02.

DIFFERENTIATION 2

2.1. and notation

2.2. Greatest and least values

2.3. Application of Greatest and least values

Exercise 2A

2.4. Maxima and minima

2.5. Maxima and minima problems

Exercise 2B

2.6. Curve sketching

Exercise 2C

2.7. Second derivative

2.8. Stationary point and second derivative test

Exercise 2D

2.9. Small changes

Exercise 2E

Examination Questions

Chapter Answers

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 02. Differentiation 2

02. DIFFERENTIATION 2

𝟐. 𝟏. 𝒅 ′
𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇 𝒙 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
In addition to the
𝑑𝑦 notation
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ; = 2𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑑
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 the gradient function
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
can also be denoted
𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒. as
The gradient function is also referred to as the derived function or the derivative. 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2; or
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑓’ 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑟 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1:

Differentiate:

𝑎 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥

𝑑
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 6𝑥 + 4 In instances, where equating the
𝑑𝑥
expression to 𝑦 and then finding
1 4
𝑏 𝑥 + 6𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑑𝑥 is not desirable, i.e.:
𝑑 𝑎 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
1 4
𝑥 + 6𝑥 3 = 2𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= 6𝑥 + 4 ,
𝑑𝑥
2 3
𝑐 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 simply quoting 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 is a short-hand

𝑑 3 2 3 1 2 1 method.
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 9𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 2 Where the function has been given

as 𝑓 𝑥 , the derivative is simply
𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 4 + 𝑞𝑥 3 + 𝑟
quoted as 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 .
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑝𝑥 3 + 3𝑞𝑥 2

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 02. Differentiation 2

2.2. Greatest and least values

In fig 2.1(a), as the value of 𝑥 increases to the right, the gradient is positive but decreases steadily to zero at 𝐴. Past
𝐴 the gradient changes sign to negative. 𝐴𝐵 is the greatest value of 𝑦.

When the slope of a curve is going up (as

shown on the left), the gradient is positive.
And when the slope is going down, the
gradient is negative (as shown on the right).
AB is the greatest value of y.

Fig. 2.1(a)

On the left where the slope of the curve is

going down, its gradient is negative. And on
the right where the slope is going up, the
gradient is positive. CD is the least value of
y.

Fig. 2.1(b)

In fig 2.1(b), however, the gradient changes from negative to positive through 𝐶 and 𝐶𝐷 is the least value of 𝑦.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2;

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠

First we find the derivative
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 0; 𝑑𝑥 .

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑥 For least or greatest value, we
𝑑𝑦
∴ 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 equate 𝑑𝑥 to zero to find the
1 𝑥-value.
𝑥 = 2
2

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 02. Differentiation 2

1
1 1 2 1 We put 𝑥 = into the equation to find
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 2
− 2
−2 2
the 𝑦-coordinate.
1
𝑦 = −24
1 1
𝑡𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 2
, − 24 .

𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 , −24 𝑡𝑜 Using such a table is one method (see
𝑑𝑥 2
working in next box); we shall see
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
another method later in the chapter.
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤:

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 − 1

1
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 2
𝑅

𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
− 0 + From fig. 2.1(b), negative on the (L)
and positive on the (R) occurs at the
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 least point. So this is the least point
on the curve.
1 1
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 2
, −24 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 .

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈:
1 𝑑𝑦 1 We find the sign of the
1. 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; = 2 −1 =0
𝑑𝑥 2
gradient on either side of
1
2. 𝑇𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐿 ; 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑛 2
; 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 = 0 the point by substituting
𝑑𝑦 two suitable values of 𝑥
= 2 0 − 1 = −1 −𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 into
1
𝑑𝑥 ; one on the left
3. 𝑇𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑅 ; 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑛 2; 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 = 1 and the other on the right
𝑑𝑦 of the point.
= 2 1 − 1 = 1 +𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥

Example 2:

Find the greatest or least values of the following functions:

𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4−𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
First, we find the derivative. Then
′
𝑓 𝑥 = 4 − 2𝑥 equate the derivative to zero, to find
the 𝑥-value.
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0

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 02. Differentiation 2

∴ 4 − 2𝑥 = 0 We put 𝑥 = 2 into the expression for

𝑓 𝑥 to find the 𝑦 −coordinate.
𝑥 = 2.

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑓 2 = 2 4 − 2
We find the sign of the gradient on
= 4
either side of the point to determine
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, 4 .
whether it is the greatest or least point.

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 4 − 2𝑥

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 2 𝑅 For example:

𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 0 −
(1.5 is just less than 2)
𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4 − 2 1.5 = +1 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒)
𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠
(2.5 is just greater than 2)
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4 − 2 2.5 = −1 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]

𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 15 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2

First, we find the derivative. Then

𝑓 𝑥 = 15 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 equate the derivative to zero, to find the
𝑥-value.
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑥

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0

∴ 2 − 2𝑥 = 0 We put 𝑥 = 1 into the expression for

𝑓 𝑥 to find the 𝑦 −coordinate.
𝑥 = 1

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 1; 𝑓 1 = 15 + 2 1 − 12

𝑓 1 = 16 . We find the sign of the gradient on

either side of the point.

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑥

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 1 𝑅 For example:

𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 0 −
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 − 2 0.5 = +1 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 − 2 1.5 = −1 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]

𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Note: the closer the value used, the less
the chances of a wrong sign.
𝑥 =1.

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑐 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 2

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 First, we find the derivative. Then

equate the derivative to zero, to
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 − 1 find the 𝑥-value.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 =0
𝑑𝑥
∴ 4𝑥 − 1 = 0
1
𝑥 =
1
We put 𝑥 = into the expression for
4 4
𝑓 𝑥 to find the 𝑦 −coordinate.
1 1 2 1
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 4; 𝑦 = 2 4
−4 −6
49
=− 8
1 49
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 , − .
4 8 We find the sign of the gradient on
either side of the point.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 4𝑥 − 1
1
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 4
𝑅
For example:
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 − 0 + 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 4 0 − 1 = −1 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒

𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
49
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑦
8
𝑑𝑥
= 4 1 − 1 = +3 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
1 49
,− 8 . Note: the closer the value used, the
4
less the chances of a wrong sign.

2.3. Application of Greatest and least values

There are scenarios in real life where the practical application of the knowledge of greatest or least values is
required, as shown in the examples below:

Example 3:

A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground level and its height after 𝑡 𝑠 is 15.4𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 𝑚. Find the
greatest height it reaches and the time it takes to get there.

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑕 = 15.4𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 First, we find the derivative

𝑑𝑕
𝑑𝑕
= 15.4 − 9.8𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

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 02. Differentiation 2

The ball reaches its greatest height when

𝑑𝑕
𝑑𝑡 is zero. Actually the ball is
momentarily at rest at this point before
it begins to fall.

𝑑𝑕
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 We equate 𝑑𝑕 𝑑𝑡 to zero at the
15.4 − 9.8𝑡 = 0 greatest point, to find the value
of 𝑡.
15.4
𝑡 =
9.8
𝑡 = 1.6 𝑠 .

𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑠;

We put 𝑡 = 1.6 into the
𝑕 = 15.4 1.6 − 4.9 1.6 2 expression for 𝑕 to find the
greatest height.
𝑕 = 12.1 𝑚 .

Example 4:

A farmer has 100𝑚 of metal railing with which to form two adjacent sides of a rectangular enclosure, the other
two sides being two existing walls of the yard, meeting at right angles. What dimensions will give him the
maximum possible area?

This is a plot of Area against length 𝑥. The

area of the enclosure is maximum at the top
of the curve when 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 0

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑏𝑒 𝑥 𝑚

Black is the wall and blue is the metal
𝑇𝑕𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 railing.

𝑏𝑒 100 − 𝑥
100 − 𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 𝑥 100 − 𝑥

𝐴 = 100𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑥

𝑑𝐴 Area for a rectangle is given by

= 100 − 2𝑥 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 = 0;
𝑑𝑥

∴ 100 − 2𝑥 = 0 We obtain 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥 and equate it to zero

to find the value of𝑥 .
𝑥 = 50 𝑚 .

𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠 max 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛

𝑥 = 50 𝑚 .

∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 50𝑚 𝑏𝑦 50𝑚;

One may put 𝑥 = 50 into the formula
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2500 𝑚2 . for 𝐴 above, or simply multiply 50 ×
50.

Example 5:

A rectangular sheep pen is to be made out of 1000𝑚 of fencing using an existing straight hedge for one of the
sides. Find the maximum area possible and the dimensions needed to achieve this.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒 𝑥

Black is the hedge and blue is the
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 1000 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 fencing.
𝑥
= 1000 − 2𝑥 𝑚
1000 − 2𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 𝑥 1000 − 2𝑥

𝐴 = 1000𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥
𝑑𝐴 Area for a rectangle is given by
= 1000 − 4𝑥 . 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
∴ 1000 − 4𝑥 = 0 We obtain 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥 and equate it to
𝑥 = 250 𝑚 . zero to find the value of 𝑥.

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 250 1000 − 500 Put 𝑥 into the expression for 𝐴 to get
= 125,000 𝑚 2 maximum area 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the
dimensions can be substituted from
𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 250 𝑚 𝑏𝑦 500 𝑚 .
the rectangle above.

Example 6:

An aircraft flying level at 250 𝑚 above the ground suddenly swoops down to drop supplies and then regains its
former altitude. It is 𝑕 𝑚 above the ground 𝑡 𝑠 after beginning its dive, where 𝑕 = 8𝑡 2 − 80𝑡 + 250. Find the
least altitude during this operation and the interval of time during which it is losing height.

The plane drops to its least altitude when 𝑑𝑕 𝑑𝑡

is zero. Actually the plane is momentarily at rest
at this point before it begins to rise again.

𝑕 = 8𝑡 2 − 80𝑡 + 250
We obtain 𝑑𝑕 𝑑𝑡 and equate it to
𝑑𝑕
= 16𝑡 − 80 zero to find the value of 𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑕
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 0;
𝑑𝑡
∴ 16𝑡 − 80 = 0

𝑡 = 5𝑠 .
We put 𝑡 = 5 into the expression
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡, 𝑕 = 8 52 − 80 5 + 250 for 𝑕 to find the least height.

