Reduction of Multiple

Subsystems

INTRODUCTION
 We have been working with individual subsystems represented by a block with its
input and output.
 More complicated systems, however, are represented by the interconnection of many
subsystems.
 Since the response of a single transfer function can be calculated, we want to
represent multiple subsystems as a single transfer function.
 We can then apply the analytical techniques of the previous lectures and obtain
transient response information about the entire system.
 In this lecture, multiple subsystems are represented in two ways: as block diagrams
and as signal-flow graphs.
 Although neither representation is limited to a particular analysis and design
technique, block diagrams are usually used for frequency-domain analysis and
design, and signal-flow graphs for state-space analysis.

1
 INTRODUCTION
 Signal-flow graphs represent transfer functions as lines, and signals as small circular
nodes. Summing is implicit.
 To show why it is convenient to use signal-flow graphs for state-space analysis and
design, consider Figure 3.10.
 A graphical representation of a system’s transfer function is as simple as Figure
3.10(a).
 However, a graphical representation of a system in state space requires
representation of each state variable, as in Figure 3.10(b).
 In that example, a single-block transfer function requires seven blocks and a summing
junction to show the state variables explicitly.

Figure 3.10: a. Transfer function; b. equivalent block diagram showing phase variables.

INTRODUCTION
 Thus, signal-flow graphs have advantages over block diagrams, such as Figure 3.10(b):
 They can be drawn more quickly, they are more compact,
 And they emphasize the state variables.

Figure 3.10: a. Transfer function; b. equivalent block diagram showing phase variables.

2
 INTRODUCTION
 We will develop techniques to reduce each representation to a single transfer
function.
 Block diagram algebra will be used to reduce block diagrams and Mason’s rule to
reduce signal-flow graphs.
 Again, it must be emphasized that these methods are typically used as described.
 As we shall see, however, either method can be used for frequency-domain or state-
space analysis and design.

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 As you already know, a subsystem is represented as a block with an input, an output,
and a transfer function.
 Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems, as in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The space shuttle consists of multiple subsystems.

3
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a few more schematic elements must
be added to the block diagram.
 These new elements are summing junctions and pickoff points.
 All component parts of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system are shown
in Figure 5.2.
 The characteristic of the summing junction shown in Figure 5.2(c) is that the output
signal, ( ), is the algebraic sum of the input signals, ( ), ( ), and ( ).

Figure 5.2: Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 The figure shows three inputs, but any number can be present.
 A pickoff point, as shown in Figure 5.2(d), distributes the input signal, ( ),
undiminished, to several output points.
 We will now examine some common topologies for interconnecting subsystems and
derive the single transfer function representation for each of them.
 These common topologies will form the basis for reducing more complicated systems
to a single block.

Figure 5.2: Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system

4
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Cascade Form
 Figure 5.3(a) shows an example of cascaded subsystems.
 Intermediate signal values are shown at the output of each subsystem.
 Each signal is derived from the product of the input times the transfer function.
 The equivalent transfer function, ( ), shown in Figure 5.3(b), is the output Laplace
transform divided by the input Laplace transform from Figure 5.3(a), or

which is the product of the subsystems transfer functions.

Figure 5.3: a. Cascaded subsystems; b. equivalent transfer function

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Cascade Form

 Equation (5.1) was derived under the assumption that interconnected sub-systems do
not load adjacent subsystems.
 That is, a subsystem’s output remains the same whether or not the subsequent
subsystem is connected.
 If there is a change in the output, the subsequent subsystem loads the previous
subsystem, and the equivalent transfer function is not the product of the individual
transfer functions.

5
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Cascade Form
 The network of Figure 5.4(a) demonstrates this concept.
 Its transfer function is

 Similarly, the network of Figure 5.4(b) has the following transfer function:

Figure 5.4: Loading in cascaded systems

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Cascade Form
 If the networks are placed in cascade, as in Figure 5.4(c), you can verify that the transfer
function found using loop or node equation is

 But, using Eq. (5.1),

 Equations (5.4) and (5.5) are not the same: Eq. (5.4) has one more term for the
coefficient of in the denominator and is correct.

