Chapter 4

DEVELOPING AN EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

Principles are deep fundamental truths…lightly interwoven thread running with exactness, consistency,
beauty, and strength through the fabric of life.

- Steven Covey

Teachers are typically held in higher moral standards than the general public. In dealing with the
students, we must be careful about how to act and what to say. This chapter examines the different
philosophies that originate in the historical foundations of education.

Philosophy Defined

Educational history offers descriptions and stories that indicate change of venue, people, and
contexts, but educational questions remain relatively constant. We can see that educators have
constantly struggled with philosophical questions related to the education: the purpose of education,
the nature of the learner, the strategies associated with teaching and the struggle between religion,
basic education, and liberal approaches. Educational philosophies have evolved around the timeless
struggles that are still present in current dialogues.

Philosophies from the basis for understanding purposes of education and help develop theories
about what should be taught and how students learn. There are many ways to discuss the philosophies,
but most of them could be traced back to one of the four major stances. Idealism and realism, two of
the oldest philosophical positions, and pragmatism and existentialism, both newer philosophical
systems, all impact educational thought (Myers and Myers, 1995). In most cases, philosophies do not
reflect only one view, but represent an evolution of thinking that has guided decisions and theory of
building.

Idealism

 It is considered as the oldest philosophy

 It started during the time of Plato in ancient.
 According to the idealist philosophers, nothing exists except ideas.
 Reality is known via one’s mind.
 Puts emphasis on:
1. mental idea, intrinsic or spiritual, rather than physical fact or material value.
2. man’s knowledge is based on his mental state
3. mental stimulus perceived by a man’s soul comes from an infinite spirit which is
God, and God is the summum bonum or the highest foo in whom all absolute good,
beauty, and values are found (Duka, 2007).
 In teaching the idealist educators utilizes:
1. Socratic Method to bring ideas to the learner through asking leading question in
order being able to stimulate the awareness of the learner.
2. The role of imitation is also an important aspect of idealist methodology. It subject
matter-based curriculum emphasizes that great enduring ideas of the culture. Thus,
 teachers should have wide knowledge of the cultural heritage and lead a well-
ordered life.
 For example:
1. Teachers use mathematics to develop students’ powers of abstraction.
2. Teachers expose students to the classics-great and enduring works of art, literature
and music – through history. As it is seen as the study of the contributions made by
the great women and men of the past. They can experience and share in the time-
tested values conveyed by these cultural works.

Realism

 Stresses objective knowledge and values

 Developed by the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle
 In middle ages, Thomas Aquinas articulate religious realism
 In modern age, Alfred North Whitehead continued the realist tradition
 It holds that:
1. There is a world of real experiences that human beings have not made constructed;
2. The human mind can know about the real world;
3. Such knowledge is the most real reliable guide to human conduct, both individual
and social.
 Aims to provide students with knowledge about objective world.
 Role of school is primarily academic.
 In teaching, realist teachers:
1. Should be knowledgeable in the content of their subject.

For example:

A teacher of history should be a historian who possesses a thorough background

on the discipline.

2. Should have a general education in the liberal arts and sciences which will enable
them to demonstrate relationship between her area of expertise and other subject
matters.
3. May employ different methods like lectures, discussions, demonstrations and
experiments.
4. Should have a mastery of content on their subject which is the most important.
Note that, methodology is also important but subordinate means to reach goals.

Pragmatism

 From the Greek word pragma meaning “a thing done, a fact that is practiced.
 It is a relatively modern philosophy which originated from the United States.
 It was founded by the following:
1. Charles S. Pierce (1839-1914)
2. William James (1842-1910)
3. George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
4. John Dewey (1859-1952)
  Related to experimentalism which is based on the scientific investigation.
 Dewey stressed the process of problem solving.
He claimed that the total development of the child comes through experiencing or
“learning by doing”.
He believed that the students should be the center of the educative progress because
education is the construction of human experience.
 In learning, pragmatist teachers:
1. Are more concerned with the process of solving problems intelligently.
2. They do not seek to dominate the classroom but aims to guide the students by
acting as facilitators of their research and activities.
3. They create a learning community inside the classroom by encouraging the students
to share their interests and problems.
4. They encourage cultural diversity and commonality. By stressing a process of shared
communication between members of different cultures they are enabling the
students unto a larger democratic community, a society of shared interest and
values.
 For students of pragmatist classroom, the main objective is to share experience by applying the
scientific method to a full range of personal and intellectual problems.
 The use of problem-solving method allows the students to learn and apply the process both
inside and outside the school, decreasing the gap between the school and society.