𝑕 = 50 𝑚 .

Exercise 2A:

1. Find 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 of the following functions:

(a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5 (b) 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 12

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 02. Differentiation 2

(c) 𝑝𝑥 3 − 𝑞𝑥 2 + 2𝑟 (h) 𝑓 𝑥 = −5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 10

(d) 4𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 (i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 4
(e) 𝑥2 − 2 𝑥 + 3 (j) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 − 5
(f) 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 2 + 1 (k) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
(g) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 (l) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2. Find the coordinates of the points on the following curves where the gradient is zero:
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 (e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
(b) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 10 (f) 𝑓 𝑥 = 6 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 𝑥3 (g) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥
(c) 𝑦 = + 5 𝑥 2 + 12 𝑥
3
(h) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 3 + 5 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 − 4
3. Find the greatest or least values of the following functions:
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2 (d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4
(b) 𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2
(c) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 (f) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 2 − 𝑥
4. The curve 𝑦 = 15 + 𝑏𝑥 – 𝑎𝑥 2 has the greatest point as 1, 16 . Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
5. The curve 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 3 has the least value at the point −2, 5 . Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
1 25
6. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑐 has the greatest point , . Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑐.
3 3

7. A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the ground level and its height after 𝑡 𝑠 is
39.2𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 𝑚. Find the greatest height it reaches and the time it takes to get there.
8. A point moves along a straight line so that at the end of 𝑡 𝑠 its distance from a fixed point is 𝑠 = 4 + 8𝑡 −
8𝑡 2 𝑚. Find the least distance of the particle from the fixed point.
9. A rectangular enclosure is formed by using 1200 𝑚 of fencing. Find the greatest possible area that can be
enclosed in this way and the corresponding dimensions of the rectangle.
10. A train is to make a voyage of 200 𝑘𝑚 at a constant speed. When the speed of the ship is 𝑣 𝑘𝑚 𝑕 the cost is
1024
$ 𝑣2 + per hour. Find the least cost of the voyage.
𝑣

2.4. Maxima and Minima

From the previous section;

1. The greatest value of a function occurs at a maximum point. This maximum value is called the maxima.
2. The least value of a function occurs at a minimum point. This minimum value is called the minima.
3. A maximum point such as 𝐴 (fig. 2.2) is obviously not the greatest point on the curve, but is greatest in
relation to the points close to it. Such a point may be called a local maximum. Similarly a point such
as 𝐵 may be called a local minimum.

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 02. Differentiation 2

4. A minimum or maximum point can also be called a turning point.

𝑑𝑦
5. At any point on a curve where the gradient 𝑑𝑥 is zero, 𝑦 is said to have a stationary value. This
point may also be called a stationary point.
6. A point where the gradient of the curve is zero but does not change sign is called a point of inflexion 𝑃
(fig. 2.3).

Point A is relatively higher than the points

close to it, so we call it a Local maximum.
Similarly, point B is lower in relation to the
points close it and we call it a Local minimum.

Fig. 2.2

The gradient of the curve simply keeps rising

but at point P, it is momentarily zero, after
which it continues to rise again. Such a point
as P is called an inflexion.

Fig. 2.3

Example 7:

Find the turning points of the curves:

𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 12

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥
𝑑𝑦 We obtain
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 12 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑥
10

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑑𝑦
Then equate 𝑑𝑥 to zero to find the 𝑥-
∴ 3𝑥 2 − 12 = 0
value.
𝑥2 = 4

𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2 .
Put 𝑥 into the equation of the curve to
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 2 22 − 12 = −16
get the 𝑦 −coordinate.
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, −16
2
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −2; 𝑦 = − 2 −2 − 12 = 16
We use the table to investigate the
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −2, 16 nature of the turning points above.

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 12
𝑑𝑥 For 𝑥 = 2;
𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿 −2 𝑅 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 3 1.5 − 12 = −5.25 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 − 0 + + 0 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
= 3 2.5 − 12 = 6.75 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]

For 𝑥 = −2;
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒; 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 −2, 16 𝑑𝑦
𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 2, 16 . 𝑑𝑥
= 3 −2.5 − 12 = 6.75 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑦
𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
= 3 −1.5 − 12 = −5.25 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]
3 2
𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 7

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12

𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0; Obtain 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and equate it to zero to find

the 𝑥-values of the coordinates.
6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12 = 0
We solve the quadratic equation by
𝑥 2
− 𝑥 − 2 = 0 factorization.

𝑥−2 𝑥+1 = 0

𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑓 2 = 2 23 − 3 22 − 12 2 − 7
Put 𝑥 into the equation of the curve to
𝑓 2 = −27 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, −27 get the 𝑦 −coordinate.
3 2 We use the table below to determine
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −1; 𝑓 −1 = 2 −1 − 3 −1 − 12 −1 − 7
the nature of the turning points.
𝑓 −1 = 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −1, 0 .

11

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 02. Differentiation 2

For 𝑥 = 2;

𝑓 𝑥′ 2
= 6𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 12 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 :
6 1.5 2 − 6 1.5 − 12 − 7.5 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿 −1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 :
2
6 2.5 − 6 2.5 − 12 = 10.5 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 − 0 + + 0 −
For 𝑥 = −1;
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 :
2
6 −1.5 − 6 −1.5 − 12 = 10.5 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒; 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 −1, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 :
2
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 2, −27 . 6 −0.5 − 6 0.5 − 12 = −13.5 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]

Example 8:

𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠:

𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥3 2 − 𝑥

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 Obtain
𝑑𝑦
and equate it to zero to find the
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥-values of the coordinates.
= 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 We’ve solved the equation by factorization.
𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒; = 0
𝑑𝑥
6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 = 0
Put 𝑥 into the equation of the curve to get
𝑥 2 6 − 4𝑥 = 0 the 𝑦 −coordinate. We use the table below
𝑒𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑥 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 6 − 4𝑥 = 0 to determine the nature of the turning
3 points.
∴ 𝑥=0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 2 − 0 = 0
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 0 For 𝑥 = 0;

3 3 3 3 27 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜

𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 2
2 − 2
= 16
𝑑𝑥
2 3
6 −0.5 − 4 −0.5 = 2 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
3 27
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ,
2 16
. 𝑑𝑦
𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
2 3
𝑑𝑦
6 0.5 − 4 0.5 = 1 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
= 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 For 𝑥 = 3 2 ;
3
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 0 𝑅 𝐿 𝑅 𝑑𝑦
2 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 6 1 − 4 1 = 2 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒]
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 + 0 + + 0 −
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 2 3
6 2 −4 2 = −8 [𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒]

12

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑

27
; 0, 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 As noted above, a point of inflexion is
16
one where the sign of the gradient
3 27
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 , 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 remains the same at either side.
2 16

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.

𝑏 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 + 3

𝑑𝑦
= 12𝑥 3 + 48𝑥 2 + 48𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 Obtain and equate it to zero to find
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 the 𝑥-values of the coordinates.
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑥 We’ve solved the equation by
12𝑥 3 + 48𝑥 2 + 48𝑥 = 0 factorization.
2
12𝑥 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 0
2
𝑒𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 12𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 0
2
𝑥= 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥+2 = 0
𝑥 = −2
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 3 Put 𝑥 into the equation of the curve to
get the 𝑦-coordinate. We use the table
𝑦 = 3 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 3
4 3 2
below to determine the nature of the
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −2; 𝑦 = 3 −2 + 16 −2 + 24 −2 +3
turning points.
𝑦 = 19 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −2, 19 .

𝑑𝑦 For 𝑥 = 0;
𝑑𝑥
= 12𝑥 3 + 48𝑥 2 + 48𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 0 𝑅 𝐿 −2 𝑅 12 −0.5 3
+ 48 −0.5 2
+ 48 −0.5 = −13.5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 − 0 + − 0 − 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3 2
12 0.5 + 48 0.5 + 48 0.5 = + 37.5
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑛 For 𝑥 = −2
𝑑𝑦
𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 19 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3; 0, 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 12 −2.5 3
+ 48 −2.5 2
+ 48 −2.5 = −7.5
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −2, 19 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑛 . 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −1.5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
3 2
12 1.5 + 48 1.5 + 48 1.5 = + 220.5

2.5. Maximum and minimum problems

Problems involving maximum and minimum points arise often in real life, in which case the first task is to derive an
equation relating the two variables. The stationary points can then be determined and their practical significance
interpreted. The following examples illustrate these case scenarios.

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Example 9:
A chemical factory wishes to make a cylindrical container of thin metal to hold 10 𝑐𝑚3 using the least possible
20
area of metal. If the outside surface area is 𝑠 𝑐𝑚2 and the radius is 𝑟 𝑐𝑚, show that 𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + and hence
𝑟
find the required radius and height of the container (leave 𝜋 in your answer).

𝟐𝟎
𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓 We put the value 𝑣 = 10 into the
formula for volume.
𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 10 𝑐𝑚3

∴ 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 = 10
10
𝑕 = We make 𝑕 the subject
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑕
10 We substitute for 𝑕 in the formula
∴ 𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 ×
𝜋𝑟 2 for 𝑠 and hence eliminate 𝑕 .
20
𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝑟
𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑛.

𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒉

𝑑𝑠
= 4𝜋𝑟 + 20 −𝑟 −2
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑠 For least surface area 𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 , we
20
= 4𝜋𝑟 − 𝑟2 find 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟 and equate it to zero to
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑠 find the value of 𝑟 at which it
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0; occurs.
𝑑𝑟
20
∴ 4𝜋𝑟 − 𝑟2
= 0
20
𝑟2
= 4𝜋𝑟
5
𝑟3 =
𝜋

3 5
𝑟 = 𝑐𝑚
𝜋
We substitute the value of
10 𝑟 obtained into the expression for 𝑕
𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑕 =
𝜋𝑟 2 obtained above.

