Energy 1

Chapter 2
Energy and Energy Types
2.1 Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy comes in various forms, such as motion,
heat, light, electrical, chemical, nuclear energy, and gravitational. Total energy is
the sum of all forms of the energy a system possesses. In the absence of magnetic,
electrical and surface tension effects, the total energy of a system consists of the
kinetic, potential, and internal energies. The internal energy of a system is made
up of sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear energies. The sensible internal energy
is due to translational, rotational, and vibrational effects of atoms and molecules.
Thermal energy is the sensible and latent forms of internal energy. The classifi-
cation of energy into different ‘‘types’’ often follows the boundaries of the fields of
study in the natural sciences. For example, chemical energy is the kind of potential
energy stored in chemical bonds, and nuclear energy is the energy stored in
interactions between the particles in the atomic nucleus. Microscopic forms of
energy are related to the molecular structure of a system and they are independent
of outside reference frames.
Hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion
of hydrogen in the Sun. Some of the fusion energy is then transformed into
sunlight, which may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes
the earth. For example, water evaporates from the oceans, may be deposited on
elevated parts of the earth, and after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can
drive turbines to produce energy in the form of electricity. Atmospheric
phenomena like wind, rain, snow, and hurricanes, are all a result of energy
transformations brought about by solar energy on the atmosphere of the earth.
Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis,
when carbon dioxide and water are converted into carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins. This chemical potential energy is responsible for growth and develop-
ment of a biological cell.
British thermal unit (Btu) is the energy unit in the English system needed to
raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F. Calorie (cal) is the amount
Y. Demirel, Energy, Green Energy and Technology, 27

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4471-2372-9_2, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012
28 2 Energy and Energy Types
Table 2.1 Some energy units and definitions

Name of unit Symbol Definitions
British thermal unit Btu 1055 J = 5.4039 psia ft3
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm 2.326 kJ/kg
Joule J J = mN = 1 kgm2/s2
Calorie Cal 4.1868 J
kJ kJ kPa m3 = 1000 J
kJ/kg kJ/kg 0.43 Btu/lbm
Erg erg gcm2/s2 = 10-7 J
Foot pound force ft lbf g 9 lb 9 ft = 1.355 J
Horsepower hour hph hp 9 h = 2.684 9 106 J
Kilowatt hour kWh kW 9 h = 3.6 9 106 J
Quad quad 1015 Btu = 1.055 9 1018 J
Atmosphere liter atml atm 9 l = 101.325 J
kW kW 3412 Btu/h
Horsepower hp 2545 Btu/h
Therm therm 29.3 kWh
Electronvolt eV &1.602 17 9 10-19 ± 4.9 9 10-26 J
of energy in the metric system needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at

15C by 1C. Table 2.1 displays some of the important energy units and their
definitions.
2.2 Energy Types
Primary and secondary types of energy are the two main types as shown in
Fig. 2.1. Primary energy is extracted or captured directly from the environment,
while the secondary energy is converted from the primary energy in the form of
electricity or fuel. Distinguising the primary and secondary energy sources are
important in the energy balances to count and record energy supply, transforma-
tions, and losses. These energy types are discussed in the next sections.
2.2.1 Primary Energy
Primary energy is the energy extracted or captured directly from the environment.
Three distinctive groups of primary energy are:
• Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels): coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel.
• Renewable energy: hydropower, biomass, solar energy, wind, geothermal, and
ocean energy.
• Waste.
2.2 Energy Types 29
Primary Energy Secondary Energy
Crude oil, Coal, Petroleum products,

Natural gas, Nuclear manufactured solid
To Consumption
Transformation
fuels and gases
Waste Electricity and Heat
Solar, Biomass, Wind,

Bio fuels
Hydro, Geothermal
Fig. 2.1 Primary and secondary energy types. To separate primary and secondary energy is
important in energy balances for energy supply, transformation, and losses [33]
Fig. 2.2 History and projections of energy use by fuel type in the world (Quad = 1015 Btu) [13]
Primary sources of energy consisting of petroleum, coal, and natural gas amount to
about 85% of the fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world [13, 37].
Projected energy use in the world shows that petroleum, coal, and natural gas will
still be the dominant energy sources by 2035 (Fig. 2.2). The principle of supply
and demand suggests that as fossil fuels diminish, their prices will rise and
renewable energy supplies, particularly biomass, solar, and wind resources, will
become sufficiently economical to exploit [13, 37]. Figure 2.3 shows the primary
energy flow in the US.
The energy content may be converted to ton of oil equivalent (TOE): 1
TOE = 11630 kWh = 41870 MJ.
2.2.2 Secondary Energy
The primary energy is transformed to secondary energy in the form of electrical

energy or fuel, such as gasoline, fuel oil, methanol, ethanol, and hydrogen [3]. The
Fig. 2.3 US primary energy Supply Sources Demand

flow by source and sector sectors
in 2009 in quadrillion
Btu- quad = 1015 Btu. Sum Petroleum Transportation
35.3
of components may not be 27.0
equal to total due to
independent rounding [14]
Industrial
Natural gas 18.8
23.4
Residential &
commercial
10.6
Coal
19.7
Electric power
Renewable
38.3
energy
7.7
Nuclear
power
8.3
primary energy of renewable energy sources, such as sun, wind, biomass, geo-
thermal energy, and flowing water is usually equated with either electrical or
thermal energy produced from them. Final energy is often electrical energy and
fuel, which is referred to as useful energy. The selected four types of final energy
are electrical, thermal, mechanical, and chemical energy. These types of final
energy set a boundary between the energy production and the consumption sectors
[7, 14, 33].
2.3 Non Renewable Energy Sources
It is generally accepted that nonrenewable energy sources or fossil fuels are formed
from the remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in
the earth’s crust over the millions of years. Major nonrenewable energy sources
are:
• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural gas
• Nuclear
Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include mainly coal, petro-
leum, and natural gas. Natural gas, for example, contains only very low boiling
point and gaseous components, while gasoline contains much higher boiling point
components. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic
properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, and viscosity. These types
2.3 Non Renewable Energy Sources 31
Table 2.2 Typical properties of various coals

Anthracite coal Bituminous coal Lignite coal
Fixed carbon, weight% 80.5–85.7 44.9–78.2 31.4
Moisture, weight% 2.8–16.3 2.2–15.9 39
Bulk density, lb/ft3 50–58 42–57 40–54
Ash, weight% 9.7–20.2 3.3–11.7 3.3–11.7
Sulfur, weight% 0.6–0.77 0.7–4.0 0.4
ETB [18], Gaur and Reed [15]
of fuels are known as nonrenewable energy sources. The following sections dis-
cuss some important nonrenewable energy sources.
2.3.1 Coal
Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as

well as water. Coal comes in various composition and energy content depending
on the source and type. Table 2.2 shows some typical properties of various coals.
The poorest lignite has less than 50% carbon and an energy density lower than
wood. Anthracites have more than 90% carbon, while bituminous coals mostly
between 70 and 75%. Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns with a relatively
long flame [35]. If improperly fired, bituminous coal is characterized with excess
smoke and soot. Anthracite coal is very hard and shiny and the ultimate matura-
tion. Anthracite coal creates a steady and clean flame and is preferred for domestic
heating. Furthermore it burns longer with more heat than the other types. For
countries with rising oil prices coal may become a cheaper source of energy. It was
in the 1880s when coal was first used to generate electricity for homes and fac-
tories. Since then coal played a major role as source of energy in the industrial
revolution.
Coal has impurities like sulfur and nitrogen and when it burns the released
impurities can combine with water vapor in the air to form droplets that fall to
earth as weak forms of sulfuric and nitric acid as acid rain. Coal also contains
minerals, which do not burn and make up the ash left behind in a coal combustor.
Carbon dioxide is one of several gases that can help trap the earth’s heat and, as
many scientists believe, cause the earth’s temperature to rise and alter the earth’s
climate. Because of high carbon content, coals generate more CO2 per unit of
released energy than any other fossil fuel such as crude oil. Sulfur content of coal
is also a drawback. Sulfur makes up, typically, about 2% of bitumen coals.
However, advanced coal technology can filter out 99% of the tiny particles,
remove more than 95% of the acid rain pollutants, and reduce the release of carbon
dioxide by burning coal more efficiently. Many new plants are required to have
flue gas desulfurization units called scrubbers [7, 27].
Table 2.3 Typical elemental Element Percent range (%)

composition by weight of
crude oil [17] Carbon 83–87
Hydrogen 10–14
Nitrogen 0.1–2
Oxygen 0.1–1.5
Sulfur 0.5–6
Metals \0.1
Table 2.4 Composition by Hydrocarbon Average (%) Range (%)

weight of hydrocarbons in
petroleum Paraffins (alkanes) 30 15–60
Naphtanes (cycloalkanes) 49 30–60
Aromatics 15 3–30
Asphaltics 6 Remainder
2.3.2 Petroleum (Crude Oil)
Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of

hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, which define its physical and chemical
properties, like heating value, color, and viscosity. The composition of hydro-
carbons ranges from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as
50% in the heavier oils. The proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly
narrow limits as seen in Table 2.3. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly
alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic
compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and trace amounts of metals. The
relative percentage of each varies and determines the properties of oil (see
Table 2.4).
• Alkanes, also known as paraffin, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or
branched chains containing only carbon and hydrogen and have the general
formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.
For example, CH4 represents the methane, which is a major component of
natural gas. The propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are known as petroleum
gases. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approx-
imately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up. These long chain alkanes
are usually cracked by modern refineries into lighter and more valuable
products.
• Cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which
have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according
to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have
higher boiling points.
• Aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more
six-carbon rings called benzene rings with double and single bonds and
hydrogen atoms attached according to the formula CnHn.
Oil currently supplies more than 40% of our total energy demands and more
than 99% of the fuel are used in transportation. Known oil reserves are typically
estimated at around 1.2 trillion barrels without oil sands, or 3.74 trillion barrels
with oil sands [3, 26].
2.3.3 Petroleum Fractions
Oil is refined and separated into a large number of commodity products, from
gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and
pharmaceuticals. Figure 2.4 shows a part of a typical refinery processing crude oil
to produce various fuels. 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum
is converted into energy-rich fuels, including gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating, and
other fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases. The remaining oil is converted to
pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics [22]. Therefore,
petroleum is vital to many industries, and thus is a critical concern to many
nations.
Some common fractions from petroleum refining are:
• Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a flammable mixture of propane (C3H8) (about
38% by volume and more in winter) and butane (C4H10) (about 60% by volume
and more in summer) used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. Energy
content of liquefied petroleum gas per kilogram is higher than for gasoline
because of higher hydrogen to carbon ratio. Liquefied petroleum gas emits 81%
of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil and 70% of that of coal. Liquefied
petroleum gas has a typical specific heat of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 43.5 MJ/
kg for gasoline. However, its energy density of 26 MJ/l is lower than either that
of gasoline. Pure n-butane is liquefied at around 220 kPa (2.2 bar), while pure
propane (C3H8) at 2200 kPa (22 bar). At liquid state, the vapor pressure of
liquefied petroleum gas is about 550 kPa (5.5 bar).
• Gasoline is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. A typical
gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per
molecule. It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocar-
bons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating. The specific density of
gasoline ranges from 0.71 to 0.77 (6.175 lb/US gal) higher densities having a
greater volume of aromatics. Gasoline contains about 132 MJ/US gal (higher
heating value), while its blends differ by up to 4% more or less than the average.
The emission of CO2 from gasoline is around 73.38 g/MJ.
• Petroleum diesel contains 8–21 carbon atoms per molecule with a boiling point
in the range of 180–360C (360–680F). The density of petroleum diesel is
about 6.943 lb/gal. About 86.1% of the fuel mass is carbon and it offers a net
heating value of around 43.1 MJ/kg. However, due to the higher density, diesel
Fig. 2.4 A distillation tower Gas, 20°C