Existentialism

 Represents both a feeling of desperation and a spirit of hope.

 It examines life in a very personal way.
 Existentialist education encourages deep personal reflection of one’s identity, commitments and
choices.
 Jean Paul Satre (1905-1980) an existentialist stated that “Existence precedes Essence” which
means that human beings enter the world without being consulted. They are simply existing in a
world they did not make or shape. However, they have will that gives them the freedom to
make choices and to create their own purposes of existence. A person creates his/her life own
definition and makes their own essence.
 Existentialist say that human freedom is total and one’s responsibility for choice is total.
 You are what you choose to be.
 In existentialist education:
1. The teachers would encourage the students to philosophize, question, and
participate in dialogue both the meaning of life, love, and health. Answers are
expected to be subjective and personal.
2. The curriculum would consist of subjects that might lead to philosophical dialogue
such as literary, dramatic and biographical subjects.
3. The school is where individuals meet to pursue discussion about their own lives and
choices.
4. Both teachers and students should have the chance to ask questions and suggest
answers, and engage in dialogue.
Perennialism

 Means “perpetual” or “long lasting”.

 Perennialists educators advocate a curriculum of timeless values and knowledge. They believe
that:
1. Truth is universal and does not depend on the circumstances of place, time, or
person;
2. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth;
3. Truth can be found in the great works of civilization;
4. Education is a liberal exercise that develop the intellect.
 Perrenialism states that nature, as well as human nature is constant.
 According to Jacobsen (1999), it is rooted both in idealism- enduring ideas and in realism-
constancy of physical universe.
 It originated from the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle, and St. Thomas Aquinas.
 Perennialists are divided into two groups which are identified as, those who espouse religious
approach to education adopted by Aquinas and those who follow the secular approach
formulated in the twentieth-century America by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
 In perennialists education:
1. It is viewed as a recurring process based on eternal truths
2. School’s curriculum should emphasize recurrent themes of humans life
3. It should have cognitive subjects that cultivate rationally and the study of moral
aesthetics, and religious principles to develop additional dimensions
4. The curriculum is subject-centered, drawing heavily upon the disciplines of
literature, mathematics, history and humanities. And the best means to attain the
enduring knowledge is to study the great books of Western Civilization.
5. The teacher who is expected to have a mastery on the discipline in mind by the
discussion and reading of the works is to be viewed as authority and his expertise is
not to be questioned.
6. The role of school is to train elite students that would one day take charge of
passing this on the new generations of learners.

Progressivism

 It was part of the general reform movement in American life in the nineteenth century.
 It gained impetus from the rebellion against traditional schooling.
 Educators argued against mindless routine, rote memorization, and authoritarian classroom
management.
 Associate with John Dewey’s pragmatism which views all learning’s should focus on the child’s
interest and needs.
 Progressive education is best reflected by numerous theories and practices on both public and
private schools. The list is significant (Traverse et al., 1995):
1. The open classroom,
2. Individual instruction
3. Self-paced instructional materials
4. Grouping by needs and interest
 5. Affective education
6. Problem-based curricula, such as theme focusing on the environment, social issues,
and political questions
7. Vocational or career education
8. Counselling
 It focuses on emphasizing curricula that focuses on real world problem-solving and individual
development.
 They value children’s freedom and other stressed social reform.
 Educators who follow progressive principles are instructionally flexible which uses repertoire of
learning such as problem-solving, field trips, and creative expression as well as they perceive the
learning process as active, exciting and ever-changing.

Essentialism

 An educational philosophy that is the oldest and most commonly accepted found in public
schools.
 Its root words “essential” implies that certain studied are more important than others.
 It was popularized by William Bagley (1874-1946)
 Essentialist (Traditionalist or Conservatives) believes that literacy has broad meaning that
involves first skill in reading but also implies enlargement of ideas and intelligent judgement
concerning preservation of democratic society.
 In Essentialist education:
1. It implements back to basics movement which means that learning should focus on
reading, writing, and mathematics.
2. The school should focus on the essential skills and subjects contributing to literacy
and intellectual efficiency.
3. Regular assignments, homework, recitations, and frequent testing and evaluation
should be standard practice.
4. The teacher should be using structured curriculum and be specialist in subject-
matter and skilled in organizing it into instructional units.

