dt 2
towards its equilibrium position. Hence, we can write
d 2T Y Sr 4 T
, (5.3)
dt 2 2L
where , is the moment of inertia of each rod about an axis passing through
its centre of gravity (C.G.) and perpendicular to its length, A, i.e., about the
thread from which it is suspended. We can rewrite Eq. (5.3) as
74

d 2T Y Sr 4
T (5.4)
dt 2 2, L
Do you recognise this equation? It represents S.H.M and can be written as
d 2T Y Sr 4
Z2T 0 where Z2 .
dt 2 2, L
The period of harmonic oscillation of each rod is given by
2S 2, L
T1 2S
Z Y Sr 4
8SL ,
Y (5.5)
T12r 4
If the rods have square or rectangular cross-section with length A and

breadth b, we can write
ª A2 b2 º
, M« » (5.6a)
¬« 12 ¼»
where M is mass of the rod.
If the cross-section of the rods is circular with radius Rc , we can write
§ A2 R 2 ·
, M¨ c ¸ (5.6b)
¨ 12
© 4 ¸¹
Note that Eq. (5.5) provides us a method of determining Young’s modulus

Y of the material of the wire FH. You may now ask: How can we determine
other elastic constants using this apparatus? To obtain the modulus of
rigidity, remove the rods from their suspensions and fix one of these
horizontally to a rigid support, as shown in Fig. 5.2. The wire is hung
vertically with the other rod suspended horizontally at its lower end.
A B
C H D
Fig. 5.2: Arrangement of Searle’s apparatus for obtaining modulus of rigidity.

75


Now suppose the wire is twisted through a small angle by moving the rod CD
in a plane perpendicular to its length in anticlockwise direction. The rod will
begin to execute oscillations in the horizontal plane on being released. Do
you recognise this system and say how it will act? This arrangement works
like a torsional pendulum.
For SHM, the time period of oscillation is given by
,
T2 2S (5.7)
C
where , is moment of inertia of rod CD about the axis of rotation passing

Snr 4
through its centre and C is the restoring torque per unit radian in the
2L
wire of radius r, length L and modulus of rigidity n. As explained in
Experiment 4, the restoring torque develops in the wire due to elasticity. On
squaring the expression given in Eq. (5.7), we can write
Snr 4 4S 2 ,
C
2L T22
8S , L
so that n (5.8)
T22 r 4
On combining Eqs. (5.5) and (5.8), we get
Y T22
(5.9)
n T12
Y
The ratio is known to be connected to Poisson ratio, V, through the
n
relation
Y
2 (1 V) (5.10)
n
Y T22
so that V 1 1 (5.11)
2n 2T12
Also the bulk modulus, K and Young’s modulus, Y are related to Poisson
ratio as
Y
1 2V (5.12)
3K
1 Y
so that K (5.13)
3 (1 2V )
It is important to note that Y, n and V can be determined using Searle’s
apparatus by simply observing the time periods of oscillation in two different
configurations. And the bulk modulus can be obtained from the measured
values of Y and V. To that extent, this method is rather straightforward.
76

5.4 MEASUREMENTS WITH SEARLE’S

APPARATUS
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 5.1a so that the rods AB and CD
lie in the same horizontal plane. For this, you can take two inextensible
cotton or silk threads of about 60 cm length.
2. Set up a pointer close to the centre of one of the rods and make a mark
on the rod in line with the pointer when the Searle’s apparatus is in
equilibrium position and the rods are at rest.
3. Pass a cotton loop around the ends A and C. This will help you to draw
these ends towards each other through a small angle. Make sure that the
constrained system is at rest.
4. Burn the cotton loop. The ends A and C will become free and the rods
will begin to oscillate. Make sure that the amplitudes of oscillations of
these rods are small, about 3s. Note the least count of the stop watch
and use it to observe time (t) for say 20 oscillations and record it in
5. Repeat Steps (3) and (4) outlined above at least five times. From these
t t t t t
you can calculate the mean value of time period T1 1 2 3 4 5 .
5 u 20
6. Remove the (cotton or silk) threads supporting the rods in the suspension
configuration and clamp one of the rods, say AB, horizontally with a rigid
support, as shown in Fig. 5.2. You must make sure that the wire is
vertical.
7. Twist the wire by rotating one end of the rod CD in a horizontal plane
through a small angle and then release it. The rod will execute torsional
oscillations. Before you start noting time (t c) for say, 20 oscillations, you
must make sure that the rod does not wobble.
8. Repeat Step 7 at least five times and record your readings in

9. Measure the diameter of the wire at a minimum of five different places

along the length of the wire in two mutually perpendicular directions XXc
and YYc using a screw gauge. This will help in minimising the effect of
inhomogeneity in wire thickness. Record your readings in Observation
Table 5.2.Note that a small error in the radius will significantly influence
the values of elastic constants since its fourth power occurs in their
expressions. Moreover, its magnitude is small; therefore, you must
determine r very carefully.
Measure the length of the wire under study (L) using a metre rod and
note it under Observation Table 5.2.
10. Determine mass M and length A of the rod CD accurately and record
these at the top of the Observation Table 5.3. To measure the radius Rc
77


of rod CD, you can use vernier callipers. Take at least five readings at
different places and record these in Observation Table 5.3.
Observation Table 5.1: Measurement of time periods 71 and 72
No. of oscillations = 20
Least count of stop watch = …….. s
Sl.No. W Wc
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6t 6t c
T1 ...........s T2 .........s
100 100
Observation Table 5.2: Measurement of radius of wire

Least count of screw gauge = ………….. cm
Sl.No. Diameter (cm) Mean diameter (cm)
Along ;;c Along <<c
1. d1
2. d2
3. d3
4. d4
5. d5
Mean diameter of wire = d = …………….. cm

d
Mean radius of wire = r = …………….. cm
2
Length of wire = L = …………….. cm
78
Observation Table 5.3: Measurement of radius of rod

Mass of rod CD = M = …………….. g
Length of the rod CD, A = …………….. cm
Least count of vernier callipers = ……………. cm
Sl.No. Diameter (cm) Mean diameter (cm) In case, the rod has
rectangular cross
Along ;;c Along <<c section, you will measure
its breadth using vernier
1. D1
callipers and use
2. D2 Eq. (5.6a) to calculate ,.
3. D3
4. D4
5. D5
Mean diameter of the rod CD = D = …………….. cm
D
Mean radius of rod CD = Rc = …..……………cm
2
5.5 CALCULATIONS
Use the following formulae for calculating the values of various elastic
constants:
8SL § A 2 Rc2 · 2
i) Y 4 2
M¨ ¸ dyne cm
r T1 © 12 4 ¹
8SL § A2 Rc2 · 2
ii) n M¨ ¸ dyne cm
r 4T22 © 12 4 ¹
Y
iii) V 1
2n
Y
iv) K dyne cm 2 .
3(1 2V )
Result: The values of elastic constants determined using Searle’s apparatus

are as follows:
Y .......... ........ dyne cm2
n .......... ........ dyne cm2
V ..................
K .......... ........ dyne cm 2
On knowing these values you can determine the material of the wire. For this
you should look at standard values given in a laboratory manual or consult
your Counsellor.
79
6

EXPERIMENT

DETERMINATION OF
ACCELERATION DUE TO
GRAVITY USING BAR
PENDULUM
Structure

6.1 Introduction 6.3 Procedure for Determining
Expected Skills Gravitational Acceleration
Bar Pendulum
6.2 Theory of Compound Pendulum
Measuring Oscillations
Setting up and Measurements with Bar
Pendulum
Determination of the Radius of Gyration
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Experiment 5, you have learnt how to determine the elastic constants
(Young’s modulus, Modulus of rigidity, Bulk modulus and Poisson ratio)
using Searle’s apparatus. All these elastic constants were determined in one
experiment. Now, in this experiment, you will work with oscillating systems.
In your school, you must have worked with a simple pendulum. You know
You might recall that in that a simple pendulum is a heavy (point) mass suspended from a rigid
your school physics support by a weightless, inextensible string. In practice, a simple pendulum
course you studied only is made up of heavy metallic bob suspended from a rigid support by means
the dependence of of an ordinary string. (So you must appreciate that what we have in practice
period on the length of
is not an ideal simple pendulum!) It can freely oscillate to and fro about the
simple pendulum.
point of suspension in a plane. A pendulum, as you know, happens to be the
main equipment inside a wall clock. The maximum displacement of the bob
on either side of its equilibrium position is called the amplitude of oscillation.
The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called time
period.
You may think that a simple pendulum is an ideal arrangement for time
measurement. But it is not so; a practical simple pendulum has some
80 inherent drawbacks, which we discuss in Sec. 6.2. Use of a compound
Experiment 6 Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity using Bar Pendulum
pendulum eliminates some of these drawbacks. In this experiment, we shall

restrict ourselves to the oscillatory motion of a bar pendulum. Using the bar
pendulum, you will measure acceleration due to gravity as described in Sec.
6.3. In the next experiment, you will determine acceleration due to gravity
using a Kater’s pendulum which has inhomogeneous mass distribution.
Expected Skills
establish the relation between the time period and the length of a bar
pendulum;
discover the dependence of the period on the length of a bar
pendulum;
compute the value of acceleration due to gravity using a bar pendulum;
and
compute the radius of gyration of a bar pendulum.
The apparatus you will require for this experiment is listed below.
Apparatus required
Bar pendulum, stop watch, metre scale.
6.2 THEORY OF COMPOUND PENDULUM

We know that a simple pendulum suffers from the drawback that some air is
always dragged by the bob. Similarly, the string may not be perfectly

inextensible leading to non-planar oscillations and motion about the point of
S
suspension may have rotational component, etc. These sources of error
sometimes lead to variation in the value of T. Can you suggest a way to ș
overcome these problems? The remedy lies in the use of a compound L

pendulum. L
Consider a compound pendulum of mass m suspended from point S.