Figure 5.4: Loading in cascaded systems

6
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Cascade Form
 One way to prevent loading is to use an amplifier between the two networks, as shown
in Figure 5.4(d).
 The amplifier has a high-impedance input, so that it does not load the previous
network.
 At the same time it has a low-impedance output, so that it looks like a pure voltage
source to the subsequent network.
 With the amplifier included, the equivalent transfer function is the product of the
transfer functions and the gain, , of the amplifier.

Figure 5.4: Loading in cascaded systems

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Parallel Form
 Figure 5.5 shows an example of parallel subsystems. Again, by writing the output of
each subsystem, we can find the equivalent transfer function.
 Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the algebraic sum
of the outputs from all of the subsystems.
 The equivalent transfer function, ( ), is the output transform divided by the input
transform from Figure 5.5(a), or

which is the algebraic sum of the subsystems transfer functions; it appears in Figure 5.5(b).

Figure 5.5: a. Parallel sub-systems; b. equivalent transfer function

7
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Feedback Form
 The third topology is the feedback form. The feedback system forms the basis for our
study of control systems engineering.
 We defined open-loop and closed-loop systems and pointed out the advantage of
closed-loop, or feedback control, systems over open loop systems.
 As we move ahead, we will focus on the analysis and design of feedback systems.
 Let us derive the transfer function that represents the system from its input to its
output.
 The typical feedback system, shown in Figure 5.6(a); a simplified model is shown in
Figure 5.6(b).

Figure 5.6: a. Feedback control system; b. Simplified model

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Feedback Form
 Directing our attention to the simplified model,

 But since = ( ),

 Substituting Eq. (5.8) into Eq. (5.7) and solving for the transfer function,
( )⁄ = ( ), we obtain the equivalent, or closed-loop, transfer function
shown in Figure 5.6(c),

 The product ( ), in Eq. (5.9) is called the open-loop transfer function, or loop
gain.

Figure 5.6: c. Equivalent transfer function

8
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 So far, we have explored three different configurations for multiple subsystems.
 For each, we found the equivalent transfer function.
 Since these three forms are combined into complex arrangements in physical systems,
recognizing these topologies is a prerequisite to obtaining the equivalent transfer
function of a complex system.
 In the next section, we will reduce complex systems composed of multiple subsystems
to single transfer functions.

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms
 Before we begin to reduce block diagrams, it must be explained that the familiar forms
(cascade, parallel, and feedback) are not always apparent in a block diagram.
 For example, in the feedback form, if there is a pickoff point after the summing
junction, you cannot use the feedback formula to reduce the feedback system to a
single block.
 That signal disappears, and there is no place to reestablish the pickoff point.
 This subsection will discuss basic block moves that can be made to order to establish
familiar forms when they almost exist.
 In particular, it will explain how to move blocks left and right past summing junctions
and pickoff points.

9
Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 Figure 5.7 shows equivalent block diagrams formed when transfer functions are moved
left or right past a summing junction, and Figure 5.8 shows equivalent block diagrams
formed when transfer functions are moved left or right past a pickoff point. In the
diagrams the symbol ≡ means ‘‘equivalent to.’’
 These equivalences, can be used to reduce a block diagram to a single transfer
function.

Figure 5.7: Block diagram algebra for summing junctions-equivalent forms Figure 5.8: Block diagram algebra for pickoff points-equivalent forms for
for moving a block a. to the left past a summing junction; b. to the right past a moving a block a. to the left past a pickoff point; b. to the right past a pickoff
summing junction point

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms
 In each case of Figures 5.7 and 5.8, the equivalence can be verified by tracing the
signals at the input through to the output and recognizing that the output signals are
identical.
 For example, in Figure 5.7(a) signals ( ) and ( ) are multiplied by ( ) before
reaching the output.

