ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
College of Social and Natural science
Department of Engineering
Philosophy group assignment

Section: G2

1. FIKIR NEGESSE .................................................................………. ETS0651/14

2. FIKIR MESERET....................................................................………ETS0652/14
3. GABRIELLA ASRAT...............................................................……...ETS0684/14
4. GEBRELLA NATHAN........................................................................ETS0685/14
5. GELILA NEBIYU................................................………………………ETS0690/14
6. GELILA TEKLESADIK....................................................……………. ETS0691/14

Submitted to: Instructor Mohammed W.

Submission date: July/8/2022
1. How can we solve problems by reasoning process?

Reasoning is the mental (cognitive) process of looking for reasons for beliefs,
conclusions, actions or feelings. It is focused on what makes reasoning efficient or
inefficient, appropriate or inappropriate, good or bad. By either examining the form or
structure of the reasoning with argument, or by considering the broader methods used to
reach particular goals of reasoning, make sound judgements and solve problems.

2. Deductive and inductive arguments are the two types of reasoning. Which types of
reasoning is the most important in acquiring knowledge and solving problems? Why?

A deductive argument is the presentation of statements that are assumed or known to

be true as premises for a conclusion that necessarily follows from those statements.
Deductive reasoning relies on what is assumed to be known to infer truths about
similarly related conclusions. It is a logical, non-biased way to solve a problem by testing
your hypothesis against given facts to see if it is correct. When the hypothesis proves
true, the problem is solved. If not, you have to try again. It is requirement in many
professions and valuable skill for acquiring knowledge and problem solving.
Inductive arguments use probabilities as their foundation when examined. There is a
potential that an argument could be weak even if it is strong.

3. What are the grounds that enable us to decide whether an argument is deductive or
inductive?
If the arguer thinks that the truth of the conclusion is unquestionably shown by the validity
of the premises, the argument is deductive. If the arguer believes that the premises'
veracity offers only solid grounds for presuming the conclusion is likely true, then the
argument is inductive.
Inductive arguments can take very wide-ranging forms. Some have the form of making a
claim about a population or set based only on information from a sample of that
population, a subset. Other inductive arguments draw conclusions by appeal to evidence,
or authority, or causal relationships.
A deductive argument is one that the arguer intends to be deductively valid, that is, to
guarantee that the conclusion is true. Deductive arguments try to present premises that
ensure, necessitate, or demand the conclusion, which sets them apart from inductive
arguments.

4. Do you think that if an argument is deductively sound and inductively cogent, we are
perfectly sure about the knowledge of our conclusion? Why?

No, first and foremost, the conclusion of an inductively cogent argument obtains
probable support, but we are not completely certain of the conclusion's knowledge
simply because it receives probable support from the premises. However, a deductively
sound argument assures that its conclusion is true, and as a result, every sound
argument, by definition, will have a true conclusion as well, and given such premises and
 excellent reasoning, a valid conclusion is guaranteed. Nevertheless, this cannot be
sufficient to ensure that our conclusion is correct.

5. What is the relationship between logic and language?

Reasoning is one of the definitions of logic, and reasoning is a type of thought that calls for
linguistic justification and takes the shape of an argument. We must examine our thought
processes in order for them to be made logical via language. Thus, there is a strong connection
between language and logic. Language and logic are interrelated. Logic entails both internal
and exterior discourse. Internal speech is a self-directed dialogue, while external speech is
when we express the dialogue to others through language and reason. Internal speech is
essentially logic, while external speech is language constructed according to logic rules.

6. Do you think that the way we use language in argumentative discourse is different from
that in ordinary life? How? And how can you evaluate language used in advertisements
and propagandas? In answering this consider the cognitive and emotive meanings of
language.

YES, the use of appropriate language is important since word meanings are contextual
and situational. Different people will interpret words differently depending on the
circumstance. It is crucial to use terminology that is as exact and clear as possible for
this reason. You must master language use if you wish to effectively argue and evaluate
the arguments of others. The more effectively we can organize our thoughts and ideas,
the easier it will be for us to comprehend them.
The greatest effect over people is exerted by language, which is the ultimate power in
advertising. Advertising uses language to entice consumers to purchase their goods; it is
a crucial marketing tactic to effectively convey their message.
Use of Language in Propaganda: There are many methods to manipulate language, and
it can be done for good or harm. Either a clear or extremely hazy announcement can be
made of the same thing. How the same thing can be sold to you by manipulating words
is quite intriguing. The propagandizing of numerous goods is how this skill is
accomplished.