Suppose it is given a small angular displacement ș as shown in Fig. 6.1. A G’
Now the centre of gravity (CG) G, is shifted to point Gc with gravitational G
force mg acting in downward direction. mg
When the distance SG = SGc = L, the torque experienced is
mg AG Fig. 6.1: Compound

pendulum in motion.
mgL sin
For small angle T, we can approximate sinT | T and hence
mgL (i)
81
If the angular acceleration due to torque is D and the moment of inertia of the
rigid body about S is ,, we can write
d2
2
(ii)
dt
d
Hence we have,
2
d T
, mgLT
dt 2
or
2
d T mgL
T (iii)
2 ,
dt
This equation represents a simple harmonic motion, and can be expressed

in terms of oscillation frequency Z0 as given by
2
d T 2
Z0 T 0 (6.1)
2
dt
mgL
where Z02
,
Now the period of oscillation T is related to Z0 by the relation
2S ,
T 2S (6.2)
Z0 mgL
To obtain T, we should express the moment of inertia , in terms of

measurable quantities. You know that the moment of inertia of a body about
a given axis ( , ) and its moment of inertia about the axis passing through its
CG (,g) are related by the following relation:
, , g mL2 m(k r2 L2 ) (6.3)
where L is the distance between the two axes, , g mk r2 and k r is the radius
of gyration of the body about an axis passing through G.
The radius of gyration is
Substituting for , from Eq. (6.3) in Eq. (6.2) we get
the radial distance
between the axis and
the point at which the m(kr2 L2 ) kr2 L2
T 2S 2S
whole mass of the body mgL gL
could be placed without
any change in the
moment of inertia of the kr2
L
body about that axis. 2S L (6.4)
g
82

kr2
Substituting L Lc , we get
L
Lc
T 2S (6.5)
g
You will recall that this is the expression for the period of oscillations of a
simple pendulum. Length L c is termed as the equivalent length of a
simple pendulum for the given compound pendulum. This means that the
§ k r2 ·
time period of a simple pendulum of length Lc ¨¨ L ¸¸ is the same as that
© L ¹
of the compound pendulum with radius of gyration kr and with distance L
between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity.
When the distance between the point of suspension S and centre of gravity
2
k
G is L, a point P exists on the other side of G at the distance r , which
L
corresponds to same time period of oscillation. It is the centre of
oscillation. The distance between S and P is
2
k
L r ( L c)
L
Hence the centre of oscillation lies at the equivalent length of the simple
pendulum (Lc) from the point of suspension. Since the period of oscillation is
same for both these points, we can use them interchangeably.
Therefore, when the compound pendulum is made to oscillate about a

horizontal axis, its motion is simple harmonic and the time period is given by
kr2 L2
T 2S (6.6)
Lg
where L is the distance between the point of suspension and CG and kr is

the radius of gyration of the body.
Eq. (6.6) is a general equation for the time period of a compound pendulum.
Now we define
kr2
Lc L
L
and call it the length of an equivalent simple pendulum. The time period is
given by
Lc
T 2S (6.7)
g
83

In this part of the experiment, you are required to investigate how the period
of oscillation of a bar pendulum varies with distance between its point of
suspension and CG.
6.3 PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING

GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION
6.3.1 Bar Pendulum
A bar pendulum is a rigid body capable of oscillating freely about a horizontal
axis. In the physics laboratory, it is normally available in the form of a bar of
length nearly one metre and width about 2.5 cm. A series of circular holes,
5-6 mm in radius, are drilled symmetrically about its centre of gravity (CG),
i.e. along the length of the bar as shown in Fig. 6.2a.) The centres of any two
consecutive holes are at equal distances of about 5 cm. These holes allow

(a) the bar to be suspended from a knife-edge. Usually, two movable knife-
edges are provided with the bar pendulum. These can be fitted successively
in various holes, one on each side of CG and at equal distances from it. You
may now realise how deficiencies in a simple pendulum are taken care of in
a compound bar pendulum.
6.3.2 Measuring Oscillations

Make a reference mark using a pointer at the equilibrium position of the bar
pendulum as well as at the maximum displacement of oscillation. You should
keep the amplitude constant in each observation and it should be such that
at no time, the small angle approximation is violated (T d 10q). That is, the
motion should be simple harmonic. This may be ensured by using a
protractor. (If a protractor is not available in the laboratory, you can make
(b) angle markings on a separate sheet of paper. Place the graduated scale
Fig. 6.2: a) A bar behind the pendulum in such a way that the zero angle line coincides with
pendulum; b) pendulum the equilibrium position of the pendulum. Moreover, the origin of angular
with angles graduated scale should be aligned with the point of suspension, as shown in Fig. 6.2b)
sheet.
If you are working with
another student, one of
you can count while the
other keeps time. The
‘counter’ should begin
countdown two, one, “go”,
one, two… and so on.
This gives the timekeeper
a warning about the ‘Go”
signal. The end of
counting may be indicated
by saying ‘stop’. Make
sure that each one of you
takes at least one
complete observation One complete oscillation One complete oscillation
individually. CoAo B o AoC Ao Bo Ao Co A
84 Fig. 6.3: Two different ways of counting the number of oscillations

To begin with, note the least count of the stop watch and record it in
Observation Table 6.1. Now set the bar pendulum in motion by displacing The reaction time is the
it on one side. To count the number of oscillations, you can choose time interval between the
your reference point in two ways, as shown in Fig. 6.3. We prefer the input stimulus and its
second option because the reference point remains unaltered in this response.
case.
Begin your counting through the equilibrium position of the bar pendulum.
It is important to simultaneously start the stopwatch. (There can be time
lag between the starting/stopping the watch and the oscillation count
due to reaction time, which is, on an average, 0.3s. This can introduce some
error in the value of time period T.) An important point to consider here is to
The least count of an
know the degree of accuracy that is necessary. Another point is to measure
ordinary stop-watch is of
a time interval in which the amplitude of swing does not diminish 0.1 s. So whenever you
significantly. To see this, you can note time for 1, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 100 have to measure time of
oscillations. You should take at least three observations in each case. the order of one second
Record your readings in Observation Table 6.1. Calculate the period of or so, you should use a
oscillation, T. more accurate automatic
switching device, such as
digital timer.
Observation Table 6.1: Determination of optimum number of
oscillations
Least count of stop watch = ……………………s
Sl. No. of Time Mean Time

No. oscillations T=
(s) 1
(N) (s)
(i) (ii) (iii) (mean)
1. 1
2. 10
3. 20
4. 30
5. 50
6. 70
7. 100
Conclusion: The optimum number of oscillations is…………….

To decide on the optimum number of oscillations, observe the variation in the
value of T. When the difference between two successive values of T is less
than 0.1 percent, it is acceptable. We expect the optimum number of
oscillations to be 50. However, do not consider the number ‘50’ to be
sacrosanct. Make your own decision.
85
6.3.3 Setting up and Measurements with Bar

Pendulum
To set up the bar pendulum and take measurements follow the steps given
below.
1. Fix one knife-edge in the hole nearest to one end of the bar pendulum.
The other knife-edge is fixed in the hole nearest to the other end so that
the two knife-edges are equidistant from and symmetrically placed with
respect to the CG of the bar.
2. Now suspend the pendulum vertically by resting it on one of the knife-

edges on a horizontal rigid support.
3. As before, put a reference mark to denote the mean position of the

pendulum.
4. Measure the distance between the point of suspension (centre of the

hole) and the CG of the bar. This gives us L.
5. Displace the bar slightly aside and let it oscillate. You should ensure
free oscillations in the vertical plane. Now you are ready to perform the
experiment.
6. Now set the bar pendulum in oscillations by gently pushing the free end
of pendulum from equilibrium position. Make sure that the pendulum
One complete oscillation oscillates in a plane parallel to the support wall of the pendulum and
of a pendulum is defined does not touch the wall.
as the movement of
pendulum from its 7. Now measure the time for N (= 30) complete oscillations. Record your
equilibrium position to its readings in Observation Table 6.2(a). Repeat this step three times.
extreme left and reaches
to the extreme right and 8. Invert the pendulum and note the time for the same number of
then comes to its oscillations. Note the readings in Observation Table 6.2(b), which you
equilibrium position
will prepare on the lines of Observation Table 6.2(a).
again.
9. Now insert the knife-edges in the adjacent holes so that they are
symmetrical about CG, as before. You will note that now the length of
the pendulum has been changed and the time of N oscillations is
expected to be different from the preceding value.
10. Repeat observations by inserting the knife-edges in different holes and

taking readings on either side of CG. At all times, the knife-edges should
be symmetrical about CG. What happens as you approach the centre of
the bar? You will observe that the time for N oscillations first decreases,
takes a minimum value and then begins to increase. As you near the
CG of the bar, it becomes very large.
11. See what happens when the knife-edge in put at the central hole.
You will note that the bar will not oscillate; it just gets struck up on one
side.
86
Observation Table 6.2(a): Variation of time period with distance of a
hole from CG
Least count of the stop watch =………….……….s
Time for oscillations
Sl. Distance of the
N = 30
No. point of
Time LT 2
suspension
period
from CG (i) (ii) (iii) Mean (cm s2)
T (s)
L (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Plot a graph between T and L on either side of CG as abscissae. You will Prepare a similar
Observation Table 6.2(b)
get two curves which are symmetrical about the CG of the bar (Fig. 6.4).
for noting the readings,
Now you draw a line parallel to the x-axis. At how many points does it taken by inverting the point
intersect these curves? The number of points should be four, say at J, K, M of oscillation at each step.
and N, as shown in Fig. 6.4. At all these points, the period of the pendulum is
the same.
Lc
c
L (cm) CG L (cm)
Fig. 6.4: Plot of time period with distance of point of suspension from CG.
87
Measure distances JM and KN. How do you interpret these? Each of these
distances represents the length of an equivalent simple pendulum, Lc. Using
Eq. (6.7), you can compute the acceleration due to gravity.
Result: Acceleration due to gravity = ……………………………………......
6.3.4 Determination of the Radius of Gyration

To calculate the radius of gyration, we rewrite Eq. (6.6) as
§ 4 S 2 · 2 4 S2 2
LT 2 ¨ ¸L kr (6.8)
¨ g ¸ g
© ¹
This equation suggests that if you plot LT 2 versus L2, you will obtain a
4 2 4 2 2
straight line, whose slope is and intercept is k c, say.
g g r
Hence
4 S2
g (6.9)
slope
and the radius of gyration is given by
cg
kr2
4S2
cg
or kr (6.10)
2S
Result: i) The radius of gyration of the bar pendulum is …….... m
ii) The acceleration due to gravity is ………………..…...ms2
SAQ 1 – Bar pendulum
i) Why is it necessary to put the knife-edges symmetrically about CG?