10 2 × 51 × 5−2 3
2 × 51 3
𝑕 = = =
𝜋× 5 2 3 𝜋 1 × 𝜋 −2 3 𝜋1 3
𝜋 Here we use the Algebra of indices
3 5 to simplify the value of 𝑕.
𝑕= 2 𝑐𝑚 .
𝜋 [One could as well simply use a calc
unless stated otherwise]
3 5 3 5
𝑡𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝜋
𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 2 𝜋
𝑐𝑚 .

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Example 10:

The figure below represents a rectangular sheet of metal 8𝑐𝑚 𝑏𝑦 5𝑐𝑚. Equal squares of side 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 are removed
from each corner and the edges are then turned to make an open box of volume 𝑣 𝑐𝑚3 . Show that 𝑣 =
40𝑥 − 26𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 .
Hence find the maximum possible volume and the corresponding value of 𝑥.

The box produced is

shown. Both length and
width are less by 2𝑥
5𝑐𝑚
𝒙 that corresponds to
5 − 2𝑥
𝒙 𝑥 the two squares of
𝑥 cm removed from
8 𝑐𝑚 each corner.
8 − 2𝑥

𝑣 = 𝑙×𝑤×𝑕
We quote the formula for finding the
𝑣 = 8 − 2𝑥 × 5 − 2𝑥 × 𝑥
volume of a box, substitute and expand.
𝑣 = 40𝑥 − 16𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3

𝑣 = 40𝑥 − 26𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 ; 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑛.

𝑑𝑣
= 40 − 52𝑥 + 12𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 Maximum volume occurs when 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝐴𝑡 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0;
𝑑𝑥 So we find the derivative and equate it

∴ 12𝑥 2 − 52𝑥 + 40 = 0 to zero to obtain the values of 𝑥.

We can solve the equation by
3𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 10 = 0 factorization
𝑥−1 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
10
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
We use the table to determine which of
𝑑𝑣
= 40 − 52𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 the two values of 𝑥 obtained produces
𝑑𝑥
the maximum volume.
10
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 3
𝑅 𝐿 1 𝑅
𝑑𝑣
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑑𝑣
− 0 + + 0 − To get the sign of , we substitute
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
close values of 𝑥 on either side of the
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 point.

𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1;

We put 𝑥 = 1 into the expression for 𝑣
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40 − 26 + 4
above to find the maximum volume.
3
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 18 𝑐𝑚 .

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Example 11:

A piece of wire of length of length 𝑙 is cut into two parts 𝑥 and 𝑙 − 𝑥. The former is bent into the shape of a
square and the latter into a rectangle of which the base is double the height. Find an expression for the sum of the
8𝑙
areas of the two figures. Prove that the only value of 𝑥 for which this sum is a maximum or minimum is 𝑥 =
17
and find which it is.

RECTANGLE
SQUARE

𝑦
2𝑦
1
4
𝑥
1
4
𝑥
If the height (or width)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑏𝑒 𝑦 is 𝑦, the length is double,
2 2𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑙−𝑥 hence 2𝑦. But the
perimeter is equal to the
2 6𝑦 = 𝑙−𝑥
1 part 𝑙 − 𝑥 . Perimeter is
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥 1
4 𝑦 = 6
𝑙−𝑥 given by 2(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 +
1 2
𝐴𝑠 = 16
𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕).

𝐴𝑟 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕
Perimeter of square equals to 2 1
1
𝐴𝑟 = 6
𝑙−𝑥 × 6
𝑙−𝑥
part 𝑥; hence each side is 𝑥.
4 1 2
𝐴𝑟 = 18
𝑙−𝑥

𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝑺 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑆 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴𝑟 We find the sum of the area of the

square and area of the rectangle. We
1 2 1 2
𝑆 = 16
𝑥 + 18
𝑙−𝑥 then expand the expression and

1 2 1
simplify.
𝑆 = 16
𝑥 + 18
𝑙 2 − 2𝑥𝑙 + 𝑥 2

1 2 1 2 1 1 2
𝑆 = 16
𝑥 + 18
𝑙 − 9𝑥𝑙 + 18
𝑥

17 2 1 1 2
𝑆 = 144
𝑥 − 9𝑙𝑥 + 18
𝑙

𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒙 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑺:

Note that 𝑙 is treated as a constant
𝑑𝑆 17 1 since we are differentiating with
= 𝑥 − 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 72 9
respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 = 0;
𝑑𝑥

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17 1
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑙 = 0
72 9 We obtain 𝑥 in terms of 𝑙 .
1 72
𝑥 = 9
𝑙 × 17

8
𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛. 8
17 We still deal with 𝑥= 𝑙 in the table
17
𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑺 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 as previously:

𝑑𝑠 17 1 𝐿 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= 72
𝑥 − 9𝑙
𝑑𝑆 17 1
=− 𝑙− 𝑙
8 𝑑𝑥 72 9
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 17
𝑙 𝑅 25
=− 𝑙 (−𝑣𝑒)
72
𝑑𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
− 0 + 𝑅 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑆 17 1
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝑙 − 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 72 9
1
= 𝑙 (+𝑣𝑒)
8
1 2 1 2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆 = 16
𝑥 + 18
𝑙−𝑥

1 8𝑙 2 1 8𝑙 2
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 16 17
+ 18
𝑙 − 17

𝑙2 We substitute for 𝑥 into the expression

𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = .
34
for 𝑆 to find the minimum value.

Exercise 2B:

1. Find the turning points of the following curves:

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 (e) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 + 15
(b) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7 (f) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑥 − 5
3 2
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2 (g) 𝑓 𝑥 = 9 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑥 2
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 8 𝑥 + 15 (h) 𝑓 𝑥 = 12 + 5 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3
2. Investigate the stationary values of the following curves:
(a) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 (d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 2𝑥 − 4
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 2𝑥 + 4 (e) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 12 𝑥 3 + 40 𝑥 2 + 5
3 4
(c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 + 10𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3
2 3

3. The turning point of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 9 𝑖𝑠 2, −11 . Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
4. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 crosses the 𝑦 −axis at the point (0, 3) and has a stationary point (1, 2). Find the
values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
5. The gradient of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑞𝑥 − 𝑟 at the point (1, −2) is 1. One point of intersection
of the curve with the 𝑥 −axis is (−1, 0).

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Find the turning point of the curve and the other point of intersection with the 𝑥-axis and sketch the curve.
6. 𝑦 is a quadratic function of 𝑥. The line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2 is a tangent to the curve at the point
2
(1, 4). The turning point on the curve occurs where 𝑥 = . Find the equation of the curve.
3

7. The following facts are known about the function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑;

(a) passes through the point (0, −3),
(b) has a stationary point at (−1, 1),
𝑑2 𝑦
(c) 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2 when 𝑥 = 1.
Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.
8. A door is in the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle whose diameter is equal to the width of the
rectangle. If the perimeter of the door is 7𝑚, and the radius of the semicircle is 𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠, express the height
7
of the rectangle 𝑕 in terms of 𝑟. Show that the area of the door has a maximum value when 𝑟 is .
(4+𝜋)

9. An open tank is constructed, with a square base and vertical sides, to hold 32 𝑚3 of water. Find the
dimensions of the tank if the area of the metal sheet used is to have a minimum value.
10. A farmer has a 80 𝑚 length of fencing. He wants to use it to form three sides of a rectangular enclosure
against an existing fence which provides the fourth side. Find the maximum area that he can enclose and give
its dimensions.
11. An open box is made from a square sheet of cardboard, with sides half a 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 long, by cutting out a square
from each corner, folding up the sides and joining the cut edges. Find the maximum capacity of the box.
12. A cylinder has a radius 𝑟 metres and a height 𝑕 metres. The sum of the radius and height is 2 𝑐𝑚. Find an
expression for the volume 𝑉 in 𝑐𝑚3 of the cylinder in terms of 𝑟 only. Hence find the maximum volume.
13. The height, 𝑕 metres of an object thrown vertically upwards at time 𝑡 seconds after it is released is given
by 𝑕 = 45 − 𝑡 − 2𝑡 2 .
(a) Calculate how long it takes for the object to return to its point of projection.
(b) Find the value of 𝑡 at which the object is momentarily stationary, and hence calculate the maximum
height reached by the object.
14. The displacement 𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 of an object from some fixed point 𝑂 at time 𝑡 seconds is given by 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 2 +
4𝑡 + 5.
(a) Find the expression for the velocity 𝑣 and acceleration 𝑎 at time 𝑡.
(b) Show that the object is never stationary.
(c) Calculate the average speed of the object between 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 3 𝑠.

2.6. Curve sketching

We shall now apply the idea of maxima and minima as an introduction to sketching curves of functions. However,
in 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 16, which is completely dedicated to curve sketching further methods are explored.

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Example 12:

Find where the following curves meet the axes. Find also the coordinates of their stationary points and use these
results to sketch the curves.

1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3

𝑎 𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = 0;
3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 = 0
At the 𝑥-intercept, put 𝑦 = 0 to
𝑥2 3 − 𝑥 = 0 find the values of 𝑥.
𝑥 =0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =3

∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3, 0 .

𝑏 𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0; At the 𝑦-intercept, put 𝑥 = 0 to
𝑦 = 3 0 − 0 find the value of 𝑦.

𝑦 = 0

∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0, 0 .

𝑐 𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒; 𝑑𝑦

Equate 𝑑𝑥 to zero to find the
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 3 𝑥-coordinates of the stationary
points.
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
∴ 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 = 0 We put the 𝑥-values into the
curve to find the 𝑦-values.
3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0 We use the table to determine
𝑥=0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2 the nature of the points.

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 0

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 4 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, 4
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 2

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 0 𝑅 𝐿 2 𝑅
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
− 0 + + 0 −

∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 0, 0 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑

2, 4 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖.
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡.

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2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = 0;

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 0

𝑥 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 At the 𝑥-intercept, put 𝑦 = 0 to

find the values of 𝑥.
𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
We’ve solved the equation by
𝑥−1 2
= 0 factorization.

𝑥 = 1

𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1, 0 .

𝑏 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0;

At the 𝑦-intercept, put 𝑥 = 0 to
𝑦=0 − 0 + 0= 0 find the value of 𝑦.
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 0 .

𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒;

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 Equate
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 to zero to find the 𝑥-
𝑑𝑦 coordinates of the stationary
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 points.

∴ 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0

𝑥−1 3𝑥−1 = 0
1 We put the 𝑥-values into the curve
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3 to find the 𝑦-values.
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 1; 𝑦 = 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1, 0 We then use the table to
determine the nature of the points.
1 4 1 4
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 3; 𝑦 = 27
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ,
3 27
.

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1

1
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 1 𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
3
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
− 0 + + 0 −

1 4
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 1, 0 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,
3 27
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖

𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒

𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡.

3. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 3
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𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = 0;

3𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 3 = 0

𝑥 3 3𝑥 2 − 5 = 0 At the 𝑥-intercept, put 𝑦 = 0 to

find the values of 𝑥.
𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 2 − 5 = 0 We’ve solved the equation by
5 factorization.
𝑥2 =
3
5
𝑥 =± 3

5 5
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0, 0 3
, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3
, 0 . At the 𝑦-intercept, put 𝑥 = 0 to
find the value of 𝑦.
𝑏 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0, 0

𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒;

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Equate 𝑑𝑥 to zero to find the 𝑥-
= 15𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 coordinates of the stationary
∴ 15𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 2 = 0 points.

15𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0

𝑥=0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 We put the 𝑥-values into the curve

to find the 𝑦-values.
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 0 We then use the table to
determine the nature of the points.
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 1; 𝑦 = −2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1, − 2

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1; 𝑦 = 2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −1, 2

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 15𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 2

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 0 𝑅 𝐿 1 𝑅 𝐿 −1 𝑅

𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
− 0 − − 0 + + 0 −

𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 0, 0 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙, 1, −2 min 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −1, 2 max .

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡.

The reader may later review 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 16 which is dedicated to curve sketching, where more elaborate methods
have been explained.

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 02. Differentiation 2

Exercise 2C:

Find where the following curves meet the axes. Find also the coordinates of their stationary points and use these
results to sketch the curves:
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 6. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 1
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 2 7. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 1
3. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 8. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 − 1
2
4. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥+1 9. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4
5. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑥 + 2 10. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 + 12

2.7. Second derivative

𝑑𝑦
𝑊𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 . 𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑠:
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 ; 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝒅 − 𝒕𝒘𝒐 − 𝒚 𝒃𝒚 𝒅 − 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅" .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 Differentiating once gives the first derivative;

= 𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥 and twice gives the second derivative.
2
𝑑 𝑦
= 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 2

Example 13:

Find the second derivative of the following:

𝑎 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 12

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥
𝑑𝑥 We simply differentiate once and then

𝑑2 𝑦 twice to obtain the second derivative.

∴ = 12𝑥 + 8
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 16𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 are the first and

second derivatives respectively.
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 48𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 6

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𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 3 𝑥2 + 4

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 − 12 First, we expand the expression.

= 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 12

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 Then we differentiate once and then

twice to obtain the second derivative.
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 2 + 2.

Example 14:

Find the second derivative at the following points on the given curves:

𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 17; −1, −20

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 2 We differentiate once and then twice
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 to obtain the second derivative.
= 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

𝐴𝑡 −1, −20 , 𝑥 = −1;

𝑑2 𝑦 We then substitute the value of 𝑥 at
∴ = 6 −1
𝑑𝑥 2 the given point.
= −6

𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 2𝑥 − 4 3𝑥 − 1 ; 0.5, −0.375

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 6𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 4

= 6𝑥 4 − 14𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 We expand, and then differentiate once

and twice.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 24𝑥 3 − 42𝑥 2 + 8𝑥

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 72𝑥 2 − 84𝑥 + 8
We then substitute the value of 𝑥 at
𝐴𝑡 0.5, −0.375 ; 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 72 0.5 2
− 84 0.5 + 8
the given point.
= −16 .

1 170
𝑐 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 + 3; 3
, 27

𝑑𝑦
= 12𝑥 3 + 48𝑥 2 + 48𝑥
𝑑𝑥 We differentiate once and then twice
2
𝑑 𝑦 to obtain the second derivative.
= 36𝑥 2 + 96𝑥 + 48
𝑑𝑥 2

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 02. Differentiation 2

1 170 𝑑2 𝑦 1 2 1
We then substitute the value of 𝑥 at
𝐴𝑡 , 27 ; = 36 + 96 + 48 the given point.
3 𝑑𝑥 2 3 3

= 84 .

2.8. Stationary points and Second derivative test

𝑑𝑦
From the previous sections, the stationary points of a curve can be found by solving the equation𝑑𝑥 = 0.
Their nature, (whether a maximum, minimum or a point of inflexion) can then be determined by examining the
sign of the gradient at either sides of the stationary point.
We can use the
Another useful method of examining stationary points is using the second derivative test.
second
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠; 4 3
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 ; 2
derivative to
determine if a
𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥; point is a
𝑑𝑥
maximum or
𝒅𝒚 𝑑2 𝑦 minimum.
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑖𝑠 = 12𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 6.
𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑥 2
Note the following points from fig.2.4:

𝑑𝑦
1. Around a maximum point, 𝑑𝑥 passes from positive to negative; so it is
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
decreasing. Hence the gradient of 𝑑𝑥 , i.e. 𝑑𝑥 2 is negative at that point.
𝑑𝑦
2. Around a minimum point, 𝑑𝑥 passes from negative to positive so it is increasing.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Hence the gradient of 𝑑𝑥 i.e. 𝑑𝑥 2 is positive at that point.

𝑑2 𝑦
3. When 𝑑𝑥 2 is zero, the point may be an inflexion, maximum or minimum. So
𝑑𝑦
the results are inconclusive and the method of finding the sign of 𝑑𝑥 should be
used.
Fig. 2.4

Example 15:

Find the stationary points on the following curves. Using the second derivative test, find their nature.

𝑎 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 + 4 We obtain 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, = 0;
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
We equate 𝑑𝑥 to zero to find
∴ 4𝑥 + 4 = 0
the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒.
𝑥 = −1
2
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2 −1 + 4 −1
We put 𝑥 into the equation of the
= −2
curve to find the 𝑦-coordinate.
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (−1, −2)

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡; = 4 (+𝑣𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝑑𝑥 again gives
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 , 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −1, −2 = 4 which is positive + .
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.

𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 7

𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 7
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0;
We obtain 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and equate it to
∴ 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12 = 0
zero to find the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0 We solve by factorization.
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 = 0
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2; 𝑓 2 = 23 − 3 22 − 12 2 − 7
𝑓 2 = −27 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, −27 We put 𝑥 into the equation of the
3 2 curve to find the 𝑦-coordinates.
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −1; 𝑓 −1 = −1 − 3 −1 − 12 −1 − 7
𝑓 −1 = 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −1, 0 .
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠; 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 − 6
𝐴𝑡 2, −27 ; 𝑓 ′′ 2 = 12 × 2 − 6 We find the second derivative and
substitute the respective 𝑥-values
= 18 +𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
to determine the nature of the
′′
𝐴𝑡 −1, 0 ; 𝑓 −1 = 12 × −1 − 6 points.
= −18 −𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒; 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖 −1, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 2, −27 .

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑥3 2 − 𝑥

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒; = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
We obtain 𝑑𝑥 and equate it to
6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 = 0
zero to find the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.
𝑥 2 6 − 4𝑥 = 0 We solve by factorization.

𝑒𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑥 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 6 − 4𝑥 = 0
3
∴ 𝑥=0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥= 2

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 =0 2 − 0 = 0

𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0, 0
We put 𝑥 into the equation of the
3 3 3 3 27 curve to find the 𝑦-coordinates.
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = ; 𝑦 = 2 − =
2 2 2 16

3 27
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ,
2 16

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠; = 12𝑥 − 12𝑥 2 ;
𝑑𝑥 2

3 27 𝑑2 𝑦 3 3 2
𝑎𝑡 , , = 12 − 12
2 16 𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 We find the second derivative and

= −9 (−𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖) substitute the respective 𝑥-values to

determine the nature of the points.
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 0, 0 , = 12 0 − 12 0
𝑑𝑥 2
= 0 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑑2𝑦
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 = 0, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒;
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛:

𝑑2 𝑦
When
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2
− 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 is zero, the point may
𝑑𝑥
be a maxima, minima or inflexion. We
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 0 𝑅 then revert to the method of using
the table.
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑥
+ 0 +

𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙

3 27
∴ ,
2 16
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0, 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓

𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑛.
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 02. Differentiation 2

Exercise 2D:

1. Find the second derivatives of the following functions:

(a) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 (d) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 6
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2 (e) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2
(c) 𝑦 = 12𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 4
2. Find the second derivatives of the following curves at the given points:
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 12 ; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, 6
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −1, −24
(c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0.5, 2
(d) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 12; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −4, −32
(e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −3, 9
(f) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 12; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2, 20
(g) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 + 3); 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −2, −32
3. Find the points on the following curves where the second derivative is given:
𝑑2𝑦
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3; = 14
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
(b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5; = 10
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 ; =0
𝑑𝑥 2
5 𝑥3 𝑑2𝑦
(d) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 4 + + 2 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 + 12; = 3
3 𝑑𝑥 2

Find where the following curves meet the axes. Find also the coordinates of their stationary points and their
nature using the second derivative test, and use these results to sketch the curves:
4. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 6. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 12
5. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 10 7. 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑥2 − 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
8. If 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 show that 𝑦 + − 6𝑦 + 1 = 6𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

9. Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 2
− 1;
2
𝑑 𝑦
(a) Find 𝑑𝑥 2 .
𝑑2𝑦
(b) Show that 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is an integer to be found.
𝑑𝑥 2

10. Given that:

4
𝑦= 𝑥−
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
(a) Find and 2.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(b) Show that 4𝑥2 + 4𝑥 −𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

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 02. Differentiation 2

2.9. Small changes

𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑊𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡, 𝑎𝑠 𝛿𝑥 → 0,
→ . 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 ≈
𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦 We multiply both sides by 𝛿𝑥;
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑖𝑓 𝛿𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙; ≈ 𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑦 ≈ × 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝒚
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝈𝒚 ≈ × 𝜹𝒙
𝒅𝒙
This is the formula for small changes whose application is shown in the following examples.