Figure 5.7: Block diagram algebra for summing junctions-equivalent forms Figure 5.8: Block diagram algebra for pickoff points-equivalent forms for
for moving a block a. to the left past a summing junction; b. to the right past a moving a block a. to the left past a pickoff point; b. to the right past a pickoff
summing junction point

10
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms
 Hence, both block diagrams are equivalent, with = ( )∓ ( ).
 In Figure 5.7(b), ( ) is multiplied by ( ) before reaching the output, but ( ) is not.
 Hence, both block diagrams in Figure 5.7(b) are equivalent, with = ( )∓
( ). For pickoff points, similar reasoning yields similar results for the block diagrams
of Figure 5.8(a) and (b).

Figure 5.7: Block diagram algebra for summing junctions-equivalent forms Figure 5.8: Block diagram algebra for pickoff points-equivalent forms for
for moving a block a. to the left past a summing junction; b. to the right past a moving a block a. to the left past a pickoff point; b. to the right past a pickoff
summing junction point

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction via
Familiar Forms
Problem: Reduce the block
diagram shown in Figure 5.9 to a
single transfer function.
Solution: We solve the problem by
following the steps in Figure 5.10. Figure 5.9: Block diagram

First, the three summing junctions

can be collapsed into a single
summing junction, as shown in
Figure 5.10 (a).
Figure 5.10: Steps in solving Example 5.1: a. Collapse summing junctions; b. form
equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path; c. form equivalent feedback system and multiply by cascaded ( )

11
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction via
Familiar Forms
Problem: Reduce the block
diagram shown in Figure 5.9 to a
single transfer function.
Solution: Second, recognize that
the three feedback functions, Figure 5.9: Block diagram
, , and (s), are
connected in parallel.
They are fed from a common signal
source, and their outputs are
summed.
The equivalent function is −
+ ( ).
Figure 5.10: Steps in solving Example 5.1: a. Collapse summing junctions; b. form
equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path; c. form equivalent feedback system and multiply by cascaded ( )

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction via
Familiar Forms
Problem: Reduce the block
diagram shown in Figure 5.9 to a
single transfer function.
Solution: Also recognize that ( )
and are connected in Figure 5.9: Block diagram
cascade.

Thus, the equivalent transfer

function is the product,
( ) ( ). The results of these
steps are shown in Figure 5.10(b).

Figure 5.10: Steps in solving Example 5.1: a. Collapse summing junctions; b. form
equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path; c. form equivalent feedback system and multiply by cascaded ( )

12
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction via
Familiar Forms
Problem: Reduce the block
diagram shown in Figure 5.9 to a
single transfer function.
Solution: Finally, the feedback
system is reduced and multiplied Figure 5.9: Block diagram
by ( ) to yield the equivalent
transfer function shown in Figure
5.10(c).

Figure 5.10: Steps in solving Example 5.1: a. Collapse summing junctions; b. form
equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path; c. form equivalent feedback system and multiply by cascaded ( )

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Problem: Reduce the system shown in Figure
5.11 to a single transfer function.
Solution: In this example we make use of the
equivalent forms shown in Figures 5.7 and
5.8. Figure 5.11: Block diagram

First, move ( ) to the left past the pickoff

point to create parallel subsystems, and
reduce the feedback system consisting of
( ) and ( ). This result is shown in
Figure 5.12(a).

Figure 5.12: Steps in the block diagram reduction

13
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Problem: Reduce the system shown in Figure
5.11 to a single transfer function.
Solution: Second, reduce the parallel pair
consisting of 1⁄ ( ) and unity, and push
( ) to the right past the summing junction,
Figure 5.11: Block diagram
creating parallel subsystems in the feedback.
These results are shown in Figure 5.12(b).

Figure 5.12: Steps in the block diagram reduction

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Problem: Reduce the system shown in Figure
5.11 to a single transfer function.
Solution: Third, collapse the summing
junctions, add the two feedback elements
together, and combine the last two cascaded Figure 5.11: Block diagram
blocks. Figure 5.12(c) shows these result.