ii) Name two sources of error in your experiment.
88

7
Experiment 7 Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity by Kater’s Pendulum
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINATION OF
ACCELERATION DUE TO
GRAVITY BY KATER’S PENDULUM
Structure

7.1 Introduction 7.3 Experiment with Kater’s Pendulum
Expected Skills Setting up the Apparatus
7.2 Basic Theory and Construction of Taking Measurements
Kater’s Pendulum
7.1 INTRODUCTION
You know that a rigid body performing harmonic oscillations about a point of
suspension is known as compound pendulum. In the last experiment you
S
worked with a bar pendulum, which is a regular shaped rigid body with its
centre of gravity (CG) coinciding with its centroid (body centre). But in
practice, the shape of the rigid pendulum can be arbitrary and the CG need
not be situated at its centroid. One such rigid pendulum is shown in Fig. 7.1. L
When the pendulum is hanging freely, its CG shown by point G lies vertically
below the point of suspension S. When this pendulum is given a small
angular displacement, it performs simple harmonic motion about its
equilibrium position. G
In such a pendulum, there exists another point P on the other side of CG, P
which has the same time period of oscillations. It is called the centre of
oscillation (read the margin remark on the next page).
In the experiment on bar pendulum, you have learnt that when the distance Fig. 7.1: Compound
between the point of suspension S and centre of gravity G is L, a point P pendulum.
corresponding to the centre of oscillation exists on the other side of G at the
k r2
distance , where k r is the radius of gyration of the body about an axis
L
passing through G. Hence the distance between S and P is
k r2 L2 k r2
Lc L (7.1)
L L 89


That is, the centre of oscillation lies at the equivalent length of the simple
Centre of oscillation is
pendulum (Lc) from the point of suspension. Since the period of oscillation is
very important for the
same for both these points, we can use them interchangeably. In this
sports persons using
experiment you will use Kater’s pendulum to obtain the value of gravitational
bats (or rackets) for their acceleration by taking readings of time periods of oscillations around both
game. If the ball strikes these points.
at the point of centre of
oscillation of the bat, it
simply rotates by the
Expected Skills
impact of the ball, but the After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
hand of the player does
not feel any impact. This understand the construction of Kater’s pendulum;
point is also known as assemble the apparatus of Kater’s pendulum;
Centre of Percussion or
Sweet Point. ascertain the centre of gravity of the assembly and balance the
pendulum;
take the readings for time period of oscillations around point of
suspension and centre of oscillation; and
use the observed time periods to calculate the value of g.
The apparatus required for this experiment is given below.
Apparatus required
Kater’s pendulum; suspension bracket fixed on the wall, meter scale
and stop watch.
Let us now describe the underlying theory of this experiment and

construction of the apparatus.
7.2 BASIC THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION OF

KATER’S PENDULUM
Before starting the experiment, you should learn about the construction of
the Kater’s pendulum. It is a compound pendulum based on the
interchangeability of the point of suspension and the centre of oscillation. It
consists of about 1 m long metal rod with circular cross-section fitted with
two knife edges. Between the ends of the bar and knife edges, two
cylindrical weights m1 and m2 are fitted. These cylinders are of the same
shape but made of different materials viz. wood and metal. This gives rise to
asymmetric weight distribution along the rod and hence its centre of gravity
G shifts away from its geometrical centre. Two sliding counter weights made
(a) (b) up of wood and metal (W1 and W2) are fitted between the two knife edges. A
photograph of a Kater’s pendulum is shown in Fig. 7.2a, while its schematic
Fig. 7.2: a) Image of diagram is given in Fig. 7.2b.
Kater’s pendulum;
b) Schematic Position of the two knife edges and weights is adjusted in such a way that
diagrams. the period of oscillation of the pendulum about both the knife edges is equal.
In this condition, when one knife edge acts as point of suspension, the other
one represents the centre of oscillation and the distance between the two
knife edges is equal to the equivalent length of the simple pendulum Lc,
whose time period is given by
90
Lc
T 2S (7.2)
g
Now, let T1 and T 2 be the periods of oscillation about the knife edges
A1 and A2 , respectively. If the distance of A1 from G is L1 and that
between A2 and G is L 2 , then, from Eq. (7.1), we have
L12 kr2 L22 kr2

T1 2S and T2 2S
L1g L2g
2
L1g T1 2 2
i.e., L1 k r (7.3a)
2
4S
2
L2 g T 2 2 2
and L2 k r (7.3b)
2
4S
With some algebra the acceleration due to gravity is given by (read the
Subtracting Eq. (7.3b) from
margin remark)
Eq. (7.3a),
2 g
8S (L1T12 L2T22 ) L12 L22
g (7.4) 4S2
2 2 2 2
T1 T2 T1 T2
4S 2 L1T12 L2T22
L1 L2 L1 L2 ?
g L12 L22
When the values of T1 and T 2 are close to each other, the second term in the Using the method of partial
denominator becomes negligible and we can write fractions, we get
4S 2 T12 T22 T12 T22

2
8S (L1 L2 ) g 2(L1 L2 ) 2(L1 L2 )
g (7.5)
2 2
T1 T2
When the Kater’s pendulum is properly balanced, we have T1 T2 ( T )

and get
4S2 (L1 L2 )
g (7.6)
T2
Now, under the balanced condition, the length between the two knife edges
( L c L1 L 2 ) represents the equivalent length of the simple pendulum.
7.3 EXPERIMENT WITH KATER’S PENDULUM

You have learnt that construction of Kater’s pendulum is quite complicated
and so it is very important to arrange all its components correctly before
starting the measurements using it. You should assemble the apparatus as
described below.
91

7.3.1 Setting up the Apparatus
1. Keep the pendulum in horizontal position on a table and arrange the knife
edges (A1 and A2) and weights on the bar as shown in Fig. 7.3.
m1 A1 W2 W1 A2 m2
Fig. 7.3: Arranging Kater’s pendulum.
Here m1 and W1 are wooden weights while m2 and W2 are metal weights,
which are much heavier than m1 and W1.
2. Place the counter weights W1 and W2 in the middle of the bar as shown
in the Fig. 7.3.
3. Fix the knife edges A1 and A2 about 20 cm from both ends of the rod
such that their sharp edges face each other.
4. Fix m1 and m2 about 15 cm from the two ends of the rod.
5. Now place the meter scale on the table and measure the distance
between the knife edges (Lc) and write it in Observation Table 7.1. This
distance will be about 65 to 75 cm depending on the rod length, and Lc
will be constant during the entire experiment.
7.3.2 Taking Measurement
1. Place this pendulum horizontally on a sharp edge object like metre scale
A1
and balance it horizontally to determine the centre of gravity of this
assembly. Mark the point (G) where it balances perfectly. This is the
balance position of the pendulum. Measure the distance between this
point and knife edge A1 as shown in Fig. 7.4 and note it as length L1 in
the Observation Table 7.1 at Sl. No. 1. Also note down the distance
L1
between G and A2 as L2. Obviously you will have L1 L 2 L c.
L’
2. Now place the pendulum assembly vertically on the wall bracket such
that it is suspended by knife edge A1. Make sure that only the knife edge
G
is touching the glass slides of the bracket and no other part of the
L2
pendulum is brushing with the bracket on the wall.
A2
3. Now give a gentle oscillation to the pendulum such that it performs
simple harmonic motion in the plane parallel to the support wall without
touching anywhere.
Using a stop watch measure the time required for 5 oscillations and note
it as T1 in the Observation Table 7.1 against Sl. No. 1. Calculate time
T1
Fig. 7.4: Lengths on period for single oscillation: t 1 .
5
Kater’s pendulum.
92

4. Now rotate the pendulum assembly and rest it on knife edge A2. Again
measure the period for 5 oscillations and note it as T2. Calculate time
T2
period of single oscillation: t 2 .
5
5. Now remove the pendulum from the bracket and place it on the table
horizontally.
6. Move weight W2 towards A1 by 1 cm and fix it properly.
7. Obtain the new position of G. Now, measure new L1 and L2 as described
in step 1 and note these values in Observation Table 7.1 at Sl. No. 2.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 4 and note T1 and T2 at Sl. No. 2 and calculate new t1
and t2.
9. If the difference between t1 and t2 is less than the observations at Sl.
No.1, continue to shift W2 further towards A1 by 1 cm. If the difference
has increased, shift W2 towards A2 (in the opposite direction).
10. Repeat steps 2 to 4 to obtain L1, L2, T1 and T2 and note them at
subsequent serial numbers (from Sl.No.3 onwards) in the Observation
Table 7.1 and calculate t1 and t2.
11. Applying the test given in step 9, decide the direction of movement of W2
on the bar and repeat the above procedure.
12. You should continue to move W2 and note t1 and t2 until the difference
between them is less than 0.01 s ( t 1 t 2 0.01 s).
13. Now take the readings of T1 and T2 for 20 oscillations each and note
them in Observation Table 7.2. Calculate t1 and t2 by dividing T1 and T2
by 20. Check whether the difference between t1 and t2 is still less than
0.01s. If not, move W1 (wooden counter weight) and repeat steps 2 to 10
for 20 oscillations till you obtain a balance position. [Since W1 is much
lighter than W2 displacing W1 over larger lengths will affect t1 and t2 very
slightly and hence it is useful for fine tuning.]
14. When you obtain the balance position for 20 oscillations, repeat the steps
2 to 4 for 50 oscillations and note T1 and T2 in Observation Table 7.3.
Repeat this measurement 3 times without disturbing the positions of W1
and W2 and calculate t1 and t2 each time by dividing T1 and T2 by 50.
15. Calculate average values of t1 and t2 and note them in Observation
Table 7.3.
16. Now remove the pendulum from the wall bracket and place it horizontally
on a table. Following Step 1 again, obtain the values of L1 and L2 and
note them below the Observation Table 7.3.
17. Calculate L1 L 2 L c . It should be the same value that you had obtained
at Point 5 in the Setting up the Apparatus Section (7.3.1) and noted on
the top of Observation Table 7.1.
93


18. Calculate L1 L 2 L cc.
19. Using the formula given in Eq. (7.4), calculate the value of g.
Observations:
Observation Table 7.1: Readings by moving W2 (metal)