showing the differing weights
of various products produced 150°C
Gasoline
from petroleum
200°C
Crude Kerosene
oil
300°C
Diesel oil
370°C
Fuel oil
400°C
Lubricating
Furnace oil, paraffin
wax, asphalt
offers a higher volumetric energy density at 128,700 Btu/gal versus 115,500

Btu/gal for gasoline, some 11% higher (see Table 2.7). The CO2 emissions from
diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, (similar to gasoline). Because of quality regulations,
additional refining is required to remove sulfur which may contribute to a higher
cost.
• Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed containing between 6 and 16 carbon
atoms per molecule, with density of 0.78–0.81 g/cm3. The flash point of kero-
sene is between 37 and 65C (100 and 150F) and its autoignition temperature is
220C (428 F). The heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel:
its lower heating value is around 18,500 Btu/lb, (43.1 MJ/kg), and its higher
heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg (19,861 Btu/lb).
• Jet fuel is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-
turbine engines. The commonly used fuels are Jet A and Jet A-1 which are
produced to a standardised international specification. Jet B is used for its
enhanced cold-weather performance. Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of
different hydrocarbons with density of 0.775-0.840 kg/l at 15C (59F). The
range is restricted by the requirements for the product, for example, the freezing
point or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) has a
carbon number between about 8 and 16; wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel
(including Jet B), between about 5 and 15.
• Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes,
and aromatics and heavier than gasoline and naphtha. Fuel oil is classified into
six classes, numbered 1 through 6, according to its boiling point, composition,
and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600C, and carbon chain
length, 9–70 atoms. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil
has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number
increases. Number 1 is similar to kerosene, number 2 is the diesel fuel that
trucks and some cars run on, leading to the name ‘‘road diesel’’. Number 4 fuel
oil is usually a blend of heavy distillate and residual fuel oils. Number 5 and 6
fuel oils are called residual fuel oils or heavy fuel oils. Table 2.5 shows the
heating values of various fuel oils per gallon.
Table 2.5 Typical heating Type Unit Btu

values of various fuel oils
No. 1 Oil Gallon 137400
ETB [15] with permission
Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities. Combustion of such fuels eventually
leads to producing sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust
which promotes acid rain. One final element in exhaust pollution is ozone (O3).
This is not emitted directly but made in the air by the action of sunlight on other
pollutants to form ground level ozone, which is harmful on the respiratory systems
if the levels are too high. However, the ozone layer in the high atmosphere is
useful in blocking the harmful rays from the sun. Ozone is broken down by
nitrogen oxides. For the nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and
ozone, there are accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no harmful
effects are observed.
2.3.4 Natural Gas
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane.

Table 2.6 shows the typical components of natural gas. Natural gas provides 23%
of all energy consumed in the world. The International Energy Agency predicts
that the demand for natural gas will grow by more than 67% through 2030. Natural
gas is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative transportation fuel. Typical
theoretical flame temperature of natural gas is 1960C (3562F), ignition point is
593C.
Natural gas is a major source of electricity production through the use of gas
turbines and steam turbines. It burns more cleanly and produces about 30% less
carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal for
an equivalent amount of heat produced. Combined cycle power generation using
natural gas is thus the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, and this
technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a reasonable cost. The
gross heat of combustion of one cubic meter of natural gas is around 39 MJ and the
typical caloric value is roughly 1,000 Btu per cubic foot, depending on gas
composition.
Liquefied natural gas exists at -161C (-258F). Impurities and heavy hydro-
carbons from the gaseous fossil fuel are removed before the cooling process. The
density of liquefied natural gas is in the range 410–500 kg/m3. The volume of the liquid
is approximately 1/600 of the gaseous volume at atmospheric conditions.
Table 2.6 Typical composition in mole % and heating value of a natural gas
Component Composition Range
Methane 95.2 87.0–96.0
Ethane 2.5 1.5-5.1
Propane 0.2 0.1-1.5
Butane, n-butane 0.03 0.01-0.3
Iso-pentane, n-pentane, hexane plus 0.01 Trace-0.14
Nitrogen 1.3 0.7-5.6
Carbon dioxide 0.7 0.1-1.0
Oxygen 0.02 0.01-0.1
Hydrogen Trace Trace-0.02
Specific gravity 0.58 0.57-0.62
Gross heating value (MJ/m3), dry basis 37.8 36.0-40.2
2.3.5 Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy plants produce electricity through the fission of nuclear fuel, such
as uranium, so they do not pollute the air with harmful gases. Nuclear fission is a
nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often
producing free neutrons and photons in the form of gamma rays and releasing large
amounts of energy. Nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by free neutrons and
generate neutrons leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at
a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor [5, 7]. This heat is used to produce steam to be
used in a turbine to produce electricity. This is similar to most coal, oil, and gas-
fired power plants.
Typical fission release about two hundred million eV (200 MeV) of energy,
which is much higher than most chemical oxidation reactions. For example,
complete fission energy of uranium-235 isotope is 6.73 9 1010 kJ/kg [8]. The
energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and
fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays in a nuclear
reactor. The energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide
with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or
occasionally heavy water. The products of nuclear fission, however, are far more
radioactive than the heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and
remain so for a significant amount of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem.
More than 400 nuclear power plants operating in 25 countries supply almost
17% of the world’s electricity.
Nuclear power is essentially carbon-free. However, the electricity from new
nuclear power plants would be relatively expensive, and nuclear energy faces a
number of significant obstacles. The biggest challenges are the disposal of
radioactive waste and the threat of nuclear proliferation. New plants would also
require long licensing times, and it would likely be at least a decade before nuclear
energy could be brought to bear on the climate change problem.
2.4 Heating Value of Fuels 37
2.4 Heating Value of Fuels
The heating value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion at
constant pressure and under ‘‘normal’’ conditions (i.e. to 25C and under a pres-
sure of 1 atm). The combustion process generates water. Various heating values
are:
• The higher heating value (HHV) consists of the combustion product of water
condensed and that the heat of vaporization contained in the water vapor is
recovered. So the all the water produced in the combustion is in liquid state.
• The lower heating value (LHV) assumes that the water product of combustion is
at vapor state and the heat of vaporization is not recovered.
• Net heating value is the same with lower heating value and is obtained by
subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
• The gross heating value is the total heat obtained by complete combustion at
constant pressure including the heat released by condensing the water vapor in
the combustion products. Gross heating value accounts liquid water in the fuel
prior to combustion, and valuable for fuels containing water, such as wood and
coal. If a fuel has no water prior to combustion then the gross heating value is
equal to higher heating value. A common method of relating HHV to LHV per
unit mass of a fuel is

HHV ¼ LHV þ DHvap MWH2 O nH2 O;out = MWFuel nFuel;in ð2:1Þ
where DHvap is the heat of vaporization per mole of water (kJ/kg or Btu/lb),
nH2 O;out is the moles of water vaporized, nfuel,in is the number of moles of fuel
combusted, and MW is the molecular weight.
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 show the properties and heating values of some common
fuels. The heating value of fossil fuels may vary depending on the source and
composition.
2.4.1 Energy Density
Energy density is the amount of energy per unit volume. Specific energy is the
amount of energy per unit amount. Comparing, for example, the effectiveness of
hydrogen fuel to gasoline, hydrogen has a higher specific energy than gasoline but
a much lower energy density even in liquid form. Energy per unit volume has the
same physical units as pressure. Table 2.9 lists energy densities of some fuel and
fuel mixtures.
Table 2.7 Properties heating values of some common fuels and hydrocarbons at 1 atm and
20C; at 25C for liquid fuels, and 1 atm and normal boiling temperature for gaseous fuels
Fuel (phase) MW q DHv Tb Cp HHVa LHVa
Formula (kg/kmol) (kg/l) (kJ/kg) (F) (kJ/kg C) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
Carbon (s) C 12.01 2.000 – 0.71 32,800 32,800
Hydrogen (g) H2 2.01 - - 14.40 141,800 120,000
Methane (g) CH4 16.04 - 509 -258.7 2.20 55,530 50,050
Methanol (l) CH3OH 32.04 0.790 1168 149.0 2.53 22,660 19,920
Ethane (g) C2H6 30.07 - 172 -127.5 1.75 51,900 47,520
Ethanol (l) C2H5OH 46.07 0.790 919 172.0 2.44 29,670 26,810
Propane(g) C3H8 44.09 0.500 420 -43.8 2.77 50,330 46,340
Butane (l) C4H10 58.12 0.579 362 31.1 2.42 49,150 45,370
Isopentane (l) C5H12 72.15 0.626 - 82.2 2.32 48,570 44,910
Benzene (l) C6H6 78.11 0.877 433 176.2 1.72 41,800 40,100
Hexane (l) C6H14 86.18 0.660 366 155.7 2.27 48,310 44,740
Toluene (l) C7H8 92.14 0.867 412 231.1 1.71 42,400 40,500
Heptane (l) C7H16 100.204 0.684 365 209.1 2.24 48,100 44,600
Octane (l) C8H18 114.23 0.703 363 258.3 2.23 47,890 44,430
Decane (l) C10H22 142.28 0.730 361 2.21 47,640 44,240
Gasoline (l) CnH1.87n 100–110 0.72-0.78 350 2.40 47,300 44,000
Light diesel (l) CnH1.8n 170.00 0.78-0.84 270 2.20 46,100 43,200
Heavy diesel (l) CnH1.7n 200.00 0.82-0.88 230 1.90 45,500 42,800
Natural gas (g) *18.00 - - 2.00 50,000 45,000
ETB [15] with permission
a
HHV, LHV; higher heating value and lower heating value, respectively; (s): solid; (l): liquid; (g): gas
Example 2.1 Energy consumption by a car