7. Do you think that emotive charged statements can be cognitive? Why? Illustrate it with
examples.

Cognitive terms are those that are based on or capable of being reduced to empirical
factual knowledge. By contrast, emotive terms express a person's feelings rather than
being neutrally descriptive. Accordingly, on arguments, cognitive terms are those that
allow us to show real-based information, but emotive terms like "cruel," "inhuman,"
"hapless," and "dragged" are found in the sentences.
Vulgarity and ambiguity are two issues that have an impact on how we use language in
our cognitive processes. If there are ambiguous situations when it is difficult to determine
 whether a language expression applies or does not, it is said to be vague. A wide variety
of interpretations are frequently possible with ambiguous statements. When more than
one clear meaning can be assigned to a given expression in a certain context, it is said
to be ambiguous.
Since many statements have both cognitive and emotive meaning, we can conclude that
they are cognitive because they are delivering information. Because everything that is
stated carries at least some information, every single passionate comment will also be
cognitive. The problem arises when something also carries emotional content.

8. How vagueness, ambiguity and obscurity are leading us to disagreements? Discuss each
concept by providing examples.
Consider the phrase "Today our job position is more transparent." Vague indicates a
lack of assurance or distinctness as well as a lack of precision in thought or expression.
These types of statements create ambiguity since they are highly subjective, which leads
to significant differences among people because what is transparent is particularly
subjective when it comes to job settings.
Ambiguity is the trait of being susceptible to multiple interpretations. An expression is
considered ambiguous when it can be understood to have more than one obviously
distinct meaning in a particular context. For instance, if one were to characterize a beer
as a light pilsner, does this suggest that the beer is light in color, light in calories, or light
in taste? Is it possible to define "appropriate" in terms of morality or social acceptability?
Obscurities are things that are difficult to understand, in the state of being unknown,
noticeable, or inconsequential.

9. Demonstrate the relationship between intentional and extensional meaning of terms/words

in relation to empty extension. And what is increase or decrease of intentional and
extensional meaning of terms.

An intentional definition is one that gives a word significance by describing the

characteristics or attributes the word connotes.
An extensional definition is one that gives a term a meaning by naming the individuals who
belong to the class that the definientia designate.
empty extension and null class, as their names imply, are terms for groups or classes that
don't have any members.
Increasing intension is followed by decreasing extension in a series. A series of
decreasing intension can also be described as a rising extension series.
For relationships:
Some terms have empty intension, some terms have empty extension. The intension of a
term determines the extension and the intension of a term determines how specific the
term is. The order of increasing intension is always the same as that of decreasing
extension.
10. Can you reconcile people those who are engaged on debates of religious and other
mythical matters?

Yes of course, because relationship or encounters made by human being starts with
respect as it is the most imperious asset to shape a relationship. We can continue to
disagree, but we can't be disrespectful and have it our way, therefore reconciliation is
necessary. Even while religion is a personal affair, it must be respected by others.
Nonetheless, reconciliation will be challenging if we only consider religion and mythology
as rational systems. And we must recognize and accept that everyone is unique and has
a unique point of view that is valid in their own lives.

11. Discuss the role of intentional and extensional techniques in definitions.

Extensional definition: it defines the terms by locating the words that are being defined.
Extensional definition uses 3 ways to locate the terms. The first one is demonstrative; it is
considered as the primitive form of definition. It’s literally pointing the term that is being
defined. The set back of this approach is, it is necessary for the term to be where we at or
at least it has to be under our site. Enumerative approach assigns a meaning to its terms
by naming the class of the term that is being defined. Relatively they give a satisfying
definition. Definition by subclass assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of
the class denoted by the term. There are 4 strategies intentional definitions use:
Synonymous Definition is one in which the definiens is a single word that connotes the
same tributes as the definientia- that the definiens is a synonym of the word being deified.
Etymological Definition assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word ‘s
ancestry in both its own language and other languages. Operational Definition
assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental procedures that
determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing. Definition by Genus
and Difference assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term and one or more
difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term being Deified.

12. What are the criteria for good definition and how and when we failed to show the proper
essence of a term? Your answer should include example.

For a definition to be seen as good it must have:

● Focus: the definition must be essential to the word that is being defined. It can express it
in direct or indirect way but it should always relate in some ways. A good definition
should be as concise as possible, 50 words as a target Is recommendable.
● Clarity and lack of ambiguity: the definition we’re giving should be clear so as to not
contradict with its own meaning, or to not take a shape of other words which can lead us
to confusion.
● Common usage: if a term is already in common usage, the definition ought not conflict
with common usage more than necessary.
If a definition doesn’t elaborate what it exactly stands for, if it’s vague enough to confuse people,
and if it loses its focus, then it failed as a good definition.