Distance between knife edges = Lc = …………….. cm = …………m
Sl. L1(m) L2(m) T1 for 5 T2 for 5 T1 T2

t1 = t2
No. oscillations oscillations 5 5
suspended suspended (s) (s)
from A1 (s) from A2 (s)
1.
2.
3.
Observation Table 7.2: Readings by moving W1 (wood)
Sl. L1(m) L2(m) T1 for 20 T2 for 20 t1 = T1/20 t2 = T2/20

No. oscillations oscillations (s) (s)
(s) (s)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Observation Table 7.3: Readings for 50 oscillations
Sl. T1 for 50 T2 for 50 t1 = T1/50 t2 = T2/50 Average Average

No. oscillations oscillations (s) (s) t1 (s) t2 (s)
(s) (s)
1.
2.
3.
Balancing length L1 (from A1 to G) = …………….. cm = …………m

Balancing length L2 (from A2 to G) = …………….. cm = …………m
Calculations:
L1 L2 ( L cc) .......... m
L1 L2 ( L c) .......... m
94

From the average values in Observation Table 7.3, calculate

t12 .................. s2
t 22 .................. s2
From Eq. (7.4), calculate the acceleration due to gravity,

2
8S 2
g ms .
2 2 2 2
t1 t 2 t1 t 2

L1 L2 L1 L2
8S 2
ms 2 .
t 12 t 22 t 12 t 22

Lc L cc
Results:
Acceleration due to gravity,
g = ………… ms2.
95

BPHCL-132

EXPERIMENT
Mechanics Laboratory
8

STUDY OF THE MOTION OF A
SPRING-MASS SYSTEM:
DETERMINATION OF SPRING
CONSTANT AND ACCELERATION
DUE TO GRAVITY
Structure

8.1 Introduction 8.3 Determination of Spring Constant
Expected Skills Static Method of Measuring N

Dynamic Method of Measuring N
8.2 Theory of Spring-Mass System
8.4 Determination of the Acceleration
due to Gravity
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have determined acceleration due to gravity using Kater’s
pendulum. We now investigate spring constant and value of acceleration due to gravity, J,
using the spring-mass system.
We find many uses of spiral springs in daily life. Springs hold dry cells in proper position in a
transistor set and a pocket calculator. Springs are used as shock absorbers in automobiles
and railway wagons. You may have also used yourself a bull-worker or seen body-builders
using it. Do you know that it essentially consists of springs? In wrist watches, springs control
oscillations of the system. In all these cases, the basic difference in the springs being used is
in their spring constants. So to decide on the type of a spring for a particular purpose, you
must know its spring constant. In a physics laboratory you can determine the value of spring
constant, N, by:
i) measuring extension in the spring for a given load (static method), and
ii) determining the period of harmonic oscillations of a spring-mass system (dynamic
method).
In this experiment, you will learn the theory of spring-mass system in Sec. 8.2. In Sec. 8.3
you will determine spring constant and obtain the value of J.
96
Experiment 8 Study of the Motion of a Spring-Mass System
Expected Skills
measure extension of a spring for a given load and calculate its spring
constant (static method);
measure the period of oscillation of a spring-mass system for different
loads and calculate N (dynamic method);
compare the accuracies of static and dynamic methods; and
determine the value of J.
Apparatus required
A spiral spring, slotted weights in multiples of 100g, stop watch, a

laboratory stand and a 50 cm scale
8.2 THEORY OF SPRING-MASS SYSTEM
In Experiment 6, you investigated the question: What determines the values

of 7 for a bar pendulum? You may now ask: Can we make similar
investigations for a spring-mass system? The answer is in affirmative. In this
experiment you will calculate the spring constant of a spring in two different
ways: (i) by measuring extension for a given load, and (ii) by measuring the
period of harmonic oscillations of a spring-mass system.
Refer to Fig. 8.1, which shows a spring beside a metre scale suspended on
the stand. Fix a sharp-tipped pointer (needle) at the lower end of the spring.
If you do not get a needle, you can make a pointer of cardboard by cutting it
in the shape of a triangle. Then you have to attach its base to the straight
end of the spring so that its vertex moves along the scale. This helps in
minimising parallax error. Suspend a hanger (which itself is a known weight,
equal to any other slotted weight) in the hook of the spring. (Alternatively,
you can tie a pan to the lower end of the spring and put weights.) Normally, it
is advisable to put an initial load on the hook as it will take care of the kinks
in the spring. This implies that the choice of the initial position does not
matter.
Fig. 8.1: A spring-mass
Stretch the spring by pulling the hanger downwards through a small distance
system.
and then let it go. The spring-mass system will execute vertical oscillations.
Ensure that the pointer does not stick anywhere and the oscillations are free.
Now your apparatus is ready and you can start your experiment. But before
you do this, do spend a few minutes in making qualitative observations as to
how extension/period changes when the mass is changed within elastic
limits. This limit will be different for different springs. So you should consult
your counsellor before putting a load on the spring.
97
BPHCL-132 Mechanics Laboratory

When we load the spring by putting a weight, a restoring force is set up in the
spring due to elasticity. It tends to oppose the applied force and bring the
system back to its original state. If extension is small compared to the original
length of the spring, the magnitude of restoring force exerted by the stretched
spring on the mass is given by Hooke’s law:
) = N[, (8.1)
where [ is extension in the spring and N, the spring constant.

When an external force
is applied on a body, it From Eq. (8.1) it is clear that once we know extension as a function of load, N
tries to retain its shape can be calculated easily. It is with this purpose that we attach a pointer to the
and size. And as soon as lower end of the spring. This method of determining N is known as VWDWLF
the applied force is PHWKRG.
removed, the body
regains its original state. You may now like to know: Is there some other method also for determining N?
This property is called We can use the so-called G\QDPLFPHWKRG. It is based on observing the period
elasticity. Its maximum of harmonic oscillations of the spring-mass system.
limit is called elastic
limit. If applied force In Unit 16 of theory course on Mechanics, you have learnt that a spring-mass
exceeds elastic limit, it system executes SHM like a simple pendulum, provided the extension is not
produces permanent large. Another question that comes to our mind immediately is: Does gravity
deformation and the
affect the frequency of oscillations? Gravity has no effect on the frequency of
body fails to regain its
original shape and size
oscillations. The period of oscillation is given by
even when the applied
force has been removed. 7 2S P / N (8.2)
This relation shows that we can determine N by knowing the period of

oscillations for a given mass. The value of P will depend on the nature of
spring. For a thin spring, P could be a few grams.
8.3 DETERMINATION OF SPRING CONSTANT

As discussed in theory, the spring constant can be determined by two methods
viz. static and dynamic. Now we explain the procedure to determine N using
these two methods.
8.3.1 Static Method of Measuring N
The procedure for measuring Nusing static method is as follows:

1. Load the spring by putting a weight and record the corresponding
equilibrium position of the pointer. Treat this equilibrium position of the
pointer on the scale as your initial observation. Record your reading in
2. Now increase the load in steps by adding equal weights each time.
3. For each load record the position of the pointer.
4. Before taking a reading, you should wait for some time so that the pointer
comes to rest.
98 5. Take at least six observations.
Observation Table 8.1: Extension as a function of load
Sl. Load on Reading of the pointer on the metre scale (cm)

No. the spring
Increasing load Decreasing Mean Reading
(g) load
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. If the extension
corresponding to mass 0
6. is [0, we can write
0J = N[0 (i)

To ensure that you are working within the permissible elastic limit, you should
Note that we are
record the position of the pointer by unloading the spring in the same steps.
considering magnitudes
Again tabulate your readings in Observation Table 8.1. Do these readings only.
differ from those recorded while loading the spring? If observations for a given
weight are nearly the same, both while loading and unloading, you can be Let G be the elongation
corresponding to an
sure that you are certainly working within the elastic limit. Note that you have
additional load P. Then
to observe the mean reading of the pointer for a given load. we have
Now you should plot a graph between the load and the corresponding (0+P) J = N ([0 + G) (ii)
elongation. Conventionally, we plot the independent variable along the [-axis
From (i) and (ii), we get
and the dependent variable along the \-axis. Which physical quantity will you
plot for this experiment along the [-axis? Obviously, load should be plotted PJ = NG
along [-axis. Draw the best fit line through observed points as shown in
PJ J
Fig. 8.2. (For a good steel spring, we expect the graph to be linear.) or N = (iii)
G slope
Suppose that the graph

paper is somehow not
available in your
laboratory. You may then
ask: How to calculate N?
You will have to use
Eq. (iii). Suppose you
have taken seven
readings. Then calculate
extension G for load
difference between
readings 4 and 1;5 and
2; 6 and 3; and 7 and 4.
Calculate mean value of
G and hence N.
Fig. 8.2: Best fit line through observed points.
99

Does your straight line pass through the origin? The inverse of the slope of the
straight line is a measure of the spring constant. To calculate the slope, you
should use two widely separated points on the straight line. These should be
other than observation points. Use J = 9.8 ms-2 to calculate Nand express
your result in SI units.
Error Analysis
Calculate the change in slope of the straight line caused by drawing the lines
of maximum and minimum slopes. This gives maximum error in the slope.
Using J = 9.8 ms2 calculate the error in the value of Nin SI units.
Conclusion: The spring constant of the given spring = …….… r …..… Nm1
SAQ 1 –
Static method
From your graph, calculate the extension for a load of 2 N.
8.3.2 Dynamic Method of Measuring N

In this method, you will be required to measure the period of simple harmonic
oscillations. You must ensure that oscillations of the system hanging vertically
are longitudinal. That is, there should be no lateral oscillations. Otherwise, the
motion will not be simple harmonic.
1. Put a load on the hanger and note the position of the pointer on the scale.
Take it as the equilibrium position. Now stretch the spring by pulling the
hanger slightly downward and then release it. The system will begin to
oscillate. In case there is no lateral oscillation, your apparatus is set. Bring
it to rest. Also ensure that the spring executes 20-30 oscillations before
their amplitude shows visible decrease.
2. Note the least count of the stop watch and record it in Observation
Table 8.2.
3. Now set the spring-mass system into oscillations. Allow the first few
oscillations to pass so that there is no anharmonic component. Begin your
counting through the equilibrium position and simultaneously start the
stop watch. Note the time for 1, say 30, complete oscillations.
4. To minimise the error in 7, it is desirable to take time for 50 or more

oscillations. However, you must ensure that the amplitude of oscillations
does not decay significantly. Enter your reading in the Observation Table
8.2. Add more weights in the hanger and repeat the procedure at least
five times.
5. Tabulate your observations.
6. How does the time period change? As before, the procedure may be
repeated by decreasing the load in same steps. Calculate the mean time
100 for each load.
Observation Table 8.2: Measurement of time as a function of load