An average car consumes 50 gallons gasoline per month. Estimate the energy
consumed by the car per year.
Solution:
Assume that gasoline has an average density of 0.72 g/cm3 and the heating value
of 47.3 MJ/kg (Table 2.7).
Data: V = 50 gallons/month = 189.25 l/month, 2271.01/year (3.785 l = 1 gallon)
qgas = 0.72 g/cm3 = 0.72 kg/l
Mass of gasoline: mgas ¼ qV = 1635.1 kg/year
Energy consumed per year:
Egas = 1635.1 kg/year (47,300 kJ/kg) = 77,340,230 kJ/year
= 77,340.2 MJ/year
Example 2.2 Fuel consumption by a low and a high-mileage car

An average daily traveling distance is about 40 miles/day. A car has a city-mileage
of 20 miles/gal. If the car is replaced with a new car with a city-mileage of
30 miles/gal and the average cost of gasoline is $3.50/gal, estimate the amount of
fuel, energy, and money conserved with the new car per year.
Assume: The gasoline is incompressible with qav = 0.75 kg/l.
Table 2.8 Higher heating values (gross calorific value) of some common fuels
Fuel Higher heating value
kJ/kg Btu/lb
Anthracite 32,500-34,000 14,000-14,500
Bituminous coal 17,000-23,250 7,300-10,000
Butane 49,510 20,900
Charcoal 29,600 12,800
Coal(anthracite) 30,200 13,000
Coal(bituminous) 27,900 12,000
Coke 28,000-31,000 12,000-13,500
Diesel 44,800 19,300
Ether 43,000
Gasoline 47,300 20,400
Glycerin 19,000
Hydrogen 141,790 61,000
Lignite 16,300 7,000
Methane 55,530
Oils, vegetable 39,000-48,000
Peat 13,800-20,500 5,500-8,800
Petroleum 43,000
Propane 50,350
Semi anthracite 26,700-32,500 11,500-14,000
Wood (dry) 14,400-17,400 6,200-7,500
kJ/m3 Btu/ft3
Acetylene 56,000
Butane C4H10 133,000 3200
Hydrogen 13,000
Natural gas 43,000 950-1,150
Methane CH4 39,820
Propane C3H8 101,000 2550
Butane C4H10 3200
kJ/l Btu/gal
Gasoline 32,000 115,000
Heavy fuel oil #6 42,600 153,000
Kerosene 37,600 135,000
Diesel 36,300 130,500
Biodiesel 33,500 120,000
Butane C4H10 36,200 130,000
Methanol 15,900 57,000
Ethanol 21,100 76,000
Gaur and Reed [18]; ETB [15] with permission
1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.43 Btu/lbm = 0.239 kcal/kg
1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal/kg
1 kcal/kg = 4.187 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Table 2.9 Energy densities of some fuels

Fuel type Gross (HHV) Net (LHV)
MJ/l MJ/kg Btu/gal Btu/gal
Conventional gasoline 34.8 44.4 125,000 115,400
High octane gasoline 33.5 46.8 120,200 112,000
LPG (60%Pr. ? 40%Bu.) 26.8 46.0
Ethanol 24.0 30.0 84,600 75,700
Methanol 17.9 19.9 64,600 56,600
Butanol 29.2 36.6
Gasohol E10 (ethanol 10% vol.) 33.2 43.5 120,900 112,400
Gasohol E85 (ethanol 85% vol.) 25.6 33.1
Gasoline (petrol) 34.2 46.4 115,500
Diesel 38.6 45.4 138,700 128,700
Biodiesel 33.5 42.2 126,200 117,100
Jet fuel (kerosene based) 35.1 43.8 125,935
Jet fuel (naphtha) 42.8 33.0 127,500 118,700
Liquefied natural gas (160C) 22.2 53.6 90,800
Liquefied petroleum gas 26.8 46.0 91,300 83,500
Hydrogen (liquid at 20 K) 10.1 142.0 130
Hydrogen gas 0.0108 143.0
Methane (1 atm, 15C) 0.0378 55.6
Natural gas 0.0364 53.6
LPG propane 25.3 49.6
LPG butane 27.7 49.1
Crude oil 37.0 46.3
Coal, anthracite 72.4 32.5
Coal, lignite 14.0
Coal, bituminous 20.0 24.0
Wood 18.0
Gaur and Reed [18], ETB [15]
Lower heating value (LHV) = 44000 kJ/kg; 44,000 kJ of heat is released when
1 kg of gasoline is completely burned and the produced water is in vapor state
(Table 2.7).
Fuel needed for the old car: (40 miles/day)/(20 miles/gal) = 2 gal/day
Fuel needed for the new car: (40 miles/day)/(30 miles/gal) = 1.34 gal/day
Old car:
Mass of gasoline:
mgas = qav (Volume) = (0.75 kg/l)(2.0gal/day)(3.785 l/gal) = 5.7 kg/day
Energy of gasoline:
Egas (LHV) = (5.7 kg/day) (44000 kJ/kg) = 250800 kJ/day (365 day/year)
= 91542,000 kJ/year = 91,542 MJ/year
Cost: ($3.50/gal)(2 gal/day)(365 day/year) = $2555/year
New car:
Mass of gasoline:
mgas = qav (Volume) = (0.75 kg/l)(1.34gal/day)(3.785 l/gal) = 3.8 kg/day
Energy of gasoline:
Egas (LHV) = (3.8 kg/day) (44000 kJ/kg) = 167,200 kJ/day (365 day/year)
= 61,028,000 kJ/year = 61,028 MJ/year
Cost: ($3.50/gal)(1.34 gal/day)(365 day/year) = $1712/year
The new car reduces the fuel consumption by around 33%, which is significiant.
Example 2.3 Daily consumption of natural gas by a city

The new car reduces the fuel consumption by around 33%, which is significant.
A city consumes natural gas at a rate of 500 9 106 ft3/day. The volumetric flow is
at standard conditions of 60F and 1 atm = 14.7 psia. If the natural gas is costing
$6/GJ of higher heating value what is the daily cost of the gas for the city.
Solution:
Q = 500 9 106 ft3/day at 60F and 1 atm = 14.7 psia.
The higher heating value is the heat of combustion of the natural gas when the
water product is at liquid state. From Table 2.7, the value of HHV is:
1,030 Btu/ft3 (Table 2.8)
Heating value: 1030 Btu/ft3 (500 9 106 ft3/day) = 515.0 9 109 Btu/day
(515.0 9109 Btu/day) (1055 J/Btu) = 543,325 GJ/day
Daily cost: (543,325 GJ/day) ($6/GJ) = $32.6 3 105/day
Example 2.4 Energy consumed by a car

An average car consumes about 2 gallons (US gallon = 3.785 l) a day, and the
capacity of the fule tank is about 15 gallon. Therefore, a car needs to be refueled
once every week. The density of gasoline ranges from 0.72 to 0.78 kg/l
(Table 2.7). The lower heating value of gasoline is about 44,000 kJ/kg. Assume
that the average density of gasoline is 0.75 kg/l. If the car was able to use 0.2 kg of
nuclear fuel of uranium-235, estimate the time in years for refueling.
Solution:
Assume: The gasoline is incompressible with qav = 0.75 kg/l.
Lower heating value (LHV) = 44,000 kJ/kg; 44,000 kJ of heat is released when
1 kg of gasoline is completely burned and the produced water is in vapor state.
Complete fission energy of U-235 = 6.73 9 1010 kJ/kg
Mass of gasoline per day:
mgas = qav V = (0.75 kg/l)(2gal/day)(3.785 l/gal) = 5.67 kg/day
Energy of gasoline per day :
Egas = mgas (LHV) = (5.67 kg/day)(44,000 kJ/kg) = 249,480 kJ/day
Energy released by the complete fission of 0.2 kg U-235:

EU-235 = (6.73 1010 kJ/kg)(0.2 kg) = 1.346 1010 kJ
Time for refueling: (1.346 1010 kJ)/(249,480 kJ/day) = 53952 days = 148 years
Therefore, the car will not need refueling for about 148 years.
2.5 Renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy comes from natural resources and are naturally replenished.
Major renewable energy sources are:
• Hydroelectric
• Solar energy
• Biomass
• Wind
• Geothermal heat
• Ocean
In its various forms, renewable energy comes directly from the sun, or from heat
generated deep within the earth. In 2008, about 19% of global final energy con-
sumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass,
which is mainly used for heating, and 3.2% from hydroelectricity. Other renew-
ables, such as small hydro, biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels con-
tributed around 2.7% and are growing rapidly. The share of renewables in
electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming from
hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables. Climate change concerns, high oil
prices, and government support are leading to increase in renewable energy usage
and commercialization [14]. Consequently, between 2004 and 2009, worldwide
renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually creating businesses
and employment. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct
areas: power generation, hot water/space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off-
grid) energy services [6, 7]:
• Renewable power generation provides 18% of total electricity generation
worldwide. Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and
wind power alone already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas.
• Solar hot water contributes a portion of the water heating needs of over
70 million households in many countries.
• Renewable biofuels have contributed to a decline in oil consumption in Brazil,
the United States and many other countries. The 93 billion liters of biofuels
produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion
liters of gasoline, equal to about 5% of world gasoline production.
New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and
include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.
Renewable energy generally gets cheaper in the long term, while fossil fuels
2.5 Renewable Energy Resources 43
generally get more expensive. Fossil fuel technologies are more mature, while
renewable energy technologies are being rapidly improved to increase the efficiency
of renewable energy and reduce its cost. In rural and remote areas, transmission and
distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive;
therefore producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) promotes the adoption
of renewable energy worldwide. As of March 2010, IRENA has 143 member
states. Renewable energy policy targets exist in some 73 countries around the
world, and public policies to promote renewable energy use have become more
common in recent years. Mandates for blending biofuels into vehicle fuels have
been enacted in 17 countries. The shift from food crop feedstock to waste residues
and native grasses offers significant opportunities for farmers and investors [30].
2.5.1 Hydroenergy
Hydroenergy is derived from the force or energy of moving water. Most hydro-
electric energy comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water
turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume
and on the difference in height between the source and the water’s outflow. This
height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is
proportional to the head. To deliver water to a turbine while maintaining pressure
arising from the head, a large pipe called a penstock may be used. In 1878, the
world’s first house to be powered with hydroelectricity was in Northumberland,
England. The old Schoelkopf Power Station near Niagara Falls in the US began to
produce electricity in 1881.
One of the major advantages of hydroelectricity is the elimination of fuel.
Because there is no fuel combustion, there is little air pollution in comparison with
fossil fuel plants and limited thermal pollution compared with nuclear plants.
Hydroelectric plants also tend to have longer economic lives than fuel-fired power
generation, with some plants now in service which were built 50–100 years ago.
Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and need few
personnel on site during normal operation. The sale of electricity from the station
may cover the construction costs after 5–8 years of full operation.
Hydroelectric usually refers to large-scale hydroelectric dams. Micro hydro
systems typically produce up to 100 kW of power. Hydro systems without dam
derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans. Ocean energy includes marine
current power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and tidal power. Figure 2.5
shows the Ice Harbor dam in the US.
2.5.2 Solar Energy
Solar energy is derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation. Solar powered
electrical generation relies on photovoltaics and heat engines. Other solar applications
Fig. 2.5 Ice Harbor Dam. Hydroelectric plants operate where suitable waterways are available.
Water may be a source of cheap and relatively clean power. In addition, because there is no fuel
combustion, there is little air pollution in comparison with fossil fuel plants and limited thermal
pollution compared with nuclear plants. The use of water for power generation has environmental
impacts caused by damming rivers and streams, which affects the habitats of the local plant, fish,
and animal life [14]
includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, daylighting, solar hot
water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. Solar
technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending
on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy:
• Active solar techniques include the use of solar thermal collectors to harness the
energy. Some active solar techniques include solar process heat by commercial
and industrial buildings, space heating/cooling, and water heating. A typical
water heating system includes solar collectors that work along with a pump, heat
exchanger, and one or more large heat storage tanks. The most common col-
lector is called a flat-plate collector. Mounted on a roof, it consists of a thin, flat,
rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the sun (see Fig. 2.6a). Small
tubes run through the box and carry the heat transfer fluid mainly water or air to
be heated. The tubes are attached to an absorber plate, which is painted black to
absorb the heat. As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing
through the tubes. The storage tank then holds the hot liquid. It can be just a
modified water heater, but it is usually larger and very well-insulated. Systems
that use fluids other than water usually heat the water by passing it through a coil
of tubing in the storage tank, which is full of hot fluid.
• Passive solar systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally
circulate as it is heated. Passive solar techniques orient buildings to the Sun,
select materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
design spaces that naturally circulate air. Figure 2.6a shows solar hot water
systems and Fig. 2.6b a house with passive solar design.
Fig. 2.6 a For solar hot water systems, flat-plate solar collectors are typically installed facing
south on a rooftop; b the Zion National Park Visitor Center incorporates passive solar design
features, including clerestory windows for daylighting and Trombe walls that absorb heat during
the day and give off heat at night [32]
2.5.2.1 Nonresidential Solar Collectors
The two main types of solar collectors used for nonresidential buildings are an
evacuated-tube collector and a linear concentrator. They can operate at high
temperatures with high efficiency. An evacuated-tube collector is a set of many
double-walled, glass tubes and reflectors to heat the fluid inside the tubes.
A vacuum between the two walls insulates the inner tube, retaining the heat. Linear
concentrators use long, rectangular, U-shaped mirrors tilted to focus sunlight on
tubes that run along the length of the mirrors. The concentrated sunlight heats the
fluid within the tubes. Solar absorption systems use thermal energy to evaporate a
refrigerant fluid to cool the air. In contrast, solar desiccant systems use thermal
energy to regenerate desiccants that dry the air, thereby cooling the air [4, 14].
2.5.2.2 Solar Electric Generating Systems
Solar electric generating system use parabolic trough collectors to collect the sun’s
energy to generate steam to drive a conventional steam turbine [4]. The parabolic
mirrors automatically track the sun throughout the day. The sun light is directed to
central tube carrying synthetic oil, which heats around 400C. The heat is used to
convert water to steam to drive a steam turbine and produce electricity. The largest
solar thermal power station is in the Mojave Desert in the US with a power output
of 354 MW (see Fig. 2.7).
2.5.2.3 Photovoltaic
Solar photovoltaic (PV) convert light into electricity using semiconductor mate-
rials. Photovoltaic cell is a solar cell, which is a solid state electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity. Assemblies of cells are known
Fig. 2.7 a The 150-MW Kramer Junction plants shown here are part of a 354 MW series of
SEGS (solar electric generating system) facilities, each using parabolic trough collectors to
collect the sun’s energy to generate steam to drive a conventional steam turbine. The plants have
been operating in the California Mojave Desert for two decades [32]; b parabolic trough solar
collectors at the recently dedicated 1-MW Saguaro power plant outside Tucson concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver tube located along the trough’s focal line. The solar energy heats the
working fluid in the receiver tube, which vaporizes a secondary fluid to power a turbine. A next-
generation version of this collector is being installed at a new 64-MW plant in Nevada [25]
Fig. 2.8 a Photovoltaic systems are typically sited on roofs and may be connected to the
electrical grid. Photovoltaic modules can compete against the retail price of electricity, offsetting
the technology’s high cost; b rooftop photovoltaic module (Oberlin College’s Adam Joseph
Lewis Center for Environmental Studies features a south-facing curved roof covered in
Williamson) [25]
as solar modules or solar panels. Solar modules are typically deployed as an array
of individual modules on rooftops, building facades, or in large-scale ground-
based arrays (see Fig. 2.8). A module consists of many jointly connected solar
cells. Most crystalline modules usually consist of 60–72 cells. Photovoltaic cell
and modules use various semiconductors; they have three types (1) crystalline
silicon, (2) thin-film, and (3) concentrator. Photovoltaic systems produce direct
Fig. 2.9 Renewable energy Nuclear

consumption in the U.S.’s Power
9%
energy supply in 2009.
(quad = 1015 Btu): Total; Natural Gas
25%
97892 quadrillion Btu, Total Coal
renewables: 8049 quadrillion 21% Solar 1%
Btu [14] Geothermal 3%
Hydroelectric 31%
Renewable
Energy Wind 11%
Petroleum 8% Biomass 53%
37%
1,400,000
1,188,879
1,200,000
Module 920,693
1,000,000
Cell
Peak Kilowatts
800,000
600,000
494,148
400,000 320,208
204,996
143,274
200,000
55,007 67,033 64,413 80,062
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fig. 2.10 Growth of US photovoltaic industry between 2000 and 2009. Assemblies of cells are
known as solar modules or solar panels. Photovoltaic cell and modules use various semiconductors;
they have three types (1) crystalline silicon, (2) thin-film, and (3) concentrator [14]
current, which must be converted to alternating current via an inverter if the output
from the system is to be used in the grid. Annual production of photovoltaic
modules in 2005 was about 150 MW in the US and about 1.7 gigawatts (GW)
worldwide [11].
A major goal is to increase solar photovoltaic efficiency and decrease costs.
Current efficiencies for crystalline silicon cells equal to about 15–20%. The total
costs of photovoltaic systems are currently in the $6 to $9 per peak watt range.
Component costs include the photovoltaic modules at about $3–$4/W (direct
current), with another $3–$5/W for the inverter, installation, and balance of sys-
tem. The cost of residential electricity from solar photovoltaic should be around
10–12 cents/kWh by 2015 and 6–8 cents/kWh by 2030. Figure 2.9 shows the
renewable energy consumption in the U.S. energy supply in 2009. Figure 2.10
shows the use of photovoltaic in kW in the U.S. between 2000 and 2009.
Fig. 2.11 a Photosynthesis; in the photosynthesis plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy in the form of glucose: Water ? Carbon dioxide ? Sunlight ? Glucose ? Oxygen and
H2O ? CO2 ? Sunlight ? C6H12O6 ? 6O2; b biomass growth; c the 21 MW Tracy Biomass
Plant uses wood residues discarded from agricultural and industrial operations to provide the San
Francisco Bay Area with base load capacity [32]
2.5.3 Biomass and Bioenergy
Biomass is organic material made from plants including microorganisms and

animals. Plants absorb the sun’s energy in photosynthesis and store the energy as
biomass (see Fig. 2.11). Therefore, biomass is a renewable energy source based on
the carbon cycle. Some examples of biomass fuels include wood, crops, and algae.
When burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be
converted to other biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel. Biomass grown for
biofuel includes corn, soybeans, willow switch grass, rapeseed, sugar beet, palm
oil, and sorghum [30]. Cellulosic biomass, such as corn stover, straw, timber, rice
husks can also be used for biofuel production (see Fig. 2.11). Anaerobic digestion
of biomass produces biogas, while gasification produces syngas, which is the
mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to be converted to liquid fuels. Cellulosic
ethanol can also be created by a thermo-chemical process, which uses various
combinations of temperature, pressure, water, oxygen or air, and catalysts to
convert biomass to cellulosic ethanol. Table 2.10 shows lower heating values,
moisture, and ash content of some biomass.
As Fig. 2.12 indicates that between years 2006 and 2010 the use of wind power
and biomass increased, while the hydropower share decreased; the use of solar and
geothermal sources remained the same [14].
2.5.3.1 Carbon Cycle
In the carbon cycle, carbon in various forms is transported between the various
components of the Earth’s biosphere, between the atmosphere, hydrosphere (seas
and oceans), lithosphere (rocks, soils and mineral deposits, including fossil fuels)
and biological material including plants and animals. Carbon cycle maintains a
state of dynamic equilibrium. Other forms, most notably fossil fuels, can poten-
tially store carbon indefinitely, however if they are burned the carbon is released
and makes a net addition to the carbon cycle and raising the total free carbon. If
Table 2.10 Lower heating values (LHV) for selected biomass