Social Reconstructionism

 It aims to construct society by integrating new technological and scientific developments with
those parts of the culture that remain viable. Human civilization made a great technological
transition when it moved from an agricultural and rural to an urban and industrial society.
However, ideas and values from the pre-industrial period have persisted into the modern era.
 The proponents are George Counts and Harold Rugg in the 1930’s.
 In Social Reconstructionist education:
1. Teacher’s responsibility is to help reduce the cultural gap between technology and
values of the individual.
2. Education is designed to awaken the students’ consciousness about social problems
and to engage them actively in solving problems.
 The goal of reconstructionists is to provide larger sense of national identity and purpose.
 Knowledge is seen as an instrument for a purpose and knowledge in areas such as social
sciences and psychology are particularly useful.
 Classroom Application of the Educational Philosophies

Traditional Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Postmodernism Social

Philosophy (Idealism, (Idealism, (Pragmatism) (Existentialism) Reconstruction
Most Closely Realism) Realism)
Related
Educational Train the Acquire Acquire ability Critically To reconstruct
Goals intellect, moral basic skills; to function to examine today’s society
development acquire the real institutions;
knowledge world; elevate the
needed to develop status of
function in problem marginalized
today’s solving skills people (women
world and cultural
minorities)
Curriculum Emphasis on
enduring ideas;
Emphasis on basic
skills;
Emphasis on
problem solving
skills needed in
today’s world;
Emphasis on the
works of
marginalized
people;
Social sciences
uses as
reconstructive
tools

Role of the Deliver clear Deliver clear Guide learning Facilitate Guide learning
Teacher lectures; lectures; with discussions that with
increase student increase questioning; involve questioning;
understanding student develop and clarifying issuesdevelop and
with critical understandi guide practical guide practical
questions ng with problem problem
critical solving solving
questions activities activities
Teaching Lecture; Lecture; Problem- Discussion; role Guide learning
Methods questioning; practice and based play; with
coaching in feedback; learning; stimulation; questioning;
intellectual questioning cooperative personal develop and
 thinking learning; research guide practical
guided problem-
discovery solving
activities
Learning High structure; High Collaborative; Community- Community-
Environment high levels of structure; self-regulated; oriented; self- oriented
time on task high levels democratic regulated
of time on
task
Assessment Frequent Frequent Continuous Collaborative Essay and
objective and objective, feedback; between analysis test
essay performanc informal teacher and
e test, and monitoring of student;
essay student emphasis on the
progress exposure of
hidden
assumption
Proponents Adler Begley John Dewey Jean Paul Satre Theodore
Bloom Bestor Kilpatrick Brameld
Hutchins Conant Parker George Counts
Maritain morrison Washburne William Stanley
Harold Rugg

Major Educational Theorist

Theorist Purposes of Curriculum Strategies in Role of the Influence on

Education Teaching Teacher Today’s Schools
John Amos To relate Vernacular Based on To be a Schools
Comenius education to language; readiness and permissive organized
1592-1670 children’s reading; stages of human facilitator of according to
(Canada) natural writing; growth; gradual, learning, to children’s stages
growth and mathematics; cumulative, base of development
development; religion; orderly; use of instruction on
to contribute history; Latin; objects the child’s
to peace and universal stages of
understanding knowledge development
John Locke To develop Reading, Reliance on To encourage Schooling that
1632-1704 ideas in the writing, sensation; slow, sense emphasizes
(English) mind based on arithmetic, gradual, experience; sensory
sense foreign cumulative to base observatiom
perception; to language, learning instruction on
educate mathematics, empirical
individuals history, civil method
capable of government,
self- physical
government education
Jean Jacques To create a Nature; the Reliance on To assist Permissive
Rousseau learning environment sensation; nature; not to schooling based
1712-1778 environment experience with impose social on child
(Swiss- that allows nature conventions freedom
French) child’s innate, on the child
natural
goodness to
flourish
Johann To develop Object Reliance on To act as a Schooling bases
Heinreich the human lessons; from, sensation; loving on emotional
Pestalozzi being’s moral, number, object lessons; facilitator of security and
1746-1827 mental, and sound simple to learning by object learning
(Swiss) physical complex; near creating a
powers to far; concrete homelike
harmoniously; to abstract school
to use sense environment;
perception in to be skilled
forming clear in using the
ideas special
method
Friedrich To develop Songs, stories, Self-activity, To facilitate Preschools
Froebel the latent games, gifts, play, imitation children’s designed to
1782-1852 spiritual occupations growth liberate the
(German) essence of the child’s activity
child in a
prepared
environment
Herbert To enable Practical, Reliance on To organize Schooling that
Spencer human beings utilitarian, sensation and instruction in stresses
1820-1903 to live and scientific the scientific basic scientific
(English) effectively, subjects methods; activities knowledge and
economically, activities competitive
and values
scientifically
John Dewey To contribute Making and Problem solving
To create a Schooling that
1859-1952 to the doing; history according to the
learning emphasizes
(American) individual’s and scientific environment problem solving
personal, geography; method based on the and activities in
social, and science shared a context of
intellectual problems experience of community
growth the
community
learners
Maria To assist Motor and Spontaneous To act as a Early childhood
Montessori children’s sensory skills; learning; facilitator or schooling that’s
1870-1952 sensory, pre-planned activities; director of intellectually
(Italian) muscular, and materials practical, learning by and
intellectual sensory, and using didactic developmentally
 development formal skills materials in a stimulating
in a prepared prepared
environment environment
Jean Piaget To organize Concrete and Individualized To organize Schooling
1896-1980 education in formal programs; instruction organized
(Swiss) teams of operations explorations according to around
children’s and stages of cognitive
patterns of experimentation cognitive development
growth and with concrete development stages
development materials
identifying,
analysing, and
reflecting on
intellectual
concerns
Robert To educate Liberal arts Identifying, To ask leading Schooling that
Matynard human beings and sciences analysing, and and emphasizes the
Hutchins to search for reflecting on challenging Liberal arts’
1899-1977 truth, which is intellectual questions curriculum
(American) found in the concerns that stimulate
wisdom of the students to
human race pursue truth