Least count of stop watch = ……………… s
Number of complete oscillations counted each time (1) =……….
Sl. Load on Time for 1 complete oscillations (s) Time period

No. the
spring P
with load with load mean
(g) (s)
increasing decreasing (W)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Plot 72 versus P. Draw the best possible straight line as shown in
Fig. 8.3. Does it pass through the origin? From the slope of the straight
line, you can easily calculate N.
7. Check if this value agrees with that obtained by the static method. The
two values should be same or nearly equal. (In case you get to know the
standard value of Nfor the material of spring from your counsellor or a
book, you can judge whether the dynamic method is more accurate than
the static method or not.)
2
Fig. 8.3: Expected plot of 7 versus P
101

As before, you can compute error in N by drawing lines of maximum and
minimum slopes. What is the relative change in the value of N?
Result: Spring constant of the given spring = ….….…. r……………Nm1
SAQ – 2 Dynamic method
i) Extrapolate the graph between 72 and P backward and interpret the
intercept.
ii) Use your graph to determine 7 for a load of 3N.
8.4 DETERMINATION OF THE ACCELERATION

DUE TO GRAVITY
We can use these set up to determine the value of acceleration due to gravity,
J
Firstly, we can take Eq. (8.2) and rewrite this equation by taking square on
both sides as
2 2 P
7 4S (8.4)
N
From Fig. 8.3, which shows the graph between 72 (on \-axis) and P(on
2
2 4S
[-axis), the value of slope obtained is 4 S / N or N . After obtaining
(slope)
the value of Nusing dynamical method, the value of Jcan be calculated using
PJ J
Eq. (iii) given in the margin remark of Sec. 8.3.1 N or
G slope
J N u slope
Value of J = ………………………….
102
Experiment 9 Determination of Frequency of Tuning Fork using Sonometer
EXPERIMENT 9
DETERMINATION OF
FREQUENCY OF TUNING
FORK USING SONOMETER
Structure

9.1 Introduction 9.4 Variation of Wavelength with Mass
Expected Skills per Unit Length
9.2 Stationary Waves in a 9.5 Relation between Wavelength and

Stretched Wire Frequency
9.3 Variation of Wavelength with Tension
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have learnt to determine the spring constant
and value of acceleration due to gravity using a spring-mass system. We now
determine the frequency of a tuning fork using sonometer.
You all must have enjoyed the pleasing music produced by string instruments
like sitar, violin, guitar, ektara, etc. Do you know how stringed instruments
produce music? When the string of such an instrument is plucked, bowed or
struck, it begins to vibrate and produces sound. The quality of sound Tuning a given musical
depends on the frequency of vibration of the stretched string. Now the instrument with
question arises: What factors determine the frequency of vibration of a another means
string? How are these factors related to frequency? In this experiment, you adjusting the frequency
would discover answers to such questions. of the given instrument
so that it is the same
You may have observed that in an orchestra, a violinist tightens or loosens as that of the other
the pegs of the instrument while tuning with other musicians. (As the peg is one.
tightened or loosened, a portion of the string is either wound or unwound
around the peg). As a result, tension in the string changes. This suggests that
the frequency produced by the string of the violin depends on the tension in it.
Can you think of other parameters that may influence the frequency of
vibration of a string? What happens if you take strings of same material having
different thicknesses or strings of different materials but same thickness? Well,
we expect that the frequency of vibration of the string in each case should
differ. This means that the mass per unit length of the string also influences its
frequency of vibration.
103

You may have seen a veena. In this musical instrument, strings of unequal
lengths are tied between two fixed ends. You may have also seen that once a
musician has tuned the instrument, she moves her fingers along its string to
produce music. In this way, she varies the vibrating length in order to produce
different notes. This suggests that the frequency of vibration of the string
depends on its vibrating length as well. We know that the length of the
vibrating segment of the string is related to the wavelength of the stationary
waves set up in it. Hence, we expect that there exists a definite relationship
between the wavelength and frequency.
The aim of this experiment is to know how frequency of vibrations of a

stretched string depends on tension, mass per unit length and its vibrating
length. In this case, any change in the frequency can be attributed to the
change in that particular parameter.
It is possible to set up waves of known wavelength in a wire. But it is more

convenient to make a wire vibrate with a known frequency. So we would
discover the effect of tension and mass per unit length of the wire on the
wavelength, keeping the frequency constant. Therefore, we would like you to
do this experiment in three parts. In the first part, you should investigate how
the wavelength changes with tension in the wire while the frequency of
vibration of the wire and its mass per unit length are kept fixed. In the second
part, you will investigate how the wavelength varies when wires of different
thicknesses (but same material) or different materials (but same thickness) are
used. That is, you will learn how wavelength varies with mass per unit length
of the wire when tension in the wire and frequency are not changed. In the
third part, you will establish the relation between frequency and wavelength,
keeping the tension and mass per unit length of the wire fixed.
Expected Skills
set up stationary waves in a stretched string;
investigate the dependence of wavelength of stationary waves on
tension in a string and its mass per unit length;
establish the relation between wavelength and frequency; and
obtain the expression for velocity of transverse waves on a string.
The apparatus required for the experiment is listed below.
Apparatus required
Four iron wires of different thicknesses (Alternatively 4 wires of different
magnetic materials), sonometer, hanger, slotted weights, an electromagnet
with a 6 volt a.c. transformer, six tuning forks of known frequencies, rubber
pad, metre scale, screw gauge, a chemical balance and a weight box.
104
9.2 STATIONARY WAVES IN A STRETCHED WIRE

Setting up of Stationary Waves
The measurement of tension (T) and mass per unit length (P) of a stretched
A wave which transports
wire are rather routine exercises. But to make a precise determination of
energy as it propagates
wavelength, we set up stationary waves. Stationary waves are formed when in space is said to be
two identical progressive waves moving in opposite directions are made to progressive. In a
superpose. The stationary waves do not move with time in either direction. stationary wave, no
(For this reason, they are also sometimes referred to as standing waves.) energy is transported.
From your school physics, you will recall that stationary waves can be
produced in air columns as well as stretched strings. Here we intend to set up
stationary waves in a sonometer wire.
Refer to Fig. 9.1. It shows a sonometer, which consists of a hollow wooden

box with circular holes, a peg at one end and a pulley on the other. One end of
a wire is fixed to the peg and the other end, passing over a smooth pulley,
The sonometer wire is
carries a hanger. (In place of hanger, you can also use a pan.) By placing said to vibrate in unison
weights on the hanger, the string can be stretched. The wire passes over with the source of sound
two bridges B1 and B2. While performing experiments with a sonometer, the when the natural
string is made to vibrate in unison with the source of sound, which may be a frequency of the wire
tuning fork or an electromagnet. To achieve this, the vibrating length of the equals the frequency of
the source.
wire between the bridge is adjusted by sliding the bridges between the peg
and the pulley. This condition (of unison) is said to be ensured when a
V-shaped paper rider placed in the middle of the wire between the bridges falls
down.
B1 B2
The vibrations are said to

Fig. 9.1: Stationary waves in a stretched string of a sonometer. be forced vibrations
when a body vibrates
In your school physics, you have learnt that when a vibrating tuning fork is with the frequency of the
placed on the sounding board of the sonometer, the air inside the sonometer applied periodic force. In
begins to vibrate. It makes the wire to execute forced vibrations leading to this condition, the energy
formation of transverse waves. In the region B1 B2, these transverse waves are fed from outside equals
reflected at the fixed points B1 and B2. As a result, we obtain a set of incident the energy lost by the
body.
and reflected waves travelling in opposite directions. Their superposition gives
rise to stationary waves. The wire between the bridges then vibrates in one or
more well-defined segments, as shown in Fig. 9.2. Note that there are some
points at which the wire remains motionless at all times. On the other hand, at
some other points, the waves reinforce strongly and the wire vibrates
vigorously. The points corresponding to zero amplitude of vibration are called
nodes (N), whereas points with maximum amplitude are called antinodes (A).
The simplest mode of vibration occurs when the string vibrates in a single loop
105

(Fig. 9.2a). The frequency of vibration corresponding to this mode is known as
the fundamental frequency of vibration.
Fig. 9.2: Stationary waves set up in a wire fixed at both ends.
9.3 VARIATION OF WAVELENGTH WITH

TENSION
In this part of the experiment, you have to keep mass per unit length (P) of the
wire and its fundamental frequency of vibration constant. Working with a wire
of uniform cross section ensures constancy of P. To achieve the latter, you can
use either a tuning fork or an electromagnet. We advise you to use an
electromagnet, if available, because it can make the wire execute sustained
vibrations.
In case you are not provided an electromagnet, choose a tuning fork of known
frequency. (You may also discuss with your counsellor.) As you know, we
have “musical ears”. You can get close to the condition of unison using your
ears. To do this, strike the tuning fork on the rubber pad and hold it near your
left ear. Strike the sonometer wire between the bridges with your finger and
hold your right ear near the sonometer wire. As long as the frequencies
produced by the tuning fork and sonometer wire are not in unison, you will
hear two distinct sounds with different frequencies. But by adjusting the
position of bridges, gradually you can attain near unison condition. Next strike
one of the prongs of the tuning fork with a rubber pad and press the stem of
the fork on the sounding board of the sonometer. Do not touch its U-part. (If
you do so, the vibrations of tuning fork will die rapidly.) You will observe that
the wire begins to vibrate resulting in stationary waves. The paper rider placed
in the middle of the wire will fall when it resonates with the turning fork.
While working with a tuning fork, you may observe that vibrations may not be
sustained for long. Then you should strike the prong of tuning fork again with
the rubber pad and place it on the sounding board to determine the resonating
length for each load. Moreover, since the energy supplied by the tuning fork to
the vibrating wire is many-times less than that given by the electromagnet, the
wire will not vibrate vigorously. Therefore, in this case, you have to rely more
on the paper rider, which falls off or vibrates vigorously when unison occurs.
The experimental arrangement for generating stationary waves in a sonometer