Product Moisture (%) Ash contenta (%) LHV (MJ/kg)
Bagasse sugarcane 18 4 17-18
Coconut husks 5-10 6 16,7
Coffee husks 13 8-10 16,7
Corn stover 5-6 8 17-19
Corncobs 15 1-2 19,3
Cotton husks 5-10 3 16,7
Oil-palm fibers 55 10 7-8
Oil-palm husks 55 5 7-8
Poplar wood 5-15 1.2 17-19
Rice hulls 9-11 15-20 13-15
Rice straw and husk 15-30 15-20 17-18
Switchgrass 8-15 6 18-20
Wheat straw and husk 7-15 8-9 17-19
Willow wood 12 1-5 17-19
a
Approximate [15]
Geothermal,
3% Wind, 4% 2006 2010
Solar, 1% Geothermal,
3% Wind,
Solar, 1% 11%
Biomass,
49%
Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Biomass,
, 43% , 31% 53%
Fig. 2.12 Use of renewable energy in the US; the use of wind power and biomass increased,
while the hydropower share decreased; the use of solar and geothermal sources remained the
same [14]
biomass is used without replacement, for example in the case of forest clearance,
this too can make a net addition to the carbon cycle. As growing plant absorbs the
carbon released by the harvested biomass, sustainable use of biomass makes no
direct net contribution [19, 20].
2.5.3.2 Gross Heating Values of Biomass Fuels
Biomass fuels are usually characterized by the proximate and ultimate analyses.
Table 2.11 Proximate and ultimate analyses of biomass fuels in weight percentage
Name Fixed Volatiles Ash C H O N S HHVm HHVest
Carbon % % % % % % % kJ/g kJ/g
Douglas Fir 17.70 81.50 0.80 52.30 6.30 40.50 0.10 0.00 21.05 21.48
Hickory - - 0.73 47.67 6.49 43.11 0.00 0.00 20.17 19.82
Maple - - 1.35 50.64 6.02 41.74 0.25 0.00 19.96 20.42
Ponderosa Pine 17.17 82.54 0.29 49.25 5.99 44.36 0.06 0.03 20.02 19.66
Poplar - - 0.65 51.64 6.26 41.45 0.00 0.00 20.75 21.10
Redwood 16.10 83.50 0.40 53.50 5.90 40.30 0.10 0.00 21.03 21.45
Western Hemlock 15.20 84.80 2.20 50.40 5.80 41.10 0.10 0.10 20.05 20.14
Yellow Pine - - 1.31 52.60 7.00 40.10 0.00 0.00 22.30 22.44
White Fir 16.58 83.17 0.25 49.00 5.98 44.75 0.05 0.01 19.95 19.52
White Oak 17.20 81.28 1.52 49.48 5.38 43.13 0.35 0.01 19.42 19.12
Douglas Fir bark 25.80 73.00 1.20 56.20 5.90 36.70 0.00 0.00 22.10 22.75
Loblolly Pine bark 33.90 54.70 0.40 56.30 5.60 37.70 0.00 0.00 21.78 22.35
Peach Pits 19.85 79.12 1.03 53.00 5.90 39.14 0.32 0.05 20.82 21.39
Walnut Shells 21.16 78.28 0.56 49.98 5.71 43.35 0.21 0.01 20.18 19.68
Almond Prunings 21.54 76.83 1.63 51.30 5.29 40.90 0.66 0.01 20.01 19.87
Black Walnut 18.56 80.69 0.78 49.80 5.82 43.25 0.22 0.01 19.83 19.75
Prunings
Corncobs 18.54 80.10 1.36 46.58 5.87 45.46 0.47 0.01
18.77 18.44
Wheat Straw 19.80 71.30 8.90 43.20 5.00 39.40 0.61 0.11
17.51 16.71
Cotton Stalk 22.43 70.89 6.68 43.64 5.81 43.87 0.00 0.00
18.26 17.40
Corn Stover 19.25 75.17 5.58 43.65 5.56 43.31 0.61 0.01
17.65 17.19
Sugarcane Bagasse 14.95 73.78 11.27 44.80 5.35 39.55 0.38 0.01
17.33 17.61
Rice Hulls 15.80 63.60 20.60 38.30 4.36 35.45 0.83 0.06
14.89 14.40
Pine needles 26.12 72.38 1.50 48.21 6.57 43.72 20.12 20.02
Cotton gin trash 15.10 67.30 17.60 39.59 5.26 36.38 2.09 0.00 16.42 15.85
Cellulose - - 162 44.44 6.17 49.38 - - - 17.68
Lignin (Softwood) - - - 63.8 6.30 29.90 - - - 26.60
Lignin (Hardwood) - - - 59.8 6.40 33.70 - - - 24.93
Gaur and Reed [18]
• The proximate analysis gives moisture content, volatile content (when heated to
950C), the free carbon remaining at that point, the ash (mineral) in the sample,
and the higher heating value based on the complete combustion of the sample to
carbon dioxide and liquid water.
• The ultimate analysis is the elemental analysis and provides the composition of
the biomass in wt% of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
Table 2.11 shows measured and estimated gross heating values as well as the
proximate and ultimate analyses of some selected fuels, including biomass com-
ponents, natural biomass (woods, agricultural products), processed biomass, and
other solid and liquid fuels.
A relationship between the high heating value, HHV and the elemental com-
position is given by
HHVðin kJ=gÞ ¼ 0:3491C þ 1:1783H 0:1034O 0:0211A þ 0:1005S

0:0151 N ð2:2Þ
where C is the weight fraction of carbon, H of hydrogen, O of oxygen, A of ash, S

of sulfur, and N of nitrogen appearing in the ultimate analysis. This equation
represents the experimental data with an average error of 1.45% and can be used in
estimating heat values and modeling of biomass processes [18].
Based on chemical functional groups of the fuels, the heating values may vary.
When the oxygen percentage is higher in a fuel, the percentages of carbon and
hydrogen available for combustion are reduced. This leads to the lower heating
values. By using the values of fixed carbon (FC, wt%), the higher heating value of
the biomass samples can be estimated by
HHVðMJ=kgÞ ¼ 0:196ðFCÞ þ 14:119 ð2:3Þ
The heating values calculated from Eq. (2.3) shows a mean difference of 2.2%
between estimated and measured values [10]. Another correlation between the
HHV and dry ash content from proximate analysis of biomass (in weight percent)
is expressed by
HHVðMJ=kgÞ ¼ 19:914 0:2324Ash ð2:4Þ
Based on the composition of main elements (in wt%) C, H, and O, the heating
value is estimated by
HHVðMJ=kgÞ ¼ 0:3137C þ 0:7009H þ 0:0318O 1:3675 ð2:5Þ
with more than 90% predictions in the range of ±5% error [34].
Example 2.5 Gross heating value estimations

Using data in Table 2.11, estimate the gross heating values in kJ/kg for the bio-
mass redwood from: (a) ultimate analysis, (b) fixed carbon, (c) dry ash content,
and (d) carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) compositions.
Name Fixed Volatiles Ash C H O N S HHVm HHVest

Carbon (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Redwood 16.10 83.50 0.40 53.50 5.90 40.30 0.10 0.00 21.03 21.45
Solution:
(a) From ultimate analysis
HHV (in MJ/kg)
= 0.3491C ? 1.1783 H - 0.1034 O - 0.0211 A ? 0.1005 S - 0.0151 N
HHV (in MJ/kg) = 0.3491(53.50) ? 1.1783 (5.90) - 0.1034 (40.3) - 0.0211

(0.0040) ? 0.1005 (0.0) -0.0151 (0.0010) = 21.44 MJ/kg = 21,440 kJ/kg
(b) From fixed carbon percentage
HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.196(FC) ? 14.119
HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.196(16.10) ? 14.119 = 17.3 MJ/kg = 17,300 kJ/kg
(c) From dry ash content
HHV (MJ/kg) = 19.914 – 0.2324 Ash
HHV (MJ/kg) = 19.914 – 0.2324 (0.0040) = 19.914 MJ/kg = 19,914 kJ/kg
(d) From the main elements (in wt%) C, H, and O
HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.3137 C ? 0.7009 H ? 0.0318 O-1.3675
HHV (MJ/kg) = 0.3137 (53.50) ? 0.7009 (5.9) ? 0.0318 (40.3)-1.3675 = 20.83 MJ/kg
= 20,830 kJ/kg
Estimation from Eq. (2.5), used in part (d), is the closest to the measured value of
21.03 MJ/kg (21,030 kJ/kg)
2.5.3.3 Bioenergy
Biological fuels produced from photosynthesis can be categorized in three groups:

• Carbohydrates, representing a mixture of mono-di-and poly-saccharides
(4 kcal/g or 17 kJ/g).
• Fats, unsaturated and saturated fatty acids (triacylglycerol or triglyceride)
(9 kcal/g or 39 kJ/g).
• Proteins, used partly as fuel source (4 kcal/g or 17 kJ/g).
Carbohydrates are straight-chain aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl
groups that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates such as starch are
the most abundant biological molecules, and play numerous roles, such as the
storage and transport of energy, and structural components such as cellulose in
plants. Triglycerides and fatty free acids both contain long, linear aliphatic
hydrocarbon chains, which are partially unsaturated and have a carbon number
range. The fuel value is equal to the heat of combustion (oxidation) of fuel.
Carbohydrates and fats can be completely oxidized while proteins can only be
partially oxidized and hence has lower fuel values [28].
Synthetic biofuels are:
• Bioethanol—In the United States, corn-based ethanol is currently the largest
source of biofuel as a gasoline substitute or additive. The gasoline sold in the
United States today is mixed with 10% ethanol, a mix known as E10 (or gas-
ohol). Only specific types of vehicles named as flexible fuel vehicles can use
mixtures with greater than 10% ethanol. E85 is an alternative fuel that contains
up to 85% ethanol (see Fig. 2.13; [16]).
Fig. 2.13 Biofuels can

displace imported oil for
transportation. This triple
biofuels dispenser at the Baca
Street Biofuels Station in
Santa Fe, New Mexico, offers
consumers a choice of
renewable transportation
fuels [32]
• Biodiesel—Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of