Example 16:

The surface area of a sphere is 4𝜋𝑟 2 . If the radius of the sphere is increased from 10𝑐𝑚 to 10.1𝑐𝑚; what is the
approximate increase in surface area?

𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝐴 We differentiate 𝐴 with respect

= 8𝜋𝑟 to 𝑟.
𝑑𝑟

𝛿𝐴 𝑑𝐴
𝐴𝑠 𝛿𝑟 → 0; ≈
𝛿𝑟 𝑑𝑟
On multiplying through by 𝛿𝑟 to
𝑑𝐴
∴ 𝛿𝐴 ≈ × 𝛿𝑟 make 𝛿𝐴 the subject of the
𝑑𝑟
expression.
𝛿𝐴 ≈ 8𝜋𝑟 × 𝛿𝑟

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝛿𝑟 = 10.1 − 10 = 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 10 𝑐𝑚.

We substitute for 𝑟 and 𝛿𝑟 into the
𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿𝐴 = 8𝜋 × 10 × 0.1
formula for 𝛿𝐴 above.
= 8𝜋 𝑐𝑚2

Example 17:

An error of 3% is made in measuring the radius of the sphere. Find the percentage error in volume.

𝑣 =
4
𝜋𝑟 3 We differentiate with 𝑣 respect
3
to 𝑟.
𝑑𝑣
= 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟
3
𝐼𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑟, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝑟 = 𝑟 = 0.03𝑟 . Error is 3% of 𝑟 = 3 100 × 𝑟
100

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑑𝑣
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝛿𝑣 ≈ × 𝛿𝑟 We’ve simply quoted the formula for
𝑑𝑟
small changes, seen above.
≈ 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝛿𝑟 𝑑𝑣
We substitute = 4𝜋𝑟 2 and
𝑑𝑟
2
≈ 4𝜋𝑟 × 0.03𝑟 𝛿𝑟 = 0.03𝑟 to get 𝛿𝑣 .
3
≈ 0.12𝜋𝑟
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = × 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The error is the value 𝛿𝑣 obtained
0.12𝜋𝑟 3 above and the actual volume is that
= 4 3
× 100
3 𝜋𝑟
4
of a sphere 𝜋𝑟 3 .
3

= 9% .

Example 18:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑:

𝑎 25.1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑥1 2

𝑑𝑦 1 −1 2
We make the root sign an index and
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 obtain 𝑑𝑥 .
1
=
2 𝑥
A small increment 𝛿𝑥 in 𝑥 produces a
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥
small increment 𝛿𝑦 in 𝑦 .

∴ 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 25 + 0.1

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 25, 𝛿𝑥 = 0.1 25.1 can be expanded as 25 + 0.1.

𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 ≈ × 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1 We quote the formula for small

≈ × 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2 𝑥 changes. We substitute .
𝑑𝑥

1 We also put 𝑥 = 25 and 𝛿𝑥 = 0.1 .

≈ × 0.1
2 25
1
𝛿𝑦 ≈ = 0.01
100 Note that 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 25 = 5

∴ 25.1 = 5 + 0.01 Also 𝛿𝑦 has been obtained as 0.01.

So we put into 25.1 = 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 .

= 5.01 .

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 02. Differentiation 2

3
𝑏 8.1

3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑥1 3

𝑑𝑦 We make the cube root sign an index

1 −2 3
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3 and obtain 𝑑𝑥 .
1
= 3
3 𝑥2
3 A small increment 𝛿𝑥 in 𝑥 produces a
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥
small increment 𝛿𝑦 in 𝑦 .
3
∴ 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 8 + 0.1

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 8, 𝛿𝑥 = 0.1
8.1 can be expanded as 8 + 0.1.
3 3

𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿𝑦 ≈ × 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 We quote the formula for small
𝛿𝑦 ≈ 3 × 𝛿𝑥
3 𝑥2 changes. We substitute
𝑑𝑦
.
𝑑𝑥
1
∴ 𝛿𝑦 ≈ × 0.1 We also put 𝑥 = 8 and 𝛿𝑥 = 0.1 .
3
3 × 82
1
𝛿𝑦 ≈ ≈ 0.00833 . Note that 𝑦 =
3 3
𝑥= 8=2
120
3 Also 𝛿𝑦 has been obtained as
𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 8.1 = 2 + 0.00833
0.00833.
= 2.00833 .
So we put into 8.1 = 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 .

Example 19:

One side of a rectangle is three times the other. If the perimeter increases by 2% , what is the percentage increase
in the area.

𝑝
𝑃 = 8𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 8
𝑙

𝑊𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃;
3𝑙
2
𝐴 = 3𝑙
𝑃 = 2 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 + 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 2 3𝑙 + 𝑙 .
𝑃 2 We make 𝑙 the subject and
𝐴 = 3 8
substitute it into the formula for
3 2 Area; 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 3𝑙 × 𝑙 .
𝐴 = 𝑃
64
𝑑𝐴 3
= 𝑃
𝑑𝑃 32 So we differentiate 𝐴 with
𝑑𝐴 respect to 𝑃 .
𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠; 𝛿𝐴 ≈ × 𝛿𝑃
𝑑𝑃

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑑𝐴
3 We put into the formula for small
𝑑𝑃
𝛿𝐴 ≈ 𝑃 × 𝛿𝑃
32 changes.
2
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃; 𝛿𝑃 = × 𝑃 = 0.02𝑃
100
An increase of 2% of perimeter 𝑃 is
3 2
∴ 𝛿𝐴 ≈ 𝑃 × 0.02𝑃 𝑃 . So we substitute into the
32 100
expression for 𝛿𝐴 .
3
≈ 1600
𝑃2

𝛿𝐴
% 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100 The actual area is the value of 𝐴 =
3
𝑃2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 64
3 obtained above.
1600
𝑃2
= 3 2 × 100 We substitute and evaluate.
64
𝑃

= 4% .

Example 20:

The volume of a sphere increases by 2%. Find the corresponding percentage increase in surface area.

4
𝑣 = 3
𝜋𝑟 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒗
4
𝑣 = 3𝜋𝑟 3 Since we are relating volume 𝑣 and
3𝑣 surface area 𝑠, we make 𝑟 the subject
𝑟3 = in order to eliminate it.
4𝜋
1 3
3𝑣
𝑟 =
4𝜋
2 3
3𝑣 Substitute for 𝑟 into the formula for 𝑠.
∴ 𝑠 = 4𝜋
4𝜋 Pay close attention to the algebra of
= 4𝜋 1
× 4𝜋 −2 3
× 3𝑣 2 3 indices here.

1 3
= 4𝜋 × 32 3
× 𝑣2 3

𝑠 = 𝑘𝑣 2 3 The constant 𝑘 has been introduced

as a substitute to the group of
1 3
𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 4𝜋 × 32 3
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 constants 4𝜋 1 3
× 32 3
.
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 Carrying on with this group would
simply make the working tedious.
𝑑𝑠 2
= 𝑘𝑣 −1 3
𝑑𝑣 3

𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠 We now find . We’ve also quoted the
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿𝑠 ≈ × 𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑣 formula for small changes.

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 02. Differentiation 2

𝑑𝑠
2 We substitute into the formula.
𝛿𝑠 ≈ 3
𝑘𝑣 −1 3 × 0.02𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Also; increase in volume, 𝛿𝑣 is 2% of 𝑣
2
1 which gives × 𝑣 = 0.02𝑣 .
≈ 75
𝑘𝑣 2 3 100

𝛿𝑠
% 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = × 100
𝑠 The terms 𝑘𝑣 2 3 in the numerator and
1
𝑘𝑣 2 3 denominator cancel out.
= 75 × 100
2
𝑘𝑣 3
1
= 13 % .

Exercise 2E:

1. If 𝑦 = 6𝑥 3 , find the approximate change in 𝑦 if 𝑥 is increased from 2 to 2.02.

2. Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 and that 𝑥 increases from 3 to 3.025, find the new value of 𝑦.
3. The surface area of a sphere is 4𝜋𝑟 2 . If the radius of the sphere is increased from 12𝑐𝑚 to 12.05 𝑐𝑚; what is
the approximate increase in surface area.
2
4. In an experiment to find the values of 𝑇 from the formula 𝑇 = 2𝑥 + , the values of 𝑥 are read from a
𝑥3

measuring device. A value of 𝑥 is read as 2.01 but should be 2. What is the approximate error in the value
of 𝑇?
5. An error of 6% is made in measuring the radius of the sphere. Find the percentage error in volume.
4𝜋𝑟 3
6. The volume of a sphere is given by 𝑉 = where 𝑟 is the radius. Find the approximate percentage change in
3

𝑣 if 𝑟 is increased by 1%.
1
7. 𝑃 = 1− . When 𝑥 = 2, it is decreased by 3%. Find the approximate percentage change in 𝑃.
𝑥2

8. The radius of a circle is increased by 5%. Calculate the approximate percentage increase in:
(a) The circumference.
(b) The area of the circle.
1
9. The volume of a right circular cone is given by 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕. If the height of the cone is 12 𝑐𝑚 and the radius 8 𝑐𝑚,
3

find the approximate change in volume if the radius decreases to 7.925 𝑐𝑚.
10. The time period 𝑇 of a simple swinging pendulum is the function of the length 𝐿 of the pendulum, such
𝐿
that 𝑇 = 2𝜋 , where 𝑔 is a const
𝑔

11. ant. Find the percentage change in the period of the pendulum if the length is shortened by 6%.
12. A closed cylinder has a base radius of 8 𝑐𝑚 and a height of 20 𝑐𝑚. Calculate the small changes; (a) in volume,
(b) in its surface area, that result from a small change of 0.1 𝑐𝑚 in its radius. Leave your answer in terms of 𝜋
and assume the height remains constant.