wire using an electromagnet is shown in Fig. 9.3. Connect the electromagnet
to a 6 V transformer and place it near the middle of the wire. When the
106

electromagnet is connected to a source of AC power supply, the core of the

electromagnet will be magnetized twice with opposite polarities in each cycle.
As a result, the sonometer wire gets attracted towards the electromagnet twice
in each cycle and begins to vibrate. Since the frequency of AC is 50 Hz, the
wire will vibrate with a fixed frequency of 100 Hz.
Fig. 9.3: Experimental arrangement for generating transverse stationary waves

in a sonometer wire using an electromagnet.
SAQ – 1 Inducing forced vibrations

Suppose that the electromagnet is connected to a source of direct current.
Will the wire vibrate? If so, what will be its frequency of vibrations?
Stretch the wire by putting an appropriate weight on the hanger. (You should
consult your counsellor in determining this.) If the mass of the hanger is m kg
and a weight of M kg is used in stretching the wire, the tension in the wire will
be T = (M + m)g N where g is acceleration due to gravity.
Keep the bridges B 1 and B2 on the sonometer at the largest possible
separation and switch on the current through the electromagnet. The wire will
begin to vibrate. This means that the apparatus is now in working condition
and you can begin your investigations.
Your objective is to determine the length of the wire for which the sonometer
vibrates in the fundamental mode. This happens when the wire vibrates in a
single loop with maximum amplitude. This length corresponds to the
separation between two consecutive nodes and is equal to half the wavelength
of the stationary wave in the wire.
When you switch the current on, the wire is supposed to vibrate with a
frequency of 100 Hz. But you may not see the wire vibrate at all. Do you know
why? This is likely to happen if the length of the wire between B1 and B2 is
much different from that corresponding to the fundamental frequency and the
amplitude of forced vibration set up in the wire is extremely small. So you have
to adjust the length of the vibrating wire. To do this, keep one of the bridges
(say, B1) fixed and move the other bridge (B2) towards it slowly. What do you
observe? Does the amplitude of vibration increase? If so, continue to decrease
107


the vibrating length of the wire by moving the bridge B2 closer to B1 until the
amplitude of vibration becomes maximum. You will then clearly see that the
wire is vibrating in a single loop of significant amplitude. If you place a paper
rider gently in the middle of the wire now, it will be thrown off. Note the weight
and the corresponding length between B1 and B2 by noting their positions on
the metre scale attached to sonometer board. Record the readings in
Observation Table 9.1. Next, move the bridge B2 closer to B1 by a small
distance (23 cm). What do you observe? Does the amplitude of vibration
change? If so, the frequency of the vibrating wire is not 100 Hz. Then, slowly
move the bridge B2 away from B1 and locate the position where wire vibrates
in unison again. You should repeat this act 3-4 times for a given tension to
minimize the error in your observation. You will also hear maximum sound
when the vibrating wire is in unison with the forced frequency.
Now, you change the tension in the wire by adding weights of 0.2 kg or 0.5 kg
in equal steps and measure the resonating length of the wire in each case
following the procedure outlined above. You will observe that the resonating
length increases with increasing load. Enter your data for each step in
Observation Table 9.1. You should not load the wire beyond its elastic limit.
(Consult your counsellor to know this value).
To check that you are working within the permissible range of tension, you
should repeat the above procedure by unloading the wire in the same equal
steps and measure the resonating length of the wire. Tabulate each reading.
Do these lengths differ from those obtained for corresponding tension while
loading the wire? We expect these to be almost the same.
Observation Table 9.1: Dependence of wavelength on tension
Frequency of vibration of the wire =…………………………Hz
Least count of metre scale =……………………...….cm
Mass of the hanger (m) =…………………………kg
Sl. Weight Tension Resonating length of the Mean Wave-
No. placed 7= (0+P) J wire between the bridges resonating length
on (N) %1 and %2 (m) length for a O = 2Ɛ
hanger, Load Load given load, (m)
0 (kg) increasing decreasing / /
Ɛ (m)
/1(m) Mean /2(m) Mean
Value Value
/1 /2
1.
2.
3.
4.
108
From the Observation Table 9.1 you will observe that O changes with T.
Mathematically, we can write
O = f (T)
Can you quantify this relation exactly by looking at your observations? Probably
you cannot. To discover the exact relationship between O and T, we write
a
OμT
or
a
O = k1 T (9.1)
where k1 is constant of proportionality and a is another constant.

Taking logarithms on both the sides, we get
If log-log graph papers
log O = log k1 + a log T. (9.2) are not available in your
laboratory, you should
Now, take a log-log graph and plot O along y-axis and T along x-axis. You will calculate and plot O
½ 2
obtain a straight line. Its intercept on the y-axis is a measure of constant of versus T , T, T , etc.
proportionality and the slope of the straight line gives the value of a. Calculate The graph which gives a
the slope by using two well separated points. We expect the value of a to be straight line will
correspond to Eq. (9.1).
one-half.
So we can write Eq. (9.1) as
O = k1 T (9.3)
SAQ 2 – Variation in wavelength with tension
Plot a graph between O and T 1/2. Choose the points corresponding to

T1 = 64 N and T2 = 324 N to calculate the value of wavelength from your
graph.
9.4 VARIATION OF WAVELENGTH WITH MASS

PER UNIT LENGTH
To investigate the dependence of wavelength on mass per unit length of the
wire, take four wires of different thicknesses but of the same material. For
Densities of some typical
each wire, you first determine the mass per unit length (P). To do so you have metals
to weigh each wire in a physical balance and measure the corresponding
Material Density
lengths. The ratio (m/Ɛ) will give you P. For more precise work, you should
(u 10 kg m )
3 3
measure their diameters (d) using a micrometer screw gauge. Note its least
Iron 7.86
count and observe whether or not there is any zero error. Measure the
Steel 8.03
diameter at several places. In this way you can account for the
Nickel 8.912
inhomogeneities, if any, in the wire. Record your readings in Observation
Copper 8.96
Sd 2
Table 9.2(a). Calculate the mass per unit length by the relation P = U, Aluminium 2.698
4
where d is the mean diameter of the wire and U is the density of the material.
109

Table 9.2 (a): Determination of mass per unit length of a wire.
Least count of the micrometre screw gauge = ……cm
Sample Diameter (cm) Mean Density Mass per

wire diameter U (kg m3) unit
Obs. Main Circular Total G (m) length of
No. scale scale reading the wire
reading reading μ(kg m1)
(i)
A (ii)
(iii)
(i)
B (ii)
(iii)
(i)
C (ii)
(iii)
(i)
D (ii)
(iii)
In this part of the experiment, you have to keep the tension in the wire
constant. To do this, place a weight 2 kg, say, on the hanger. Do not change
this weight during this part of the experiment. Now, following the procedure
given in Sec. 9.3, determine the distance between the bridges B1 and B2 so
that the wire vibrates in one loop with the maximum amplitude. Measure the
distance and record it in Observation Table 9.2(b).
Repeat this procedure for other wires, keeping the tension in the wire constant.
Record your readings in Observation Table 9.2(b).
110

Observation Table 9.2(b): Dependence of wavelength on mass per unit

length
Frequency of tuning fork/electromagnet = ………….Hz
Tension in the wire = ………….N
Mass per Length

Sl. Mean value Wavelength
unit length corresponding to
No. of Ɛ (cm) O = 2Ɛm)
P (kg m1) unison Ɛ (cm)
(i)
1. (ii)
(iii)
(i)
(ii)
2.
(iii)
(i)
3. (ii)
(iii)
Does O change with P? To quantify this dependence, we write

O = k2 Pb, (9.4)
where k2 is constant of proportionality and b is another constant.
Taking logarithms on both the sides, we get
log O = log k2 + b log P
If you plot O versus P on a log-log graph, you will obtain a straight line. Is the
slope of the straight line positive or negative? A negative value signifies that as
P increases, O decreases. The slope of the straight line gives us the value of
the exponent b. We expect b = 0.5. (Discuss your result, if there is significant
deviation from the quoted value, with your counsellor.) Thus we can write
O k2P 1 2 (9.5)
On combining the results contained in Eqs. (9.3) and (9.5), we obtain

12
§T ·
O k ¨¨ ¸¸ (9.6)
©P¹
where k is a constant of proportionality.
111


SAQ 3 – Dependence of wavelength on mass per

unit length
i) How would the result of Eq. (9.6) be influenced if the wire stretched on the
sonometer were hollow?
ii) Suppose you have adjusted the length of the string (of steel) in unison
with a tuning fork. Now you replace the string with a similar one of nickel.
Will the same length of the string be in unison with the fork? Why?
iii) From the graph obtained by plotting log O versus log T from the data
recorded in Observation Table 9.1, calculate the intercept on y-axis. How
is it related to mass per unit length of the wire? Compare this value with
the value estimated from its radius and density.
9.5 RELATION BETWEEN WAVELENGTH AND

FREQUENCY
To establish the relation between wavelength and frequency for a given wire,
the tension in the wire is kept fixed. To vary the frequency, you would require a
set of tuning forks of different frequencies. Obviously, an electromagnet will
not be appropriate for this part of your investigations because it makes the
wire to vibrate with only one frequency.
To begin with, stretch the wire with an appropriate load, 2 kg weight, say.
Now, out of the set of tuning forks, select the tuning fork with the lowest
frequency. Keep the bridges B1 and B2 maximum distance apart on the
sonometer. Now, as discussed in Sec. 9.3, keep B1 fixed and shift B2 to adjust
the distance between the bridges so that the wire vibrates in one single loop of
maximum amplitude. This means that the wire and the tuning fork are in
unison. Measure the length and record it in the Observation Table 9.3.
Keeping the tension fixed, repeat the procedure for other tuning forks.
Measure the length each time and record it in Observation Table 9.3.
Observation Table 9.3: Dependence of wavelength on frequency
Tension in the string =…………N
Sl. Frequency Length corresponding Mean Wavelength

No. of the to unison (m) length O = 2Ɛ
tuning fork Ɛ (m) (m)
(i) (ii) (iii)
I(Hz)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
112