2% (B2), 5% (B5), or 20% (B20). It can also be used as pure biodiesel (B100).
Biodiesel can be produced from various feedstock [2] and used in regular diesel
vehicles without making any changes to the engines [24].
• Green diesel—Green diesel is produced by removing the oxygen by catalytic
reaction with hydrogen from renewable feedstock containing triglycerides and
fatty acids, producing a paraffin-rich product, water, and carbon oxides.
Therefore, green diesel has a heating value equal to conventional diesel and is
fully compatible for blending with the standard mix of petroleum-derived diesel
fuels [9, 23]. Biodiesel has around 11% oxygen, whereas petroleum-based diesel
and green diesel have no oxygen.
Bioethanol and biodiesel provided 1.8% of the world’s transport fuel in 2008
and provided about 4% of the energy used in the United States [14]. Using biomass
as a feedstock for liquid fuels production may cut back on waste and greenhouse
gas emissions, and can offset the use of fossil fuels in heat and power generation.
The total worldwide biomass electrical capacity is on the order of 40 GW. The
current global growth rate for biomass-based transportation fuels is more than 10%
per year.
2.5.4 Wind Energy
The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun and the differential heating drives a global
atmospheric convection system reaching from the earth’s surface to the
Fig. 2.14 a Each 1.65 MW wind turbine at the Maple Ridge Wind Farm near Lowville, New
York, generates enough electricity to power about 500 homes. Jennifer Harvey, NYSERDA,
NREL PIX 14399; b offshore wind resources. Currently, the US has more than 35,000 MW of
land-based installed wind power capacity. That is enough to serve more than 9 million homes and
avoid the annual emissions of 62 million tons of carbon dioxide [13]
stratosphere. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at
high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur
(see Fig. 2.14). To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a
probability distribution function is often fitted to the observed data. Wind power is
a totally renewable energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions, but due to its
unpredictability, has problems integrating with national grids. At the end of 2009,
worldwide wind farm capacity was 157,900 MW, representing an increase of 31%
during the year, and wind power supplied some 1.3% of global electricity con-
sumption. Installed US wind power capacity reached 25,170 MW at the end of
2008 and still growing (15% in cumulative wind power capacity in 2010) [1, 39].
The potential for wind to supply a significant quantity of energy is considerable
(see Fig. 2.15). Availability of transmission capacity helps large-scale deployment
by reducing the cost of delivered wind energy.
2.5.5 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat originating from the original formation of the
planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, from volcanic activity, and from solar
energy absorbed at the surface (see Fig. 2.16). The geothermal gradient, which is
the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives
a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
surface. Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environ-
mentally friendly. The world’s largest geothermal power installation is The
Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Worldwide, about
10,715 MW of geothermal power is produced. An additional 28 GW of direct
geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas,
industrial processes, desalination, and agricultural applications.
Fig. 2.15 Wind generation

versus capacity; growth of
wind power [14]
Fig. 2.16 a The Earth’s heat—called geothermal energy—escapes as steam at a hot springs in
Nevada; b the Mammoth Lakes power plant is located in a picturesque area of northern
California. Binary-cycle geothermal power plants release no carbon dioxide or water vapor
plumes and blend into the environment [32]
Hot water or steam reservoirs deep in the earth are accessed by drilling.
Geothermal reservoirs located near the earth’s surface maintain a relatively con-
stant temperature of 50–60F. The hot water and steam from reservoirs can be
used to drive generators and produce electricity. In other applications, the heat
produced from geothermal is used directly in heating buildings and industrial
plants. As in the case of biomass electricity, a geothermal plant runs 24 hours per
day, 7 days per week and can provide base load power, thus competing against
coal plants.
2.5.6 Ocean Energy
Systems to harvest electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining
momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered
promising. The world’s first commercial tidal power station was installed in 2007
Fig. 2.17 Pie chart showing

future projections of relative
CSP, 12%
contributions of the various Geothermal,
renewables in 2030 [14]. PV 16%
Photovoltaic; CSP
Concentrated solar power Biofuels, 11%
Wind, 35%
Biomass, 14%
PV, 12%
in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. Although the generator is powerful

enough to power a thousand homes, the turbine has minimal environmental
impact, as it is almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife
as they turn quite slowly. Ocean thermal energy conversion uses the temperature
difference that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine (see
Sect 7.16).
2.5.7 Projection on Renewable Energy Contributions
The pie chart in Fig. 2.17 shows the relative contributions of different renewable
energy technologies. Hybrid renewable energy systems usually consist of two or
more renewable energy sources used together to provide increased system effi-
ciency as well as greater balance in energy supply. For example, consider a load of
100% power supply and there is no renewable system to fulfill this need, so two or
more renewable energy systems can be combined. For example, 60% from a
biomass system, 20% from a wind energy system and the remainder from fuel
cells. Thus combining all these renewable energy systems may provide 100% of
the power and energy requirements for the load, such as a home or business.
Another example is the combination of a photovoltaic array coupled with a wind
turbine. This would create more output from the wind turbine during the winter,
whereas during the summer, the solar panels would produce their peak output.
2.6 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest element. Each atom of hydrogen has only one proton.
The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In the sun’s core,
hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms (called fusion process) and gives
off radiant energy. This radiant energy sustains life on earth as it drives the
photosynthesis in plants and other living systems, and is stored as chemical energy
in fossil fuels.
2.6 Hydrogen 57
Hydrogen does not exist on earth as a gas and is found only in compound form
with other elements, such as water H2O and methane CH4. Hydrogen is produced
from other resources including natural gas, coal, biomass, and even water. The two
most common production methods are steam reforming and electrolysis in which
the water is split into oxygen and hydrogen. Steam reforming is currently the least
expensive and most common method of producing hydrogen. Electrolysis is cur-
rently an expensive process. Currently, global hydrogen production is 48% from
natural gas, 30% from oil, 18% from coal, and 4% from water electrolysis.
Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by weight (about
three times more than gasoline), but the lowest energy content by volume (see
Table 2.9). Hydrogen transports energy in a useable form from one place to
another. Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy carrier. Hydrogen burns cleanly,
producing water H2O. When burned in an engine or; used a fuel cell, it is con-
verted to water only. To make hydrogen a renewable fuel it should use renewable
energy, such as wind power or solar power, for production.
There are two primary uses for hydrogen today. About half of hydrogen is used
to produce ammonia (NH3) via the Haber process. Ammonia, in turn, is used
directly or indirectly as fertilizer. The other half of current hydrogen production is
used in hydrocracking process to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter
fractions suitable for use as fuels. Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity. They are
very efficient, but expensive to build. Small fuel cells can power electric cars,
while large fuel cells can provide electricity in remote places with no power lines.
2.7 Electric Energy
The protons and electrons of an atom carry an electrical charge. Protons have a
positive charge (+) and electrons have a negative charge (-). Opposite charges
attract each other. The electrons in an atom’s outermost shells do not attract
strongly to the protons and can move from one atom to another and create elec-
tricity. The amount of electricity a power plant generates or a customer uses over a
period of time is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh), which is equal to the energy of
1,000 watts working for 1 h. For example, if you use a 100-W light bulb for 7 h,
you have used 700 Wh or 0.7 kWh of electrical energy. Figure 2.18 shows the
resources for electricity, while Fig. 2.19 shows how the electricity is used in US.
Most of the electricity used in the residential sector is for air conditioning,
refrigerators, space and water heating, lighting, and powering appliances and
equipment. Electricity is the fastest growing form of end-use energy worldwide
through 2030, as it has been over the past several decades. Electricity is the most
well-known energy carrier to transfer the energy in coal, natural gas, uranium,
wind power, and other energy sources to homes, businesses, and industry. We also
use electricity to transfer the energy in flowing water from hydropower dams to
consumers. For many energy needs, it is much easier to use electricity than the
energy sources themselves.
70%
Percentage of Total Electriciy Usage

60%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20% 16%
9% 8%
10% 6%
0%
All other Air Conditioning Water Heating Space Heating Refrigerators
Appliances and
Lighting
Electricity Consumers
Fig. 2.18 Usage of electricity in homes in 2008 in the US [14]

Percentage Energy Generation
50.0%
44.5%
40.0%
30.0%
23.3%
20.2%
20.0%
10.0% 6.8%
3.6%
1.0% 0.3% 0.30%
0.0%
A B C D E F G H
Electric Power Sources
Fig. 2.19 US electric power industry net production by fuel [13]. A Coal, B Petroleum,
C Natural gas, D Nuclear, E Hydroelectric, F Other renewables, G Other gases, H Other [14]
If the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy
will be converted into other forms of energy (although some will always be lost as
heat). The amount of electric energy, Ee, due to an electric current can be
expressed in a number of different ways:
Ee ¼ VIt ¼ I 2 Rt ð2:6Þ
where V is the electric potential difference (in volts), I is the current (in amperes),
t is the time for which the current flows (in seconds), and R is the electric resis-
tance (in ohms).
2.7 Electric Energy 59
In alternating current (AC) the direction of the flow of electrons switches back
and forth at regular intervals or cycles. Current flowing in power lines and normal
household electricity that comes from a wall outlet is alternating current. The
standard current used in the US is 60 cycles per second (i.e. a frequency of 60 Hz);
in Europe and most other parts of the world it is 50 cycles per second (i.e. a
frequency of 50 Hz.). In Direct current (DC), on the other hand, electrical current
flows consistently in one direction. The current that flows in a flashlight is direct
current. One advantage of alternating current is that it is relatively cheap to change
the voltage of the current. Furthermore, the inevitable loss of energy that occurs
when current is carried over long distances is far smaller with alternating current
than with direct current.
Example 2.6 Electricity consumption of a laptop computer

A laptop consuming 90 Watt is used on average 10 h per day. The laptop costs
$500 and will be used for 4 years. Electricity cost is $0.15/kWh. Estimate the total
electricity cost in four years for the laptop.
Solution:
$500
Costlaptop ¼ ¼ $125=year
4 year
$0:15 10 h 365 days kW

Costelectricity ¼ 90 W ¼ $49:3=year
kWh day year 1000 W
Costtotal ¼ Costlaptop þ Costelectricity ¼ ð$125=year þ $49:3=yearÞ4 years ¼ $697:2
2.8 Magnetic Energy
There is no fundamental difference between magnetic energy and electric energy:

the two phenomena are related by Maxwell’s equations. The potential energy of a
magnet of magnetic moment m in a magnetic field B is defined as the work of
magnetic force (magnetic torque), and is estimated by
Em ¼ mB ð2:7Þ
Calculating work needed to create an electric or magnetic field in unit volume
results in the electric and magnetic fields energy densities. Electromagnetic radi-
ation, such as microwaves, visible light, or gamma rays, represents a flow of
electromagnetic energy. The energy of electromagnetic radiation has discrete
energy levels. The spacing between these levels is equal to E = hm where h is the
Planck constant, 6.626 9 10-34 Js [31], and m is the frequency of the radiation.
This quantity of electromagnetic energy is usually called a photon. The photons
which make up visible light have energies of 160 - 310 kJ/mol.
2.9 Chemical Energy
Chemical energy results from the associations of atoms in molecules and various
other kinds of aggregates of matter. It may be defined as a work done by electric
forces that is electrostatic potential energy of electric charges. If the chemical
energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is trans-
ferred to the surroundings in the form of heat or light. On the other hand, if the
chemical energy of a system increases as a result of a chemical reaction, the
difference then is supplied by the surroundings in form of heat or light. Typical
values for the change in molar chemical energy during a chemical reaction range
from tens to hundreds of kilojoules per mole. For example, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
(isooctane), widely used in petrol, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts
with oxygen exothermically and produces 10.86 MJ per mole of isooctane
C8 H18 ðlÞ þ 25=2 O2 ðgÞ ! 8CO2 ðgÞ þ 9H2 OðgÞ þ 10:86 MJ=mole ð2:8Þ
When two hydrogen atoms react to form a hydrogen molecule, the chemical
energy decreases by the bond energy of the H–H. When the electron is completely
removed from a hydrogen atom, forming a hydrogen ion, the chemical energy
called the ionization energy increases.
2.10 Energy and Global Warming
The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 Gigatons of carbon dioxide per
year, and natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a
net increase of 10.65 billion tons of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year [21].
One tonne of carbon is equivalent to: MWCO2 /MWC = 44/12 = 3.7 tons of
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide emission can be calculated as