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13. A box has height 𝑥, length 3𝑥, and width 2𝑥. Calculate the percentage increase in the value of 𝑥 if the volume
is increased by 4.5%.
14. Find the approximate value of the following:
1
(a) 2.0253 (c) 15.98 4

(b) 9.064 2
(d) 31.955
15. The length of a rectangle is four times its breadth. If the perimeter increases by 3% what is the percentage
increase in the area.
16. The volume of a sphere increases by 3%. Find the corresponding percentage increase in surface area.

Examination questions

1. The function 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 4 has a turning point where 𝑥 = 1.

(a) Find the value of 𝑎.
(b) Verify that the point at 𝑥 = 1 is a minimum and find the position of the maximum point.
2. The function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 1 has a stationary value where 𝑥 = 1. Find:
(a) The value of 𝑎.
(b) The minimum and the maximum points on the curve.
3. The function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 13 passes through the point (1, 0) and has a stationary point
where 𝑥 = −1. Find:
(a) The value of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(b) The type and position of the stationary points.
4. Two numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 are connected by the relation 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3. Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 which give a
15
stationary point of the function 𝑇 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 and determine whether they make 𝑇 a maximum or
2

minimum.
5. A cylindrical can (with lid) of radius 𝑟 𝑐𝑚 is made from 300 𝑐𝑚2 of thin sheet metal.
150 −𝜋𝑟 2
(a) Show that its height 𝑕 𝑐𝑚 is given by 𝑕 = .
𝜋𝑟

(b) Find 𝑟 and 𝑕 so that the can will contain the maximum possible volume and find this volume.
6. The length of a closed rectangular box is 3 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 its width. If its volume is 972𝑐𝑚3 , find the dimensions of the
box if the surface area is to be a minimum and state this area.
7. A rectangular box, with a lid, is made from thin metal. Its length is 2𝑥 𝑐𝑚 and its width𝑥 𝑐𝑚. if the box must
have a volume of 72 𝑐𝑚3 ;
216
(a) Show that the area 𝐴 𝑐𝑚2 of the metal used is given by 𝐴 = 4𝑥 2 + .
𝑥

(b) Find the value of 𝑥 so that 𝐴 is a minimum.

(c) Find the dimensions of the box and the minimum value of 𝐴.
8. A straight line passes through the point (2, 3) and its gradient is 𝑚. It meets the positive 𝑥 − and 𝑦 −axes at
𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively.

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(a) State the equation of the line in terms of 𝑚.

3
(b) Show that 𝑂𝐴 = 2 − and find a similar expression for 𝑂𝐵.
𝑚
9
(c) Show that the area of ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 6 − − 2𝑚.
2𝑚

(d) Hence find the value of 𝑚 for which this area is a minimum, showing that it is a minimum.
9. The dimensions of a cylinder of radius 𝑟 are such that the sum of its length and its circumference is 8𝜋 𝑐𝑚.
(a) Show that its length is 𝜋 8 − 2𝑟 𝑐𝑚.
(b) Hence state its volume in terms of 𝑟 and find the value of 𝑟 which gives us the maximum volume.
4𝜋
(c) Also show that the surface area is maximum when 𝑟 = .
2𝜋−1

10. A piece of wire 48 𝑐𝑚 long is divided into two parts. One part is formed into the shape of a circle of radius
𝑟 𝑐𝑚 while the other part is formed into a square of side 𝑥 𝑐𝑚.
24−2𝑥
(a) Show that 𝑟 = .
𝜋

(b) Find an expression in terms of 𝑥 for the total area 𝐴 of the two shapes and hence show that the area is
48
minimum when 𝑥 = .
𝜋+4

(c) Find the value of 𝑟 and the minimum area.

11. A rectangular box has a square cross-section and the sum of its length and the perimeter of this cross-section
𝑥 2−𝑥 2
is 2 𝑚. If the length of the box is 𝑥 𝑚, show that its volume 𝑉 𝑚3 is given by 𝑉 = .
16
Hence find the maximum volume of the box.
12. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 .
(a) Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(b) Determine whether each stationary point is a maximum or a minimum point.
(c) Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(d) State the value of 𝑘 for which the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 has three solutions.
2
13. A function is defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥 + 3𝑥 3 , 𝑥 > 0.
(a) Find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
(b) Determine the coordinates of the turning point of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(c) Determine whether the turning point is a maximum or minimum point.
14. The figure shows the plan of a stage in shape of a rectangle joined to a semicircle. The length of the
rectangular part is 2𝑥 metres and the width is 𝑦 metres. The diameter of the semicircular part is 2𝑥 metres.
The perimeter of the stage is 80 𝑚.

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 02. Differentiation 2

(a) Show that the area, 𝐴 𝑚2 , of the stage is given by;

𝜋
𝐴 = 80𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥2 .
2

(b) Use calculus to find the value of 𝑥 at which 𝐴 has a stationary value.
(c) Prove that the value of 𝑥 obtained in part (b) gives the maximum value of 𝐴.
(d) Calculate, to the nearest 𝑚2 , the maximum area of the stage.
15. The curve 𝐶 has equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5.
𝑑𝑦
(a) Find and hence find the coordinates of the turning points of 𝐶.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
(b) Find and hence or otherwise, determine the nature of the turning points of 𝐶.
𝑑𝑥 2
(c) Sketch the curve.
16. The figure shows a design consisting of two rectangles measuring 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 by 𝑦 𝑐𝑚 joined by a circular sector of
radius 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 and angle 0.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
Given that the area of the design is 50 𝑐𝑚2 ;
(a) Show that the perimeter, 𝑃 𝑐𝑚, of the design is given by
100
. 𝑃 = 2𝑥 +
𝑥
(b) Find the value of 𝑥 for which 𝑃 is a minimum, and show that it is minimum.
(c) Find the minimum value of 𝑃 in the form 𝑘 2.

17. The curve 𝐶 has the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 3 .

(a) Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
(b) Sketch the curve showing any turning points.
(c) The straight line 𝑙 is tangent to 𝐶 at the point 𝑃(−1, 1). Find the equation for 𝑙.
(d) The straight line 𝑚 is parallel to 𝑙 and is also tangent to 𝐶. Show that 𝑚 has the equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 8.
𝑥 4 −3
18. Given that 𝑦 = :
2𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
(a) Find 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑2𝑦 𝑥 4 −9
(b) Show that = .
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥4
𝑑2𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
(c) Also show that + = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is an integer to be found.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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 02. Differentiation 2

2
19. The curve 𝐶 with equation 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 crosses the 𝑥 −axis at the point 𝐴 and touches the 𝑦 −axis at
the point 𝐵.
(a) Find the turning points of 𝐶.
(b) Sketch the curve 𝐶 showing the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵.
(c) Show that the tangent to 𝐶 at 𝐴 has the equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2.
20. Some ink is poured onto a piece of cloth forming a stain that then spreads. The area of the stain, 𝐴 𝑐𝑚2 after 𝑡
seconds is given by 𝐴 = 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑡 2 , where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are positive constants. Given that when 𝑡 = 0, 𝐴 = 4 and
that 𝑡 = 5 when 𝐴 = 9:
1
(a) Find the value of 𝑝 and show that 𝑞 = .
5

(b) Find 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑡 in terms of 𝑡.

(c) Find the minimum area of the stain showing that it is minimum.
21. A curve has the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. Given that the curve is
stationary at the point (−1, 12):
(a) Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(b) Find the coordinates of the other stationary point on the curve and state which is minimum or maximum.
22. The figure shows a metal tray made out of a sheet of metal. The horizontal base is a rectangle measuring
8𝑥 𝑐𝑚 by 𝑦 𝑐𝑚 and the two vertical sides are trapeziums of height 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 with parallel edges of length 8𝑥 𝑐𝑚
and 10𝑥 𝑐𝑚. The remaining two sides are rectangles at 45° to the horizontal. Given that the capacity of the
tray is 900 𝑐𝑚3 .
(a) Find an expression of 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.
(b) Show that the area of the metal used to make the tray, 𝐴 𝑐𝑚2 , is given by
200 4 + 2
𝐴 = 18𝑥 2 + .
𝑥
(c) Find to 3 significant figures, the value of 𝑥 for which 𝐴 is stationary.
(d) Find the minimum value of 𝐴 and show that it is minimum.

1 1
23. The curve 𝐶 has the equation 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥 > 0.
(a) Find the coordinates of the points where 𝐶 crosses the 𝑥 −axis.
(b) Find the exact coordinates of the stationary point of 𝐶.
(c) Determine the nature of the stationary point.
(d) Sketch the curve 𝐶.
24. The curve has the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 15𝑥.

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 02. Differentiation 2

(a) Find the coordinates where the curve cuts the axes.
𝑑𝑦
(b) Find and use it to find the coordinates of the turning points.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
(c) Find and use it to determine the nature of the turning points.
𝑑𝑥 2

(d) Using your results above to sketch the curve.

25. The curve 𝐶 has equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2.
𝑑𝑦
(a) Find 𝑑𝑥 .
(b) Using the results above, find the coordinates of the turning points of 𝐶.
𝑑2 𝑦
(c) Find 𝑑𝑥 2 and hence or otherwise find the nature of the turning points of 𝐶.
26. A diesel lorry is driven at a steady speed of 𝑣 𝑘𝑚/𝑕𝑟. The total cost of the journey, 𝐶, is given by;
1400 2𝑣
𝐶= +
𝑣 7
(a) Find the value of 𝑣 for which 𝐶 is a minimum.
2
(b) Find 𝑑 𝐶 𝑑𝑣 2 and hence verify that 𝐶 is a minimum for this value of 𝑣.
(c) Calculate the minimum total cost of the journey.
27. The figure below shows a solid brick in the shape of a cuboid measuring 2𝑥 𝑐𝑚 by 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 by 𝑦 𝑐𝑚. The total
surface area of the brick is 600 𝑐𝑚2 .
(a) Show that the volume, 𝑉 𝑐𝑚3 , of the brick is given by

4𝑥 3
𝑉 = 200𝑥 − .
3
(b) Find the maximum value of 𝑉, giving your answer to the nearest 𝑐𝑚3 .
(c) Verify that the value of 𝑉 found is the maximum.

