Basic Computer Skills

ADMAS UNIVERSITY
Basic Computer skills

Chapter One: An overview of Computer System

Introduction
Definition
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes logical
decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; then produces meaningful information
in a form that is useful to humans. The name computer comes from a Latin word Computer,
meaning, “to compute”.

Computer is a multipurpose electronics device that accepts input, processes data, store data and
produce output, according to a series of stored instruction. It performs three main operations:

Receive input (data: raw facts), Process it according to predefined instructions and Produce output
(information: meaningful data).

Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money, labors etc. And they answer the questions why
computers are used? Why have they become so popular?
 Speed
The ability of the computers to carry out their instructions in a very short period of time is one of the
main reasons for their popularity. Computers can perform within a matter of seconds or minutes
tasks that would be impossible for a person to complete by hand in lifetime. Its speed is measured by
the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. And its speed measured in terms
of micro second (10-6 one millionths), nano second (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one
trillionths). Hence a computer with speed 1 microsecond can perform 1 million instructions in just 1
second. (For example in one second this computer can perform the following tasks:
 Compute the grade point average for 3000 students
 Calculate the total number of all books used by students in a university

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 Accuracy
Now a days computers are being used in life-and-death situations (For example, jet pilots rely on
computer computations for guidance, Hospitals rely on patient-monitoring systems in critical –care
units) which needs almost hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is
accurate and consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer
processes with a very accurate.
 Durability and reliability
Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer, which measured against some
predetermined standard for operation without any failure. The major reason behind the reliability of the
computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require any human intervention between its processing
operations. Moreover, computers have the built-in diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous
monitoring of the system.
 Versatility
Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks simultaneously with equal
ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a letter, the other moment it can be used
to play music and in between you can print a document as well. All this work is possible by
changing the program (sequence of instructions for computers). In brief, we can say that a computer
can perform various tasks by reducing the task to a series of logical steps.
 Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type
of work.

 Storage Capability
Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the required information almost
instantaneously. The memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain
amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on storage devices such as magnetic tape or
disks. Small sections of the data can be accessed very quickly and brought into the storage devices,
as and when required, for processing. In order to explain the idea of storage capacity, we can take an

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example of CD-ROM and a hard disk. A single CDROM can store up to 700 MB of data while a
hard disk can have a capacity of around 80GB (1GB=1024 MB).
Note: Even if the above main characteristics of computers are increasing with time, the cost and size
of computers are decreasing.
Historical Development of computers (Generation of
Computers)
Computer developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations
and major characteristics that distinguish these generations are the following;
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically
refold or better increases in speed and reliability.
1. First generation (1950s)
 Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
 Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for internal
storage.
 Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more than
10,000 additions each second.
 Most applications were scientific calculations.

2. Second generations (early 1960s)

 Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid state device made
from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, dissipate less energy and more reliable than
vacuum tube but work in the same way with the vacuum tube.)
 Invented by Bell Labs.
 Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage,
 Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions possible
each second.

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 Business applications become more commonplace, with large data files stored on magnetic
tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular platter constructed of metal or plastic materials
coated with magnetizable substance.)
 High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period. Batch
operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.

3. Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-contained transistor is
called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic equipment composed of discrete components
transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc. They are

 Packed in their own containers and soldered (wired together) on a circuit board. So
achievement that revolutionized electronics started the era of microelectronics: the invention
of integrated circuit.
 Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide
modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable equipment
 New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
 Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved
programming languages,

4. Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)

 Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
 Has large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) which has several hundred thousand
transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
 Computer memory operates at speeds of nano seconds (billionths of a second) with
large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
5. Fifth generation
The fifth generation computer is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of the changes in
technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought.
These computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors which can draw inferences. Users
will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc. Japans are
working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.

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Types of computers
There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depending on different categories of
characteristics.

 Classification by the method of operation (processing)

They are classified into three:
I. Analog Computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables; they don’t compute
directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure,
temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
 Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into
two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
Note: They are special purpose computers.
Analog computers have limited accuracy
II. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They
operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
 Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers

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Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.
III. Hybrid Computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a
hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog
method, converts it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output from
digital to analog form.
Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function, temperature
and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a
digital component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to
send an immediate signal to the nurse’s station. If any abnormal readings are detected.
 Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are
classified as special purpose or general-purpose computers
I. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and function are
uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators
 Counters etc..
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
II. General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A
program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and
then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of
problem using different program. General purpose computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers

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 Super computers etc.

 Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. There is a wide variety of
general purpose digital computers on the market place today, in terms of physical size, price,
capacity, and performance. They are then classified as follows by their capacity and size:
1. Super computers:
Super computers are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer. They have speed of
hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million
characters, and a secondary memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory.
 They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range.
 They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations.
They are used to process huge amount of data and are commonly used in space technology centers,
meteorology stations, astronomical observatories, intercontinental communications, and airline
organizations.
2. Mainframe computers:
Smaller than super computers in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the super
computers. However they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used in large
organizations.
3. Mini computers
Have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, and are smaller in size than the mainframe
computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.
4. Microcomputer:
Micro computer (personal or desktop computer) is a computer whose CPU is microprocessor.
Microprocessor is a processor all of whose components are on a single integrated-circuit chip. Since
its CPU is integrated in a single circuit, it can serve only a single user at a time. Most of home and
personal office computers are microcomputers these are Desktop, Laptop and Palm Top computers.
The relative performance and usage of personal computer is relatively increased with a very high
rate.
Application of Computers

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Why we use Computers?

The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use Computers.
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;

Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these abilities. The
main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:
 Learning Aids:
Example: learning toys, programs range from simple arithmetic to calculus, from English grammar
to creative writing and foreign language, and from basic graphics to engineering design models,)
 Entertainment:
Examples: Games
 Commercial or business applications
Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large amounts of data.
Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with large volumes of data.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical Analysis
 Scientific – engineering and research applications
Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and
analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Information Utilities
Information utilities companies use large computers that store huge amount of information about
many different subjects. These computer systems and their vast amount of data are available for

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personal use. For example: information utilities can allow a computer user to read the daily news ,
research published works, send a letter to a friend, play games, make airline reservations, obtain the
latest stock market quotations, and perform many other activities.
Example: Internet.
 Electronic Banking and Service:
Example: Teller Machine (customers are issued cards that permit them to use other banks teller
machine’s)
Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account balances, transfer
funds, pay bills)
 Shopping from Home
Individual may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
 Household Control
A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled. For example:
Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and televisions. This computer
controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry without a
security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.
 Weather and Environment
Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow and can used
in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming environmental hazards.
 Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under the control
of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the computer what
to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and fuel control.
 Medical and Health Care
Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today, however, many
people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in hospitals as sensors (device that detect
changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing (scan the body and provide 3-D figure),
patient treatment.
 Routine and Dangerous Tasks
Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in environments too dangerous for
human workers.
 Consultant (Expert system)
An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a specific knowledge
base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge base of expert system is
given from the skilled specialist. Example: Mycin (a medical diagnostic program by using
sophisticated decision making process).

Data representation inside computer

We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer using the letter of
alphabet, various special symbols, and the numerals in the decimal number system. But since

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computer is an electronic device, which understands electrical flow (signal), there is no letter,
symbol or number inside the computer. Computer works with binary numbers. As a semiconductor
is conducting or isn’t conducting; a switch is closed or opened. So data are represented in the form
of a code that can have a corresponding electrical signal.
When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is packed in units.
Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte, and word;
These units are based on the binary number system.
BIT:
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 Bit stands for Binary digits;
 ALL data (no matter how complex) must be represented in memory as binary digits (bits).
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON” indicating 1
or “OFF” indicating 0;

BYTE:
Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and meaningful information.
This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a computer system.
The commonly used byte contains 8 bits. Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte.
Each byte can represent a character (a character is either a letter, a number or a special symbol such
as +,-,?,*, $, etc).
A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit, external
storage and during communication. If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is expressed in
short by saying 512KB, where KB stands for kilobyte.
 1 Kilobyte (1KB) is 1024 bytes
 1 Megabyte (MB) is 1024 kilobytes
 1 Gigabyte (GB) is 1024megabytes

WORD:
Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission media transmits at
a time. A combination of bytes, then form a “word”. A word can contain one, two, three or four
bytes based on the capacity of the computer. Word length is usually given in bits. We say that a
computer is an 8-bit, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that the amount of data it can
process at a time.
Concept of Number Systems and Binary Arithmetic

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Since the early days of human civilization, people have been using their fingers, sticks, and other
things for counting. As daily activities became more complex, numbers became more important in
trade, time, distance, and in all spheres of human life. A number system defines a set of values used
to represent quantity. There are various number systems e.g. decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal, etc
each differs one another by the number of symbols used in the system. Each numbering system used
different symbols to represent a given quantity. For a computer, everything is a number whether it
may be numbers, alphabets, punctuation marks, its own instructions, etc. The number systems that
are generally used by computers are: decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal.

The Decimal Number System

The primary number system used is a base ten number system or decimal number system. The
Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits or symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9).
Starting at the decimal point and moving to the left, each position is represented by the base (radix)
value (10 for decimal) raised to power. The power starts at Zero for the position just to the left of the
decimal point.
For example: (8762)10 = (8*103) + (7*102) + (6*101) + (2*100)
(0.475)10= (4*10-1) + (7*10-2) + (5*10-3)
The Binary number system
Computers do not use the ten digits of the decimal system for counting and arithmetic. Their internal
structure (mainly the CPU and memory) are made up of millions of tiny switches that can be either
in an ON or OFF states. Two digits, 0 and 1, are used to refer for these two states.
Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1. With binary number system, it is
very easier for the hardware to represent the data. Binary number system is base two number system.
For example: (01100)2 , (10110.011)2 , etc