How does wavelength of stationary waves depend on the frequency of tuning

fork (and hence fundamental frequency of the string for a fixed tension)? We
expect the wavelength to decrease as frequency increases. To quantify this
dependence, we express it mathematically as
f = k3 Oc, (9.7)
where k3 is a constant of proportionality and c is some other constant.
Now, if you plot f versus O on a log-log graph paper you should obtain a
straight line. From the slope, you can calculate the value of c. We expect the
value of c to be 1. What is your result?
Also from the intercept on the y-axis, you can calculate ln k3 and hence k3.
Compare this value of k3 with the ratio T / P for this wire. Are the two values
same? Theoretically, they should be. What does it suggest? It implies that
frequency and wavelength of stationary waves on a string are connected by
the relation
1 T
f . (9.8)
O P
The dimensions of the product f O are those of velocity (ms1). From this you
can conclude that the velocity of stationary waves in the stretched string is
T
given by v = .
P
Now you may like to attempt on SAQ.
SAQ 4 – Relation between wavelength and frequency

What will be the change in frequency if the unison length of the string
between the bridges is doubled?
113

10

EXPERIMENT

STUDY OF LISSAJOUS
FIGURES USING A CATHODE
RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Structure

10.1 Introduction 10.4 Determination of Phase Difference
using Lissajous Figures Method
Expected Skills
Generation of Phase Difference Signals
10.2 Familiarisation with a Cathode Ray
Phase Difference Calculation using
Oscilloscope
Lissajous Figures
10.3 A Function Generator
10.5 Lissajous Figures of Unequal
Frequency Sinusoidal Waves
10.1 INTRODUCTION
While studying oscillations you have learnt that the motion of a body subjected to number of
simultaneous oscillations can be explained on the basis of superposition principle. If the body
is subjected to harmonic oscillations in two mutually perpendicular directions, the path traced
by the resultant motion of the body gives rise to Lissajous figures. The shapes of these
Lissajous figures are determined by the amplitude, frequency and phase relationships
between the two mutually perpendicular oscillations applied simultaneously on the body.
In the Physics laboratory you can observe these Lissajous figures using a Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO in short). It is a basic but an important and versatile instrument used in all
physics, electronics and electrical engineering laboratory.
Using a CRO, you can measure important characteristic parameters of a signal like voltage
amplitude, frequency, period and shape of the waveform. On a CRO screen, a luminous spot
enables us to study the instantaneous value of input voltage. For this reason, an oscilloscope
can also be viewed as a plotter or a recorder.
In this experiment, you will learn the basic functions of an oscilloscope and use it to study the
Lissajous figures by applying two sinusoidal signals to its [and \inputs and obtain their phase
relationship. You will also learn about the function generator required to generate the
sinusoidal waves.
114

Experiment 10 Study of Lissajous Figures using a Cathode Ray of Oscilloscope
Expected Skills
understand the functions of various controls on the front panel of the

CRO;
display a waveform/signal on the screen of the oscilloscope;
observe Lissajous figures by applying two sinusoidal waveforms; and
calculate the phase difference between two sinusoidal waveforms.
The apparatus required to perform this experiment are given below.
Apparatus required
Dual beam/trace CRO, 2 function generators, resistors (1 k :), capacitor

(0.5 PF), resistance box (100 : 10 k :), bread board, connecting wires,
tracing paper.
10.2 FAMILIARISATION WITH A CATHODE RAY

OSCILLOSCOPE
Before using a CRO, you must get familiar with its working and the functions of
various control knobs on its front panel. CRO is essentially an assembly of a
cathode ray tube (CRT) and some specific electronic circuits. CRT is the major
component of a CRO. It produces a sharply focussed high speed electron
beam, which can be moved on the screen using appropriate voltages for
deflection. CRO front panel consists of CRT screen and some knobs to control
its function. We have listed the functions of these knobs at the end of this
section.
Fig.10.1 shows a schematic diagram of a CRT. It is an evacuated glass

envelop with the following essential components:
x an electron gun;
x deflection plates; and
x a fluorescent display screen.
The electron gun has following parts:

a heater or a cathode that emits electrons;
a control grid to regulate the amount of current;
a focusing electrode to produce pencil-like electron beam; and
accelerating and pre-accelerating electrodes to provide high velocity to
electrons, which, on striking the screen, may cause secondary emission.
The deflection assembly comprises of a set of vertical and horizontal plates
separated at a distance. The CRT screen has a fluorescent material such as
ZnS which emits light when electron strikes on it. In a CRO, the electron beam
emitted by the electron gun undergoes deflection before striking the screen.
115


The deflection assembly comprises of a set of vertical and horizontal plates
separated at a distance. The CRT screen has a fluorescent material such as
ZnS which emits light when electron strikes on it. In a CRO, the electron beam
emitted by the electron gun undergoes deflection before striking the screen.
Fig. 10.1: Schematic of a CRT
Since electrons are charged particles, deflection of electron beam can be

effected either electrostatically or magnetically. In most of the oscilloscopes,
the deflection of the beam is generally caused electrostatically. You may note
that the potential applied across the horizontally placed plates '1 and '2
would deflect the beam vertically, whereas a potential applied to vertically
arranged plates ' and ' would deflect the beam horizontally. Further, the
magnitude of the deflection is proportional to the voltage applied across the
deflection plates. In a typical CRT with display screen of about 10 cm, under
ordinary conditions, a deflection of about 2.5 cm could be obtained for a
potential of about 100V. In the real situation, since the amplitude of the signal
we measure with a CRO is well below 100V, we need to amplify the signal in
order to cause appropriate deflection of the beam on the CRT screen.
Therefore, deflection amplifiers are provided for each pair of deflection
plates.
Without going into the details of internal circuits in the CRO, it is sufficient here
for you to remember that for an oscilloscope to display the variation of an
electrical signal in the vertical direction as a function of time, a voltage
varying linearly with time such as a saw-tooth wave called sweep will
have to be applied on the horizontal deflection plates
To provide a more stable trace on the oscilloscope, an additional feature in the
form of a WULJJHUis provided. While using a trigger, the CRO pauses in each
cycle when the sweep reaches extreme right side of the screen and retraces
back to the left hand side of the screen. Then it waits for a specified event
before starting the next trace. The trigger event is usually the input waveform
reaching some user-specified threshold voltage in a specified direction (going
positive or negative).
For proper operation of an oscilloscope, all the controls are mounted on the
front panel. Fig.10.2 depicts the location of various controls on the front panel
of a typical general purpose dual beam oscilloscope. In such a CRO, two
signals can be viewed simultaneously on two separate channels. We may add
here that the location of different controls can vary from one manufacturer to
another.
116
Fig. 10.2: Schematic of front panel of a dual beam general purpose CRO.
Table 10.1 describes the function of each control shown in Fig. 10.2.
Table 10.1: Controls on CRO front panel
No. Control Function

1. Power Turns mains power on/off.
2. u5 When pressed gives five times magnification of the signal
amplitude.
3. ;< It cuts off the time base fed to the horizontal plates when
pressed in and allows access to the horizontal signal fed
through CH-II. It is used for ;-< display.
4. CH-I/CH-II/ It selects and triggers CH-I when it is out. On pressing it

Trig I/Trig II in, it selects and triggers CH-II.
5. Mono/Dual A switch to select the single/dual beam operation.
6. Alt/Chop/Add It selects alternate or chopped in DUAL mode. If mono is

selected, it enables addition or subtraction of signals on
two channels.
7. Time/Div. It selects time base speeds.
8. AUTO/NORM AUTO mode enables trace when no signal is fed at the

trigger input. In NORM position, the trigger level can be
varied using LEVEL control.
9. LEVEL It allows setting of the trigger level between peak-to-peak

amplitude of the input signal.
10. TRIG IN A socket that is used to feed external trigger signal in EXT
mode.
11. EXT Switch that allows External triggering signal to be fed from
the socket marked TRIG IN.
12. ;-POS This knob controls the horizontal position of the beam
trace.
117

13. VAR Controls the time base speed in between two steps of
TIME/DIV switch.
14. +/- This switch selects the slope of triggering.
15. INV CH.II This switch when pressed inverts the signal at CH.II.
16. INTENS It controls the trace brightness.
17. FOCUS It controls the sharpness of the trace.
18. DC/AC/GND Coupling switch for each channel. In AC mode, the signal
in coupled through 0.1PF capacitor.
19. CH-I (<) and BNC connectors serve as <-input connections for CH-I
CH-II (;) and CH-II. CH-II input connector also serves as
Horizontal external signal on using ;-< control.
20. Volts/Div A switch to select the sensitivity of each channel.
21. <-Pos I and II Controls for vertical deflection of trace for each channel.
You must carefully read and understand the function of each control. Then,
you should see for yourself how some of the basic controls on the front panel
affect a given trace. For this, first switch RQ the oscilloscope by power switch
and obtain a horizontal line on the CRO screen (In case of a dual beam / trace
oscilloscope, you should obtain two straight lines.) You need not make any
connections to the vertical input sections at this stage. Now adjust the controls
listed in Table 10.2 and record your observations.
Table 10.2: Functions of some basic controls on CRO front panel
Control Observed Effect
Intensity
Focus
<-position
;-position
The display area (front panel) of the CRT is marked with a centimeter-scale
grid and each centimeter is called division (Div). Each division is further
divided into 5 parts; hence the smallest length that can be measured on the
screen is 2 mm. For the controls of time base (Time/Div) and voltage
sensitivity (Volts/Div), the selected range value corresponds to 1 cm on the
display area. [For example, 0.5 ms/div means on the time (horizontal) axis,
0.5 milliseconds are mapped over 1 cm length and 1 V/div means on vertical
axis 1 volt amplitude corresponds to 1 cm height on the y-scale].
118
After getting familiarised with the CRO, now we will discuss in brief about
another apparatus called a function generator, which you will be using in this
experiment.
10.3 A FUNCTION GENERATOR

You can use an oscilloscope to measure both dc-voltage and time varying
voltage. To generate time varying voltage, you need a general purpose
function generator, which can generate sinusoidal, triangular and square
waveforms with adjustable frequency and amplitude. The function generators
are available in either analogue or digital versions. Fig. 10.3 shows the front
panel of a typical analogue function generator.
Fig. 10.3: Front panel of a typical analogue function generator.
A function generator usually has control knobs listed in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Controls of a typical function generator
WAVEFORM Type of waveform/signal: a square wave,