28. The figure shows an open-topped water tank in the shape of a cuboid, which is made out of a sheet of metal.
The base of the tank is a rectangle, 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 by 𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠. The height of the tank is 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠. The capacity of
the tank is 100 𝑚3 .
(a) Show that the area 𝐴 𝑚2 of the sheet of metal used to make the tank is given by

300
𝐴= + 2𝑥 2
𝑥

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 02. Differentiation 2

(b) Use calculus to find the exact value of 𝑥 for which 𝐴 is stationary.
(c) Prove that this value of 𝑥 gives a minimum value of 𝐴.
(d) Calculate the minimum area of metal needed to make the tank (to the nearest 𝑚2 ).

Further study resources:

Differentiation 2 Solution Bank is available with all exercises here fully worked out.

We also recommend the following resources to further expand your Differentiation knowledge:

1. Further differentiation app

2. Trigonometry 2 app (for differentiation of trigonometric functions)

The Student may also benefit from the following:

1. Integration app
2. Further Integration 1 app
3. Further Integration 2 app

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 Chapter Answers 02. Differentiation 2

Exercise 2A:

1. (a) 1, −1 (d) −2, 0 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡

3 191 1 13
(a) 4 𝑥 − 3 (b) , (e) − , 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
10 20 4 4
(b) 9 𝑥 2 + 4 28 5 9
(c) −2, − (f) , 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
(c) 3 𝑝 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑞 𝑥 3 4 8
2 40 4. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2
(d) 16 𝑥 3 − 6 𝑥 2 + 8 𝑥 (d) − ,
3 27 1
(e) 3 𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 − 2 1 1 5. 𝑎=− , 𝑏=2
(e) , − 2
(f) 6 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 + 2 3 3
6. 𝑎 = 6, 𝑐 = 9
(g) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 8 𝑥 + 2 (f) −2, 10
7. 𝑡 = 4 𝑠, 𝑕 = 78.4 𝑚
(h) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 − 6 𝑥 − 15 𝑥 2 (g) −1, −1
1 37
8. 𝑠 = 6𝑚
(i) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4 𝑥 + 5 (h) −2, 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑
3
,
27 9. 𝐴 = 90,000 𝑚2 ;
(j) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 9 𝑥 2 − 30 𝑥 + 4 3. 300 𝑏𝑦 300
(k) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3 𝑥 2 + 8 𝑥 + 1 (a) 0, 2 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 10. $ 192
(l) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 (b) −1, 4 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
2. (c) 1, 2 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡

Exercise 2B:

1.
(a) 4, −16 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
(b) −1, 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
2 22
(c) −2, 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥; − , 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3 27
4 229
(d) −2, 27 𝑚𝑎𝑥; , 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
3 27
5 755
(e) − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥; 1, 9 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
3 27
5 25
(f) , − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
2 2
3 45
(g) − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥
4 4
5 149
(h) − , 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 1, 15 𝑚𝑎𝑥
3 27
2. 6. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
109
(a) 𝑦 = − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 7. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = −7, 𝑑 = −3
12
64 𝜋𝑟 7
(b) 𝑦 = 0 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 8. 𝑕=− −𝑟+
27 2 2

(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = −
31
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 𝑓(𝑥) =
1205
𝑚𝑎𝑥 9. 4 𝑚 × 4 𝑚 × 2 𝑚
3
27
96
10. 800 𝑚2 ; 20𝑚 × 40𝑚
(d) 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑛𝑓 1
8 11. 𝑚3
108
(e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 𝑓 𝑥 = 130 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 32 𝜋
12. 𝑉 = 𝜋 2 − 𝑕 2 𝑕; 𝑉 = 𝑚3
𝑓 𝑥 = 133 𝑚𝑎𝑥 27

3. 𝑎 = 5, 𝑏 = 20 13. 𝑎 𝑡 = 5𝑠
361
4. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = 3 𝑏 𝑚
8
1 9
5. , − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; 2, 0 ; 14. 𝑎 𝑣 = 3 𝑡 2 − 6 𝑡 + 4; 𝑎 = 6 𝑡 − 6
2 4
𝑐 4𝑚 𝑠

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Exercise 2C:

2
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥+1

5. 𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑥 + 2
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑥 − 2

6. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 1

3. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3

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 02. Differentiation 2

9. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4
7. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 1

8. 𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑥2 − 1
10. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 + 12

Exercise 2D:

1. 2. (g) 32
(a) 8 (a) 2 3.
(b) 6𝑥+8 (b) −16 (a) 2, 11
(c) 20 1
(c) 72 𝑥 + 14 (b) , 4
3
(d) 60 𝑥 2 + 30 𝑥 − 24 (d) −40
(c) 0, 0 ; −1, −1
(e) 40 𝑥 3 + 36 𝑥 2 + (e) 36 1 1817 1 4169
(f) 56 (d) − , ; − ,
72 𝑥 + 8 6 162 4 384

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 02. Differentiation 2

4. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 6. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 12

7. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 2
5. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 10

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 3
8. 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
+
𝑑𝑥
− 6𝑦 + 1 = 6𝑥 10. 𝑎 = 𝑥 − 2 + 2𝑥 − 2 ;
𝑑𝑥 2
1
9. 𝑎
𝑑2𝑦 3
= 𝑥− 2 𝑑2 𝑦 1 3 5
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
= − 𝑥 − 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑏 𝑘=3

Exercise 2E:

1. 𝛿𝑦 = 1.44 6. 3% 10. 3% 13. 𝑎 8.3 15. 2%

2. 𝑦 = 7.275 7. 2% 11. 𝑎 32 𝜋 𝑏 3.0107 𝑡𝑜 4𝑑𝑝𝑠
24 𝜋 36 𝜋
3. 8. 𝑎 5% 𝑏 𝑐 1.9994 𝑡𝑜 4𝑑𝑝𝑠
5 5
𝑏 10% 3 𝑑 3.9975 𝑡𝑜 4𝑑𝑝𝑠
4. 0.01625 24 𝜋 12. %
9. 2 14. 6%
5. 18% 5

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 02. Differentiation 2

Examination questions

1. 𝑎 𝑎=3 𝑑 448 𝑚2
𝑏 𝑥 = −2 𝑑𝑦
15. 𝑎 = 6 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 − 4;
𝑑𝑥
2. 𝑎 𝑎=2 1 154
7 365 2, −7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ,
3 27
𝑏 1, − 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥
3 27 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑏 = 12 𝑥 − 10;
3. 𝑎 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −3 𝑑𝑥 2
1 154
𝑏 −1, 20 𝑚𝑎𝑥; 2, −7 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 2, −7 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥
3 27
4. 1, −2 𝑚𝑎𝑥; −6, −9 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝑐 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
5 2 10 2 500 2
5. 𝑏 𝑟= ,𝑕 = ; 𝑉= 𝑐𝑚3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 9, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 6,
6. 𝑐𝑚; 648 𝑐𝑚2
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = 18
7. 𝑏 𝑥=3
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = 6, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 3,
𝑐 𝑐𝑚; 108 𝑐𝑚2
𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 4
8. 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥−2𝑚+3
𝑏 𝑂𝐵 = 3 − 2 𝑚
3
𝑑 𝑚=
2
8
9. 𝑏 𝑣 = 𝜋 2 𝑟 2 8 − 2𝑟 ; 𝑟 =
3
24−2 𝑥 2 2
10. 𝑏 𝐴 = +𝑥
𝜋
24 576
𝑐 𝑟= 𝑐𝑚, 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑚2 16. 𝑏 𝑥 = 5 2
𝜋+4 𝜋+4
11. 𝑣 =
2
𝑚 3 𝑐 𝑝 = 20 2
27
17. 𝑎 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3 𝑥 2 + 12 𝑥 + 12;
12. 𝑎 0, 2 , −4, 34
𝑓 ′′ = 6 𝑥 + 12
𝑏 0, 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; −4, 34 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑏 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 3
𝑐 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕; 𝑦 = 2 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3

𝑑 2 < 𝑘 < 34
2 2
13. 𝑎 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −1 + ; 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = − 𝑐 𝑦 =3𝑥+4
𝑥1 3 𝑥4 3
𝑏 8, 6
𝑑𝑦 3
𝑐 8, 6 𝑚𝑎𝑥 18. 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 + 𝑥3
80
14. 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑘=4
𝜋+4

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 02. Differentiation 2

7 4 5 400
19. 𝑎 3, 0 𝑚𝑎𝑥; ,− 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 3, −36 ; − ,
3 27 3 27
𝑏 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 𝑑2𝑦
𝑐 = 6 𝑥 − 4; 3, −36
𝑑𝑥 2
5 400
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥
3 27
3 2
𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 15 𝑥

20. 𝑎 𝑝 = 2
𝑑𝐴 2 𝑡 4 25. 𝑎
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 4
𝑏 = + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 25 5 1 73
𝑐 𝐴 = 0 𝑐𝑚2 𝑏 2, −10 ; − ,
3 27
21. 𝑎 𝑎 = −6, 𝑏 = 4 𝑑2𝑦
𝑐 = 12 𝑥 − 10;
𝑏 −1, 12 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖; 5, −96 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑑𝑥 2
1 73
22. 𝑎 𝑦 =
100 2, −10 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖; − , 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖
3 27
𝑥2
𝑏 𝑥 = 3.11𝑐𝑚 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠𝑓 26. 𝑎 𝑣 = 70𝑘𝑚 𝑕𝑟
𝑑2𝐶 2800
𝑐 𝐴 = 522 3 𝑠𝑓 𝑏 =
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑣3
23. 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 4, 0 1, 0 𝑐 𝐶 = 40
𝑏 2, 3 − 2 2 27. 𝑏 943 𝑐𝑚3
3
𝑐 2, 3 − 2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 28. 𝑏 𝑥 = 75𝑐𝑚
1 1 𝑐 107 𝑚2
𝑑 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 −2

24. 𝑎 −3, 0 0, 0 5, 0
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑏 = 3 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 15;
𝑑𝑥