Octal number system

The octal number system with its eight symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) is a base 8 system.
For example: (322)8, (10.25)8, etc
Hexadecimal number system
Hexadecimal number system is another number system that works exactly like the decimal and
binary number systems, except that the base is 16. It uses 16 symbols (0-9, and A-F characters to
represent 10-15).For example: (8F0)16 , (D.45)16, etc
Conversion between Number Systems

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Computers use binary numbers for internal data representation whereas they use decimal numbers
externally. Therefore, there should be some conversion between number systems in order to
represent data in a computer that is originally represented in other number systems. Some conversion
methods are discussed below.
Decimal to Binary
It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent binary number. For
example:

Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal

0 0 10 2 100 4 110 6
01 1 11 3 101 5 111 7
Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent binary is
possible. The method, which is used for the conversion of decimal into binary, is often called as the
remainder method. This method involves the following steps.
 Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 (the base of binary number system)
 Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit of the binary equivalent
 Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until quotient is zero and keep writing the
remainders after each step of division (these remainders will either be 0 or 1)
 Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order (last
remainder written first)
Example: Determine the binary equivalent of (44) 10

In general to convert a decimal number X to a number in base M, divide X by M, store the

remainder, again divide the quotient by M, store the remainder, and continue until the quotient is 0.
And concatenate (collect) the remainders starting from the last up to the first.
Example: Convert (78)10 to base eight (Octal)
(78)10=(116)8

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Example: Convert 3010 to base sixteen (hexadecimal)

(30)10=(1E)16
Binary to Decimal
In the binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its weighted
position, and each of the weighted values is added together to get the decimal number.
Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (100100)2
1*25 + 0*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 +0*20 = 32+4 =36
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (100100)2 is 36
In general to convert a number X consists of digits X1 X2 X3 …Xn in base m to decimal; simply
expand the number with base m. That is
(X1X2X3…Xn) m =X1*mn-1+X2*mn-2 +X3*mn-3+...+ Xi*mn-i+… Xn-1m1+Xn*m0
=Y10
Example: convert (234)8 to decimal
=2*82 + 3*81 + 4*80 = 128+24+4 = 156
Example: convert (A1B) 16 to decimal
=A*162 + 1*161 + B*160 = 2587
Binary (base2) to Octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base16) and vice versa
To convert a number in binary to octal group three binary digits together starting from the last digit
(right) and if there are no enough digits add zeros to the front end (left) and find the corresponding
Octal of each group.
Example 1: Convert 1001001 to octal
1001001=001,001,001
= (111)8
2. Convert 101101001 to octal
101101001 =101,101,001
=(551)8
To convert binary to hexadecimal group four binary digits together starting from right and if there
are no enough digits add zeros at the left.
Example: Convert 111100100 to hexadecimal
111100100 =0001 1110 0100
= 1 14 4
=1 E 4 = (1E4)16

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To convert from Octal to binary, convert each octal digit to its equivalent 3 bit binary starting from right.
Example 1: Convert (675) eight to binary
675eight =110 111 101
=(110111101)two
2. Convert 231eight to binary
231eight = 010 011 001
=(10011001)two
To convert from Hexadecimal to binary convert each hex. Digit to its equivalent 4-bit binary starting
from right.
Example 1: Convert 23416 to binary
23416 =0010 0011 0100
= (1000110100)2
2. Convert 2AC to binary
2AC16 =0010 1010 1100
=(1010101100)2
Octal to hexadecimal and Vise versa
To convert from Octal to hexadecimal, first we have to convert to binary and the binary to
hexadecimal. To convert from hexadecimal to Octal, first we have to convert to binary and then the
binary to Octal.
Example: Convert 2358 to hexadecimal
2388=010 011 101
=0000 1001 1101
=0 9 13 =(9D)16
DATA REPRESENTATION

As all of you know a computer is a data processing machine, so we have to understand the
nature of data. Data can be found in different forms like as a number, text, images, audio &
video.

Data inside the Computer

How computers handle all these data types?

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To handle & represent different data types, a computer uses universal uniform
representations of data is known as Bit Patterns. Bit pattern is a sequence or strings of bits
that is used to represent different data types.

A) BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)

In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to express
each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can represent sixteen
numbers (0000 to 1111).
B) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

Extended binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) is an 8-bit binary code(256
chracters) for numeric and alphanumeric characters. It was developed and used by IBM. It is a
coding representation in which symbols, letters and numbers are presented in binary language.

C) ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

ASCII. Pronounced ask-ee, ASCII is the acronym for the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange. It is a 7- bit code for representing 128 English characters as numbers,
with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127.

D) Unicode

What is Unicode? In computer systems, characters are transformed and stored as numbers (sequences of
bits) that can be handled by the processor. A code page is an encoding scheme that maps a specific sequence
of bits to its character representation. . It is a 16- bit code for representing 65,536 characters.

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