eCO2 ¼ Cf =Ef ðMWCO2 =MWC Þ ð2:9Þ
where eCO2 is the CO2 emission in kgCO2/kWh, Cf is the carbon content in the fuel
(kgC/kgfuel) and Ef is the energy content of the fuel (kWh/kgfuel).
Table 2.12 shows typical emission of carbon dioxide from the combustion of
various fuels. An average car traveling 10,000 miles per year and consuming an
average 25 miles per gallon emits about 1.2 tons of carbon dioxide per year. Since
the early 1800s, it is known that various atmospheric gases, acting like the glass in
2.10 Energy and Global Warming 61
Table 2.12 Emission of carbon dioxide from the combustion of various fuels
Fuel Specific Specific Specific CO2 Specific CO2
carbon energy emission emission
(kgc/kgfuel) (kWh/kgfuel) (kgCO2/kgfuel) (kgCO2/kWh)
Coal (bituminous/anthracite) 0.75 7.5 2.3 0.37
Gasoline 0.9 12.5 3.3 0.27
Light oil 0.7 11.7 2.6 0.26
Diesel 0.86 11.8 3.2 0.24
LPG—liquid petroleum gas 0.82 12.3 3.0 0.24
Natural gas, methane 0.75 12 2.8 0.23
Crude oil 0.26
Kerosene 0.26
Wooda 0.39
Peata 0.38
Lignite 0.36
(ETB [15] with permission)
a
Commonly viewed as a biofuel
a greenhouse, transmit incoming sunlight but absorb outgoing infrared radiation,

thus raising the average air temperature at the earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide is
clearly the most influential greenhouse gas. The most compelling evidence we
have for climate change lies in the so-called paleoclimatic data obtained from
ancient ice core samples in Greenland and Antarctica. By analyzing air bub-
bles that were trapped in the ice when it formed, scientists are able to deter-
mine the content of greenhouse gases and even the average temperature at each
point in time. Figure 2.20 shows that over the past 420,000 years, the CO2 content
in the atmosphere has varied cyclically between about 180 and 290 ppm by vol-
ume with a period of about 100,000 years in conjunction with variations in the
Earth’s orbit. The earth’s temperature has closely followed the greenhouse gas
concentration.
Around 1850, when the CO2 level was about 280 ppm, the level began to
increase and now reached the value of 380 ppm, which indicates a 36% increase
over the pre-industrial value (see Fig. 2.20). Increase in temperature can release
CO2 from the ground and seawater so the two effects reinforce each other.
The possible consequences of these increases include ice melts, sea level rises,
and severe storms because of the additional energy in the atmosphere. As the ice
melts, the resulting darker water and ground absorb more sunlight, thus exacer-
bating the warming. The melt water flows like a river, causing rapid heat transfer
and erosion.
The global warming potential is a measure of how much a given mass of a
chemical substance contributes to global warming over a given period of time. The
global warming potential is the ratio of the warming potential caused by a sub-
stance to the warming potential caused by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.
Various hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) have
Fig. 2.20 Paleoclimatic data

from ice cores shows recent
increases in carbon dioxide
and methane. The
temperature, though
increasing, has not yet
reached record levels but will
likely do so by midcentury
[38]
global warming potentials ranging from 93 to 12100. These values are calculated
over a 100-year period of time [12, 36].
Example 2.7 Carbon dioxide emission from natural gas combustion

When a hydrocarbon fuel is burned, almost all of the carbon in the fuel burns
completely to form carbon dioxide CO2, which is causes the greenhouse effect. On
average, 0.59 kg of CO2 is produced for each kWh of electricity generated from a
power plant that burns natural gas. A typical new household uses about 7,000 kWh
of electricity per year. Determine the amount of CO2 production that is due to the
refrigerators in a city with 200,000 households.
Solution:
Carbon dioxide emission from natural gas combustion A kWh is kW times hours.
It is the amount of energy consumed in an hour by a device that uses 1 kW of
power (1 kJ/s for 3,600 s), so you are left with units of energy.
Data: mCO2 = 0.59 kg CO2/kWh, 200,000 houses, power 7,000 kWh/house per year
The total mass of CO2 produced per year is the product of the rate of CO2
production per kWh and the number of houses:
2.10 Energy and Global Warming 63
Fig. 2.21 Triangle of US

fossil fuel carbon reductions
needed by 2030 for a 60–80%
reduction from today’s levels
by 2050 [25]

kWh kg CO2
mtotal CO2 ¼ PowerðmCO2 ÞðNumber of housesÞ ¼ ðHousesÞ
house year kWh
mtotal CO2 = 8.26 3 108 kg CO2/year = 826.0 Mton CO2/year
2.11 Tackling the Global Warming
Electricity production (*40%) and transportation fuels (*30%) accounts a large

part of total carbon dioxide emissions (see Fig. 2.21). Therefore, targeting elec-
tricity generation and transportation fuels will address about 70% of the carbon
dioxide emissions. For example, the use of renewable energy for electricity gen-
eration does not cause additional carbon dioxide emissions, and is sustainable into
the future. The major challenges with greatly expanded use of renewables are the
cost, intermittency of supply, and distance between the resources and the end use.
Some possible renewable energy sources are concentrating solar power, geother-
mal electric plants, wind power, distributed rooftop photovoltaic, and solar hot
water heaters. Hybrid electric vehicles represent an important advance. A hybrid
electric vehicle can cover a distance of about 10 to 20 miles, and if it can be
plugged into the grid to be recharged, it is possible to greatly reduce the amount of
gasoline the vehicle uses. Using E85 (85% and 15% blend of ethanol and gasoline,
respectively) may help reducing carbon dioxide emission [29].
Example 2.8 Consumption of coal and emission of carbon dioxide from coal
A large public computer lab runs six days per week from Monday through Sat-
urday. Each computer uses a power of around 240 W. If the computer lab contains
45 computers and each is on for 12 hours a day, during the course of the year how
much CO2 will the local coal power plant have to release to the atmosphere in
kg and kmol to keep these computers running?
Solution:
Data: Coal(bituminous/anthracite): 0.37 kg of CO2/kWh. Data from Table 2.12.

240 W kW 52 weeks 6 days 12 h 45 computers
computer 1; 000 W year week day lab
¼ 40; 435:2 kWh
We know that 40,435.2 kWh is needed from the lab per year and since the power
plant is coal we can use its emission value of 0.37 kg of CO2/kWh.
(40435.2 kWh) (0.37 kg CO2/kWh) = 14,961 kg CO2 released
or
14,962 kg/(44.01 kg/mole) = 339.9 kmols CO2 released
Example 2.9 Reducing air pollution by geothermal heating

A district uses natural gas for heating. Assume that average NOx and CO2 emis-
sions from a gas furnace are 0.0045 kg/therm and 6.4 kg/therm, respectively. It is
considered to replace the gas heating system with a geothermal heating system.
The projected saving by the geothermal heating system would be 20 9 106 therms
of natural gas per year. Determine the amount of NOx and CO2 emissions the
geothermal heating system would save every year.
Solution:
therm = 29.3 kWh (Table 2.1)
Reduction in NOx emission = (0.0045 kg/therm) (20 9 106 therm/year)
= 9.0 3 104 kg/year
Reduction in CO2 emission = (6.4 kg/therm) (20 9 106 therm/year)
= 12.8.0 3 107 kg/year
Atypical car produces about 8.5 kg NOx and 6000 kg of CO2 per year. Replacing
the gas heating system by the geothermal heating system is equivalent to taking
10600 cars off the road for NOx emission and taking 21000 cars of the road for
CO2 emission. Therefore, the proposed geothermal heating would have a positive
impact on the air pollution [8].
Student Concern of Global Warming

Each generation has its own crisis, in which people are gravely affected. Some generations
have wars or famine, however my generation will certainly have both if our energy crisis
is not addressed. Our reliance on fossil fuels has become an addiction. We enjoy many
luxuries such as air conditioning, television, and the ability to surf the web or make a call
across the country. All of these luxuries are telling of the modernized society we live in,
but sadly in times where energy is scarce, we are hardest hit. It would be hard to believe
that the generation following the greatest rise in human ingenuity could be blind to such an
issue. Our fossil fuel energy resources are limited and many scientists say the expiration
date is within our lifetime. We need to better understand the basic principles of energy and
its usage so that we can make better choices and change the direction we are currently
heading.—Brad Healey-Senior UNL-2012
Problems 65
Problems
2.1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using coal?