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 DOWNLOAD MORE BOOK CHAPTERS 6.3. Combinations
6.4. The Binomial theorem
Chapter 1: Differentiation 1 6.5. Obtaining the term independent of 𝑥
1.1. Gradient of a curve 6.6. The Binomial theorem for any index
1.2. Finding the gradient of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
1.3. Finding the gradient of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 Chapter 7: Algebra 2
1.4. Finding the gradient of a polynomial 7.1. Inequalities
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 7.1.1. Introduction
𝑑𝑦 7.1.2. Linear inequalities
1.5. The 𝑑𝑥 notation 7.1.3. Quadratic inequalities
1.6. Summary of results
7.1.4. Inequalities of rational fractions
1.7. Tangents and normals
7.1.5. Problems involving inequalities
1.8. Velocity and acceleration
7.2. Further equation methods
7.2.1. Square root equations
Chapter 2: Differentiation 2
7.2.2. Equations reducing to quadratic
2.1. 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) notation
7.2.3. Equations with a repeated root
2.2. Greatest and least values 7.3. Simultaneous equations in 3 unknowns
2.3. Application of Greatest and least values 7.3.1. Method 1: By elimination
2.4. Maxima and minima 7.3.2. Method 2: By substitution
2.5. Maxima and minima problems 7.3.3. Method 3: By Cramer’s rule
2.6. Curve sketching 7.3.4. More simultaneous equations
2.7. Second derivative
2.8. Stationary point and second derivative Chapter 8: Series
test 8.1. Introduction
2.9. Small changes 8.2. Arithmetical progression
8.2.1. Definition of an AP
Chapter 3: Integration 8.2.2. General term of an AP
3.1. Reverse of differentiation 8.2.3. Sum of an AP
3.2. The 𝑑𝑥 notation 8.3. Geometric progression
3.3. Finding the arbitrary constant 𝐶 8.3.1. Definition of a GP
3.4. Velocity and acceleration 8.3.2. General term of a GP
3.5. Area under a curve 8.3.3. Sum of a GP
3.5.1. Introduction 8.3.4. Sum to infinity of a GP
3.5.2. Area between a curve and 𝑥 − axis 8.4. Proof by induction
3.5.3. Definite integrals 8.5. Further series
3.5.4. Area between a curve and 𝑦 −axis
3.5.5. Area of a curve cut off by a line Chapter 9: Trigonometry 1
3.5.6. Area enclosed by two curves 9.1. Trigonometric ratios of angles
3.5.7. Negative area 9.2. Graphs of sin, cos and tan
3.6. Solids of revolution 9.3. Trigonometric ratios of 30°, 45° and 60°
3.6.1. Rotation about the 𝑥 −axis 9.4. Secant, cosecant and cotangent
3.6.2. Rotation about the 𝑦 −axis 9.5. Trigonometric equations
3.6.3. Rotation about a given line 9.6. Pythagoras theorem
3.6.4. Application of solids of revolution 9.7. Compound angle formula
3.7. Centre of gravity 9.8. Double angle formula
3.7.1. Introduction 9.9. The 𝑡 −formula
3.7.2. Centre of gravity of an area 9.10. The form 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥
3.7.3. Centre of gravity of a volume 9.11. The factor formula
9.12. The Sine rule
Chapter 4: Further differentiation 9.13. The Cosine rule
4.1. The chain rule 9.14. Area of a triangle
4.2. Rates of change
4.3. Products and quotients Chapter 10: Trigonometry 2
4.4. Implicit functions 10.1. Radian measure
4.5. Parameters 10.2. Length of an arc and area of a sector
4.6. Second derivative 10.3. Differentiation of trigonometric
functions
Chapter 5: Algebra 1 10.3.1. Small changes
5.1. Surds 10.3.2. Derivatives of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥
5.1.1. Rules of surds 10.3.3. Derivatives of tan 𝑥 and cot 𝑥
5.2. Logarithm 10.3.4. Derivatives of sec 𝑥 and cosec 𝑥
5.2.1. Rules of logarithm 10.3.5. Derivatives of sin 𝑓(𝑥) and cos 𝑓(𝑥)
5.2.2. Proof of rules 10.3.6. Derivative of sin𝑛 𝑥 and cos 𝑛 𝑥
5.2.3. Application of logarithm rules 10.4. Integration of trigonometric functions
5.3. Quadratic equations 10.4.1. Using reverse of differentiation
5.3.1. Completing the square 10.4.2. Integration of even powers of
5.3.2. Using the quadratic formula trigonometric functions
5.3.3. The discriminant 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 10.4.3. Using the factor theorem
5.3.4. Maximum and minimum values of a 10.4.4. Integration of odd powers of
function trigonometric functions
5.3.5. Sum and product of roots 10.4.5. Definite integrals
5.4. The remainder and factor theorems 10.5. Differentiation of inverse trigonometric
5.4.1. The remainder theorem functions
5.4.2. The factor theorem 10.6. General solutions of trigonometric
equations
Chapter 6: Binomial theorem
6.1. Pascal’s triangle
6.2. Factorial notation
Chapter 11: FURTHER INTEGRATION 1 17.1.3. Tangent and Normal to ellipse
11.1. Integration by recognizing a function and 17.1.4. Parametric co-ordinates of an ellipse
its derivative 17.1.5. Further examples about ellipses
11.2. Integration by change of variable 17.2. CONICS 3 [HYPERBOLA]
11.3. Changing limits of a definite integral 17.2.1. Introduction
11.4. Integration by using inverse 17.2.2. Asymptotes to the hyperbola
trigonometric functions 17.2.3. Tangent and normal to hyperbola
11.4.1. Using sin−1 𝑥 17.2.4. Parametric equation of the hyperbola
11.4.2. Using tan−1 𝑥 17.2.5. Rectangular hyperbola
11.4.3. Quadratic denominator 17.2.6. Rotating a rectangular hyperbola
11.5. Definite integrals involving trigonometric Chapter 18: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
functions 18.1. Introduction
Chapter 12: EXPONENTIAL AND LOG FUNCTIONS 18.2. Solving differential equations
12.1. The exponential function 18.2.1. By separating variables
12.2. Deriving the function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 18.2.2. Inserting boundary conditions
12.3. The natural logarithm function 18.3. Exact differential equations
12.4. Recognizing a function and its derivative 18.4. Integrating factor method
12.5. Logarithm of negative limits 18.4.1. Introduction
𝑑 𝑥 18.4.2. Integrating factor
12.6. 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 18.5. Homogenous equations
12.7. Logarithmic differentiation 18.6. Other useful substitutions
18.7. Differential equations problems
Chapter 13: PARTIAL FRACTIONS 18.8. Forming differential equations
13.1. Introduction Chapter 19: COMPLEX NUMBERS
13.2.1. CASE I: Denominator with only linear 19.1. Introduction
factors 19.2. Algebra of complex numbers
13.2.2. Cover-up method 19.3. Complex conjugate
13.3. CASE II: Denominator with a quadratic 19.4. Square root of a rectangular complex
factor number
13.4. CASE III: Denominator having repeated 19.5. Further complex roots
roots 19.6. The Argand diagram
13.5. CASE IV: Improper fractions 19.7. Modulus and argument of a complex
13.6. Differentiation after Partialisation number
13.7. Integration after Partialisation 19.7.1. Laws of modulus
13.8. Binomial expansion after Partialisation 19.7.2. Rules of arguments:
Chapter 14: FURTHER INTEGRATION 2 19.8. Modulus argument form (𝑟 cos 𝜃 +
14.1. Integration by parts 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
14.2. Integration by parts with limits 19.9. De Moivre’s theorem
14.3. Taking 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 as 1 19.10. Proving trigonometric identities in
14.4. Integration by parts more than once form cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑛𝜃
14.5. Integration by parts where the original 19.11. Proving trigonometric identities in
integral appears again form cos 𝑛 𝜃 or sin𝑛 𝜃
14.6. Change of variable 𝑡 = tan
𝑥 19.12. Find the 𝑛𝑡𝑕 root of a complex
2
number
14.7. Change of variable 𝑡 = tan 𝑥
19.13. Complex Loci
14.8. Splitting the numerator
19.14. Representing loci with inequalities
Chapter 15: COORDINATE GEOMETRY 1
Chapter 20: VECTORS IN 3-DIMENSION
15.1. THE CIRCLE
20.1. Introduction
15.1.1. Cartesian equation of a circle
20.2. The Unit Vector
15.1.2. Parametric equation of a circle
20.3. Products of vectors
15.1.3. Forming circle given three points
20.3.1. Scalar product (Dot product)
15.1.4. Forming circle given the diameter ends
20.3.2. Vector product (Cross product)
15.1.5. Intersection of circle and line
20.4.1. Vector equation of a line
15.1.6. Gradient at a point on a circle
20.4.2. Intersection of two lines
15.1.7. Length of a tangent from a point
20.4.3 Angle between two lines
15.1.8. Intersection of two circles
20.4.4. Shortest distance of a known point
15.1.9. Orthogonal circles
from a line
15.2. CONICS 1 [PARABOLA]
20.5.1. The plane
15.2.1. Introduction
20.5.2. Finding area of a Parallelogram
15.2.2. The parabola (𝑒 = 1)
20.5.3. Finding the area of a Triangle
15.2.3. Tangents and normal to the parabola
20.5.4. Intersection of planes
15.2.4. Parametric equation of a parabola
20.5.5. The angle between planes
15.2.5. Chord to parabola
20.5.6. Intersection of a line and a plane
Chapter 16: CURVE SKETCHING
𝑎 20.5.7. Shortest distance of a plane from a
16.1. 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 1 𝑓 𝑥 = point
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
16.2. 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 2 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
16.3. 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑕 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑕 𝑥
16.4. 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑉 𝑓 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥
= 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑕 𝑥
𝑕 𝑥
Chapter 17: COORDINATE GEOMETRY 2
17.1. CONICS 2 [ELLIPSE]
17.1.1. Introduction
17.1.2. Features of the ellipse