Psychology Perspective Affecting Education

There are three psychological perspectives that have influenced and shaped educational
philosophy: behaviourism, constructivism, and humanism. These psychological perspective offer another
dimension to philosophical thought and teacher practice.

Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a theory of learning that focuses on the observable effect of the environment
on human behaviour. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) and other behaviourists argued that free will does not
exist. Instead they argue that our behaviour is actually a merely response on a stimulus or stimuli in the
environment.

Behaviourists encourages teachers are to change the classroom environment to one that would
reward students for desirable behaviours (e.g reward and punishment system).

There are various studies conducted by the behaviourist such as:

1. J.B. Watsons’ trial-and-error learning – he discovered that appropriate behaviours can be

learned if the desired actions were followed by satisfying outcomes.
2. B.F. Skinners’ operation conditioning – he found out that reinforced behaviour is more likely
to increase in frequency and duration unlike those that are ignored or punished.
 A well-known behavioural modifications management program developed my Lee Canter
called assertive discipline applied the basic principles of operant conditioning to student.
According to him the key to assertive discipline is to always observe when students are
being good as well as to recognize and support when they behave appropriately and letting
them know that you like it, day in day out.”

Constructivism

Constructivism is a view of knowledge and an approach to instruction, embedded to cognitive

theory. Constructivists view the students as the creator of their own knowledge and that they must
discover meaningful patterns, themes and relationship for themselves. It is derived from the works of
cognitive psychologists, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

The constructivist approach can be seen as a philosophical perspective similar to progressivism

in which students are capable of finding meaning out of personal experiences.

A constructivist teacher focuses on how students process information. They also encourage the
students to find solution for themselves by asking them about how they process internally their answers
to problems. Constructivist teachers tend to ask questions more than share information. Their main
objective is to expose students unto open dialogues and interactions to expand their thinking enabling
them to see problems at different angles. This equip the students the ability to see connections on what
they already know and new information they receive.

Humanism

Humanism is a philosophical approach to teaching and curriculum development which roots are
from the Renaissance and Reformation period. It emerged in the United States as a reaction to fear that
schools were becoming sterile and aloof places emphasizing academic achievement at the expense of
student needs. Humanists believes that the meaning of life lies within an individual and the individual
must extract meaning to fulfil his/her potential.

Its foundation in education is in the writing of Arthur Jersild, Arthur Combs, Donald Syngg, and
Abraham Maslow (Orstein, 1982).

A humanistic teacher emphasizes affective education that acknowledges students’ attitude,

feelings, and values in addition to their cognitions and behaviours in the learning process. Teachers help
the students satisfy their basic deficiency needs so they can reach higher level of growth. Simply,
humanistic teachers are interested in developing the “whole” student, not just the intellect.