2.2. Does an electric car reduce the use of fossil fuels?
2.3. Is a fuel oil heater or an electric resistance heater the best for the
environment?
2.4. Is a natural gas heater or a geothermal heating system the best for the house?
2.5. Why is electrical energy so useful?
2.6. How can the energy in the wind be used?
2.7. 2.7. How can wind power help conserve our oil supplies?
2.8. How might using wind energy help reduce the air pollution?
2.9. What is the best energy source to convert to electricity?
2.10. Do the white-colored roof tiles keep houses cool?
2.11. How can energy from the sun be used to heat water?
2.12. With the clear advantages of nuclear power, why is it not more commonly
used?
2.13. How can using solar energy help reduce pollution in the atmosphere and
help conserve our oil supplies?
2.14. Why is the process of photosynthesis so valuable?
2.15. Name some foods that are known to be high energy foods.
2.16. Why are battery-powered vehicles considered to be the transport of the future?
2.17. Why is chemical energy useful to us?
2.18. What other forms of energy can be produced from chemical energy?
2.19. Name three examples of other fuels that contain chemical energy.
2.20. An over used car may consume around 250 gallons of gasoline per month.
Estimate the energy consumed by the car per year.
2.21. An over used car may consume around 150 gallons gasoline per month.
Estimate the energy consumed by the car per year.
2.22. A car’s daily travelling distance is about 80 miles/day. A car has a city-
mileage of 20 miles/gal. If the car is replaced with a new car with a city-
mileage of 30 miles/gal and the average cost of gasoline is $4.50/gal,
estimate (a) the amount of fuel, energy, and money conserved with the new
car per year, (b) reduction in CO2 emission.
2.23. A car’s daily travelling distance is about 80 miles/day. A car has a city-
mileage of 10 miles/gal. If the car is replaced with a new car with a city-
mileage of 32 miles/gal and the average cost of gasoline is $4.50/gal,
estimate (a) the amount of fuel, energy, and money conserved with the new
car per year, (b) reduction in CO2 emission.
2.24. A city consumes natural gas at a rate of 500 106 ft3/day. The volumetric
flow is at standard conditions of 60F and 1 atm = 14.7 psia. If the natural
is costing $12/GJ of higher heating value what is the daily cost of the gas
for the city.
2.25. A city consumes natural gas at a rate of 800 106 ft3/day. The volumetric
is costing $10/GJ of higher heating value what is the daily cost of the gas
for the city.
2.26. A car consumes about 6 gallons a day, and the capacity of a full tank is
about 15 gallons. The density of gasoline ranges from 0.72 to 0.78 kg/l
(Table 2.2). The lower heating value of gasoline is about 44,000 kJ/kg.
Assume that the average density of gasoline is 0.75 kg/l. If the car was able
to use 0.2 kg of nuclear fuel of uranium-235, estimate the time in years for
refueling.
2.27. A car consumes about 3 gallons a day, and the capacity of the full tank is
about 11 gallon. The density of gasoline ranges from 0.72 to 0.78 kg/l
(Table 2.2). The lower heating value of gasoline is about 44,000 kJ/kg.
Assume that the average density of gasoline is 0.75 kg/l. If the car was able
to use 0.1 kg of nuclear fuel of uranium-235, estimate the time in years for
refueling.
2.28. Using data in Table 2.11 and ultimate analysis, fixed carbon, dry ash
content, C, H, and O compositions estimate the gross heating values in kJ/
kg for the biomass white oak.
2.29. Using data in Table 2.11 and ultimate analysis, fixed carbon, dry ash
content, and C, H, and O compositions only estimate the gross heating
values in kJ/kg for the biomass corn stover and wheat straw.
2.30. When a hydrocarbon fuel is burned, almost all of the carbon in the fuel
burns completely to form CO2 (carbon dioxide), which is the principle gas
causing the greenhouse effect and thus global climate change. On average,
0.59 kg of CO2 is produced for each kWh of electricity generated from a
power plant that burns natural gas. A typical new household uses about
7,000 kWh of electricity per year. Determine the amount of CO2 produc-
tion that is due to the refrigerators in a city with 100,000 households
2.31. When a hydrocarbon fuel is burned, almost all of the carbon in the fuel
burns completely to form CO2 (carbon dioxide), which is the principle gas
causing the greenhouse effect and thus global climate change. On average,
0.59 kg of CO2 is produced for each kWh of electricity generated from a
power plant that burns natural gas. A typical new household uses about
10,000 kWh of electricity per year. Determine the amount of CO2 pro-
duction that is due to the refrigerators in a city with 250,000 households
2.32. A large public computer lab operates Monday through Saturday. There the
computers are either being used constantly or remain on until the next user
comes. Each computer needs around 240 W. If the computer lab contains
53 computers and each is on for 12 h a day, during the course of the year
how much CO2 will the local coal power plant have to release to the
atmosphere in gram moles to keep these computers running?
2.33. The average university will have a large public computer lab open Monday
through Saturday. There the computers are either being used constantly or
remain on until the next user comes. Each computer needs around 240 W.
If the computer lab contains 53 computers and each is on for 12 h a day,
Problems 67
during the course of the year how much coal will the local coal power plant
have to consume to keep these computers running?
2.34. A large public computer lab runs six days per week from Monday through
Saturday. Each computer uses a power of around 120 W. If the computer
lab contains 45 computers and each is on for 12 h a day, during the course
of the year how much CO2 will the local coal power plant have to release to
the atmosphere in gram moles to keep these computers running?
2.35. If a car consumes 60 gallons gasoline per month. Estimate the energy
consumed by the car per year.
2.36. A car having an average 22 miles/gal is used 32 miles every day. If the cost
of a gallon fuel is $3.8 estimate the yearly cost of fuel.
2.37. A car having an average 22 miles/gal is used 32 miles every day. Estimate
the yearly energy usage.
2.38. How can you control your carbon footprint?
2.39. A 150-W electric light bulb is used on average 10 h per day. A new bulb
costs $2.0 and lasts about 5,000 h. If electricity cost is $0.15/kWh, estimate
the yearly cost of the bulb.
2.40. A laptop consuming 90 Watt is used on average 5 h per day. If a laptop
costs $500 and will be used for four years estimate the total electricity cost
in four years for the laptop. Electricity cost is $0.15/kWh.
2.41. A laptop consuming 90 Watt is used on average 7 h per day. If a laptop
costs $500 and will be used for four years estimate the total electricity cost
in four years for the laptop. Electricity cost is $0.10/kWh.
2.42. A 20-hp electric motor is used to pump ground water into a storage tank
4 h every day. Estimate the work done by the pump in kW every year and
the cost of electricity every year. Assume that the electricity unit cost is
$0.1/kWh.
2.43. A city consumes natural gas at a rate of 2509106 ft3/day. The volumetric
gas is costing $6/GJ of higher heating value what is the daily cost of the gas
for the city.
2.44. A home consumes natural gas at a rate of 4.3ft3/day to heat the home. The
volumetric flow is at standard conditions of 60F and 1 atm = 14.7 psia. If
the natural gas is costing $0.67/MJ of higher heating value what is the daily
cost of the gas for the home?
2.45. A district uses natural gas for heating. Assume that average NOx and CO2
emissions from a gas furnace are 0.0045 kg/therm and 6.4 kg/therm,
respectively. The district wants to replace the gas heating system with a
geothermal heating system. The projected saving by the geothermal heat-
ing system would be 40 9 106 therms of natural gas per year. Determine
the amount of NOx and CO2 emissions the geothermal heating system
would save every year.
2.46. A water heater consumes propane, which is providing 80% of the standard
heat of combustion when the water produced after combustion is vapor. If
the price of propane is $2.2/gal measured at 25C. What is the heating cost
in $ per million Btu and in $ per MJ?
2.47. An average video games system consumes 170 W of power during
gameplay. If a person were to play an hour a day for 80% of the year how
many liters of gasoline would the person have burned? (Evaluated at HHV)
2.48. A competitive road cyclist can hold an average of 300W of power during a
4 h race. During long races he must do this each day for three weeks. How
many protein bars will the cyclist have to eat at 184 calories per bar to just
make up the calories lost during the race?
2.49. Describe the process of how natural gas goes from its natural state to the
market?
2.50. Some people like to have background noise when they are falling asleep.
Many choose to listen to their television. The television will usually run on
about 340 W and will run during the 8 h that you are asleep. With elec-
tricity costing $0.20/kWh, calculate how much this will cost you if you do
this for five days a week for an entire year.
2.51. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electrical energy in an
alternating current?
2.52. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electrical energy flowing in
direct current?
2.53. In the search for new sources of energy that are renewable and emit less
greenhouse gases, carbon-based biofuels are of major interest. These fuels
are still carbon-based and must undergo combustion to release the chemical
energy. Why is this process being looked at as a reasonable energy source?
2.54. While fixing wiring in a house, an electrician aims to deliver the same
amount of electric energy to a devise at the same rate it is currently coming
in. The wiring he is replacing runs at has 2 ohms of resistance and has a
20 A current. To deliver the same amount of electric energy how many
amps will be needed if the resistance is changed to 4 ohms?
2.55. Calculate the yearly dollar savings if you cut down from a daily 9 min shower
to a 6 min shower. The shower volumetric flow rate is 3.2 gpm and the
amount of energy used per gallon is 440 Btu and energy costs $0.13/kWh.
2.56. Rank the following carbon-based fuels in order of lowest to highest gross
energy density; diesel, ethanol, conventional gasoline, and kerosene-based
jet fuel.
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Chapter 2

Energy and Energy Types

Y. Demirel, Energy, Green Energy and Technology, 27

Table 2.1 Some energy units and definitions

of energy in the metric system needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at

2.2 Energy Types

2.2.1 Primary Energy

Primary Energy Secondary Energy

Crude oil, Coal, Petroleum products,

Waste Electricity and Heat

Solar, Biomass, Wind,

2.2.2 Secondary Energy

The primary energy is transformed to secondary energy in the form of electrical

Fig. 2.3 US primary energy Supply Sources Demand

2.3 Non Renewable Energy Sources

Table 2.2 Typical properties of various coals

Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as

Table 2.3 Typical elemental Element Percent range (%)

Table 2.4 Composition by Hydrocarbon Average (%) Range (%)

2.3.2 Petroleum (Crude Oil)

Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of

2.3.3 Petroleum Fractions

Fig. 2.4 A distillation tower Gas, 20°C

offers a higher volumetric energy density at 128,700 Btu/gal versus 115,500

Table 2.5 Typical heating Type Unit Btu

2.3.4 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane.

2.3.5 Nuclear Energy

2.4 Heating Value of Fuels

2.4.1 Energy Density

Example 2.1 Energy consumption by a car

Example 2.2 Fuel consumption by a low and a high-mileage car

Table 2.9 Energy densities of some fuels

Example 2.3 Daily consumption of natural gas by a city

Example 2.4 Energy consumed by a car

Energy released by the complete fission of 0.2 kg U-235:

2.5 Renewable Energy Resources

2.5.2 Solar Energy

2.5.2.1 Nonresidential Solar Collectors

2.5.2.2 Solar Electric Generating Systems

Fig. 2.9 Renewable energy Nuclear

2.5.3 Biomass and Bioenergy

Biomass is organic material made from plants including microorganisms and

2.5.3.1 Carbon Cycle

Table 2.10 Lower heating values (LHV) for selected biomass

2.5.3.2 Gross Heating Values of Biomass Fuels

HHVðin kJ=gÞ ¼ 0:3491C þ 1:1783H 0:1034O 0:0211A þ 0:1005S

where C is the weight fraction of carbon, H of hydrogen, O of oxygen, A of ash, S

Example 2.5 Gross heating value estimations

Name Fixed Volatiles Ash C H O N S HHVm HHVest

HHV (in MJ/kg) = 0.3491(53.50) ? 1.1783 (5.90) - 0.1034 (40.3) - 0.0211

Biological fuels produced from photosynthesis can be categorized in three groups:

Fig. 2.13 Biofuels can

• Biodiesel—Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of

2.5.4 Wind Energy

2.5.5 Geothermal Energy

Fig. 2.15 Wind generation

2.5.6 Ocean Energy

Electricity production (40%) and transportation fuels (30%) accounts a large