1. (OR FUNCTION) sinusoidal, triangular or saw-tooth waveform
SELECTOR selection switch
Frequency range selection switch

2. RANGE (Hz)
(10-100-1k-10k-100k-1M) Hz
3. FREQUENCY Frequency adjustment knob
4. AMPLITUDE Amplitude adjustment knob
5. OFF SET DC voltage can be added to the ac signal
6. OUTPUT BNC terminal giving out generator signal

119

10.4 DETERMINATION OF PHASE DIFFERENCE
USING LISSAJOUS FIGURES METHOD
You can use an oscilloscope to determine the phase difference between two
signals of same frequency by Lissajous pattern method. Let us now learn to
obtain signals with phase difference using simple electronic circuits.
10.4.1 Generation of Phase Difference Signals

Fig. 10.4 shows two sinusoidal waveforms, which have identical time period,
that is, they are of equal frequency. However, you must have noticed that they
cross the mean position at different times. This time difference multiplied by
angular frequency is called the phase difference between the two waves.
Fig. 10.4: Phase Here we choose one signal as a reference, that is, with zero-phase angle.
difference between two Therefore, the signal being compared is said to be leading by an angle T if it is
sinusoidal signals.
to the left of the reference signal and lagging if it is to the right of the reference
signal. The lead indicates positive value of phase while lag indicates negative
value of phase.
In order to obtain two sinusoidal waves of equal frequency but differing in
phase, you should use the circuit shown in Fig.10.5. It is an 5-& circuit, and
you may recall from your +2 physics course that the current L at any instant
would lead the applied voltage (. Here the voltage Y5 is in phase with L and
the voltage across the capacitor YF willlag thevoltage (. Therefore, we obtain

two sinusoidal signals with a phase difference.
Fig. 10.5: Phase shifting
circuit.
10.4.2 Phase Difference Calculation using Lissajous
Figures
The phase difference between two sinusoidal signals can be determined using
Lissajous figure obtained on the CRO screen by applying the two signals to
two pairs of deflection plates. This method is called the ;-< phase
measurement.
Now let us discuss the formation of Lissajous figure on the CRO screen.
Suppose that two sinusoidal signals having the same frequency but different
phases are superimposed. If the phase difference is T, these may be written
as
Y1 = D sin ZW
and Y2 = E sin (ZW + T).
You may appy the voltage Y1 to the vertical deflection plate and Y2 to the
horizontal deflection plate. You may recall from Unit 17 of the theory course on
Mechanics, that depending on the value of phase difference, T, the resultant
Fig. 10.6: Phase pattern will be either an ellipse or a straight line. In this experiment, you have
measurement using
to ensure that you obtain an ellipse on the CRO screen, as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Lissajous pattern.
At W = 0, you have Y2 = E sin T and therefore sin T = Y2 /E i.e. T = sin-1(Y2/E).
Note that E corresponds to the maximum value of Y2.
120
Fig.10.7 illustrates two possible patterns on the screen of a CRO. These

figures depict possible phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals.
You have learnt in
Unit 17 of the theory
course on Mechanics that
the ellipse present in
second and fourth
quadrant of the ;< plane
corresponds to the phase
angle (S-sin1(Y2/E)).
Fig. 10.7: Phase measurements.
Procedure
1. Construct the network given in Fig. 10.8 to obtain two sinusoidal signals of
same frequency, with a phase difference between them.
2. Choose the [\ mode of CRO and apply the two signals to vertical and
horizontal (\and x) inputs of the CRO as shown in the circuit. This will
result into an elliptical figure on the CRO screen.
1k
Fig. 10.8: Circuit for measurement of phase difference between two sine waves.
3. Trace the ellipse on the tracing paper and then paste it on a graph paper
after carefully centring.
4. Measure 2Y2 and 2E and calculate the Tvalue of phase as shown in

Fig. 10.7.
5. Now set the value of 5 by varying 5c with the help of resistance box, but
keeping 50 = 1 k:.
Record the value of 5 c, 5Y2 and E for each case in Observation Table
10.4.
Now calculate the value of the phase angle T.
8. Take readings for at least 3 different values of 5 c.

121

Observation Table 10.4: Phase difference from Lissajous figures
Constant resistance, 50 = 1000 :
Resistance chosen
5=50 +5c
in Resistance Box Y2 E T = sin1 (v2/E)
(:)
5c(:)
0 1000
1000 2000
2000 3000
After studying the Lissajous figures for same frequency sinusoidal waves, now
you will study the figures generated by two sinusoidal signals of unequal
frequencies.
10.5 LISSAJOUS FIGURES OF UNEQUAL

FREQUENCY SINUSOIDAL WAVES
You have learnt in the Mechanics course that the Lissajous figures can also be
observed in case of two unequal frequency waves when they are applied in
perpendicular direction. Let Z[ be the frequency of the sine wave given to the
[-input and Z\ bethefrequency given to the \-input. Let the relation between
Z[ and Z\ be P Z [ Q Z\ , (where Pand Q are integers), then a Lissajous
figure can be observed on the CRO screen such that it cuts [-axis at maximum
Q-times (or its multiples) and \-axis at maximum Ptimes (or its multiple). An
example of this is shown in Fig. 10.9(a and b).
< <
2 ; 2 ;

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.9: Lissajous figures corresponding to 2Z[ = 3Z\.
In Fig. 10.9a, the Lissajous figure cuts the [-axis at maximum three points
while the \-axis at maximum two points. That is in the same time period, there
are three vibrations parallel to 2<-axis and two vibrations parallel to 2;-axis.
Hence, the frequency relation between Z[ and Z\ is 2Z[ = 3Z\. Now, in
Fig. 10.9b, the figure cuts [-axis at maximum 6 points and \-axis at maximum
4 points. Again the frequency relation is 4Z[ = 6Z\ i.e. 2Z[ = 3Z\.
You can observe various patterns by changing the ratio of frequencies of
sinusoidal wave given to [- and \-axis.
122

To perform this experiment, you will need one dual trace oscilloscope with [-\
mode of operation and two function generators. Now perform the experiment
as described in the following steps:
1. Connect the two function generator outputs to channel- , and channel- ,, of
the CRO. Select [-\ mode of CRO operation. Select sinusoidal waveforms
on two function generators and set their frequencies.
2. Now, by adjusting the frequencies of the two function generators in various

proportions you will be able to observe different Lissajous figures. Some
examples of these patterns are given in Fig. 10.10.
3. Obtain the patterns on the screen and trace them on a tracing paper.
4 Write down the frequencies applied to [ and \ axes on this traced figure.
Confirm that the P:Q ratio seen on the figure matches with the
corresponding pattern in Fig. 10.10.
Patterns Frequency Frequency Ratio of

to x-channel to Zx : Zy
y-channel
4000 Hz 2000 Hz 2:1
4000 Hz 3000 Hz 4:3
2000 Hz 2000 Hz 1:1
2000 Hz 3000 Hz 2:3
2000 Hz 4000 Hz 1:2
1000 Hz 3000 Hz 1:3
1000 Hz 4000 Hz 1:4
Fig. 10.10: Lissajous figures corresponding to various ratios of Z[ and Zy.
123

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Block Preparation Team

MECHANICS: LABORATORY – INTRODUCTION

We hope that you will have enjoyable experience in the laboratory.

,.2 Errors in Measurements ,.6 Propagation of Errors

We express these measurements as approximate numbers such as 3.2 cm or 3.20 cm. Do

The uncertainty in any number obtained from a measurement constitutes what

Expected Learning Outcomes

,.2 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

We can conclude that a measurement which is reported as 4.3 cm (which is in

,.2.1 Probable Error and Precision

The probable error is half of the unit of measurement.

To be able to determine the precision of any measurement, you may like to

SAQ 1 – Precision in measurement

Consider the following pairs of measurement. Indicate which measurement in

,.2.2 Relative Error and Accuracy

In Table ,.1, we have calculated relative error in a few typical measurements.

Measurement Unit of measure Probable error Relative error

3.2 cm 0.1 cm 0.05 cm 0.02

7.4 s 0.1s 0.05 s 0.007

Comparison of measurement 7.4 s and 98 s is more revealing. The

You will therefore appreciate that a smaller measurement needs to be more

SAQ 2 – Accuracy in measurement

Consider the following pairs of measurements. Indicate which measurement

Note that in a measurement, errors can be introduced by

After understanding the difference between precision and accuracy in

,.3 REPORTING RESULTS

SAQ 3 – Expressing results in scientific notation

You will appreciate that writing numbers in scientific notation makes

,.3.2 Significant Digits

You may now like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 4 – Significant figures

Complete the Table ,.2 and answer the following questions:

Sl. Measurement No. of Unit of Probable Relative

1. 0.2 1 0.1 0.05 0.05m

a) Is there a significance of ‘trailing’ zeros in the first three measurements?

c) What is the significance of zeros between non-zero digits in the seventh

Sometimes we take a sequence of whole number measurements such as 32,

,.4 TYPES OF ERRORS

The errors in any measurement can be classified in two broad categories:

,.4.1 Systematic Errors

,.4.2 Random Errors

SAQ 5 – Classification of errors

Sl. Measurement Type of Error

We express the result of any measurement in a standard form along

Random errors can be quantified by statistical analysis and expressed as

,.5 ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF ERROR

Table ,.3: A set of typical values of measurement

Sl. No. Data ( x i ) Deviation ǻx i xi  x

The magnitude of the difference between the mean value of a physical

SAQ 6 – Standard deviation

A better index of the accuracy of a measurement or equipment is relative

,.6 PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

,.6.1 Error Propagation in Basic Operations

For the difference = = A  B,

'= 'A 2  'B 2 (,.7)

XAMPLE I.1: PROPAGATION OF ERROS IN ADDITION

'L 'L 1 2  'L 2 2

If a quantity E = A u B and the results of measurement of A and B are

Sl. No. Data ( x i ) Deviation ǻx i xi x

For the difference = = A B,

'= 'A 2 'B 2 (,.7)

'L 'L 1 2 'L 2 2

6. Sl. Length (xi) 'xi = xi x ( ǻx i ) 2

4. 134.5 0.5 0.25

LC = Value of one Main Scale Division (MSD) Value of one

LC { 1MSD 1VSD = 1MSD (9/10) MSD = (1/10) MSD