Humanism views the teacher-student relationship as essential to student motivations and

learning. The curriculum incorporates affective goals with behavioural and cognitive goals. Humanistic
instruction also include cooperative learning activities in which group efforts are emphasized that can
foster good relations among the students and improve their confidence and self-worth.
Chapter 5

This chapter discusses the historical development of education, from ancient times to the modern
period.

THE ROOTS OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

“Thinking school; thinking nation”

- Singapore Educational Vision

Key Periods in Educational History

Historical Aims/Objectives Students Educational Curriculum Agents Influences

Group/Period Methods on
Education
Primitive To teach group Children Informal Practical Parents, Emphasis
Socities survival skills in the education; skills of tribal elders on
7000 B.C.- group children hunting, informal
A.d. 1900 imitating fishing, education
adult skills food in
and values gathering transmissi
on of skills
and
values
China 3000 To prepare elite Men of Memorizatio Confucian Government Written
B.C. – A.D. officials to gentry n and Classics officials examinati
1900 govern the class recitation of on for civil
empire Confucian service
according to Classics and other
Confucian profession
principles
Egypt 3000 To prepare Men of Memorizing Religious Priest and Restrictio
B.C. – 300 priest-scribes to upper and copying or scribes n of
B.C. administer the class dictated technical education
empire texts texts al controls
and
service to
priestly
elite; use
of
 education
to prepare
bureaucra
cies
Greek 1600 To cultivate Male Drill, Athens; Athens: Athens:
B.C. – 300 civic children memorizatio reading, private the
B.C. responsibility of n, recitation writing, teachers and concept of
and citizens; in primary arithmetic schools well-
identification ages 7- school; , drama, Sophists, rounded
with the city- 20 lecture, music, philosophers person
state discussion physical
and dialogue education, Sparta: Sparta:
in higher literature, military the
schools poetry teachers concept of
Sparta: military
Drill, state
military
songs and
tactics
Roman 750 To develop civic Male Drill, reading, private Emphasis
B.C.- A.D. responsibility children memorizatio writing, teachers and on
450 for the republic of n, recitation; arithmetic schools of education
and the empire; citizens; lecture, , laws of rhetorics for
to develop ages 7- discussion in Twelve practical
administrative 20 ludus; Tables, administr
and military declamation law, ative
skills in rhetorical philosoph skills;
schools y relating
education
to civic
responsibi
lity
Arabic A.D. To cultivate Male Drill, reading, Mosques; Arabic
700- A.D. religious children memorizatio writing, court schools numerals
1350 commitment to of upper n, recitation mathema and
Islamic beliefs; classes; in lower tics, computati
to develop ages 7- schools; religious, on; re-
expertise in 20 discussion literature, entry of
mathematics, and imitation scientific classical
medicine and in higher studies materials
science schools on science
and
medicine
Medieval To develop Male Drill, reading, Parish, Establish
A.D. 500- religious children memorizatio writing, chantry, and ment of
A.D. 1400 commitment, of upper n, recitation arithmetic cathedral structures
knowledge and classes in lower , liberal schools; , content,
 ritual or those schools; arts, universities, and
entering discussion philosoph apprenticeshi organizati
religious and imitation y, chivalry, p; ons of the
life; girls in higher military knighthood university
and schools tactics as a major
young institution
women of higher
entering education
religious ; the
commu institution
nities; alization
ages 7 - and
20 preservati
on of
knowledg
e
Renaissance To cultivate Male Memorizatio Latin, Classical An
A.D. 1350- humanist children n, Greek humanist emphasis
A.D. 1500 expert in the of translation, classical educators on literary
classics (Greek aristocr analysis of literature, and schools, knowledg
and Latin); to acy Greek and poetry, art such as lycee, e,
prepare upper Roman gymnasium, excellence
courtiers for classes; classics Latin school , and
service to ages 7- styles as
dynastic leaders 20 expressed
in classical
literature;
a two-
track
system of
schools
Reformation To cultivate a Boys Memorizatio reading, Vernacular A
A.D. 1500 - commitment to and n, drill, writing, elementary commitm
A.D. 1600 a particular girls, indoctrinatio arithmetic schools for ent to
religious ages 7- n, , the masses; universal
denomination; 12, in catechetical catechism, classical education
to cultivate vernacul instruction in religious schools for to provide
general literacy ar vernacular concepts the upper literacy to
schools; schools; and ritual, classes the
ages 7- translation Latin and masses;
12 of and analysis Greek; the origins
upper of classical theology of school
class literature in system
backgro humanists with
unds in schools supervisio
humanis n to
ts ensure
schools doctrinal
conformit
y