Figure 5.12: Steps in the block diagram reduction

14
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Blocks Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Problem: Reduce the system shown in Figure
5.11 to a single transfer function.
Solution: Fourth, use the feedback formula
to obtain Figure 5.12(d). Finally, multiply the
two cascaded blocks and obtain the final
result, shown in Figure 5.12(e). Figure 5.11: Block diagram

Figure 5.12: Steps in the block diagram reduction

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Problem: Find the equivalent transfer
function, = ( )⁄ ( ), for the system
shown in Figure 5.13.
Solution: Combine the parallel blocks in the
forward path. Then, push to left past the
pickoff point.
Figure 5.11: Block diagram

Combine the parallel feedback paths and get

2 . Then, apply the feedback formula,
simplify, and get,
+1
=
2 + +2

15
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
 An immediate application of the principles of previous block diagrams is the analysis
and design of feedback systems that reduce to second-order systems.
 Percent overshoot, settling time, peak time, and rise time can then be found from the
equivalent transfer function.
 Consider the system shown in Figure 5.14, which can model a control system such as
the antenna azimuth position control system.
 For example, the transfer function, ⁄ ( + ), can model the amplifiers, motor,
load, and gears.

Figure 5.14: Second-order feedback control system

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

 From Eq. (5.9), the closed-loop transfer function, ( ), for this system is

where models the amplifier gain, that is, the ratio of the output voltage to the input
voltage.
 As varies, the poles move through the three ranges of operation of a second-order
system: overdamped, critically damped, and underdamped.
 For example, for between 0 and ⁄4, the poles of the system are real and are
located at

Figure 5.14: Second-order feedback control system

16
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

 As increases, the poles move along the real axis, and the system remains
overdamped until = ⁄4.
 At that gain, or amplification, both poles are real and equal, and the system is critically
damped.
 For gains above ⁄4, the system is underdamped, with complex poles located at.

 Now as increases, the real part remains constant and the imaginary part increases.
 Thus, the peak time decreases and the percent overshoot increases, while the settling
time remain constant.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Finding Transient Response
Problem: For the system shown in Figure 5.15, find the peak time, percent overshoot, and
settling time.

Figure 5.15: Feedback system

Solution: The closed-loop transfer function found from Eq. (5.9) is

From Eq. (4.18),

From Eq. (4.21),
Substituting Eq. (5.14) into (5.15) and solving for yields

17
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Finding Transient Response
Problem: For the system shown in Figure 5.15, find the peak time, percent overshoot, and
settling time.

Figure 5.15: Feedback system

Solution: Using the values for and along with Eqs (4.34), (4.38), and (4.42), we find
respectively.

SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
 Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.
 Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks, signals, summing junctions, and pickoff
points, a signal-flow graph consists only of branches, which represent systems, and
nodes, which represent signals.
 These elements are shown in Figure 5.17(a) and (b), respectively.
 A system is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction of signal flow
through the system.
 Adjacent to the line we write the transfer function.
 A signal is a node with the signal’s name written adjacent to the node.

Figure 5.17: Signal-flow graph components: a. system; b. signal; c. interconnection of systems and signals

18
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
 Figure 5.17(c) shows the interconnection of the systems and the signals.
 Each signal is the sum of signals flowing into it.
 For example, the signal = − + .
 The signal
= = − ( ) ( ) ( )+ ( ) ( ) ( ).
 The signal
=− =− + − ( ) ( ) ( ).
 Notice that in summing negative signals we associate the negative sign with the system
and not with a summing junction, as in the case of block diagrams.

Figure 5.17: Signal-flow graph components: a. system; b. signal; c. interconnection of systems and signals

SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
 To show the parallel between block diagrams and signal-flow graphs, we will take some
of the block diagram forms and convert them to signal flow graphs.
 In each case, we will first convert the signals to nodes and then interconnect the nodes
with system branches.
 Furthermore, we will convert an intricate block diagram to a signal-flow graph.

19
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow Graphs
Problem: Convert the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms of the block diagrams shown
in Figures 5.3(a), 5.5(a), and 5.6(b), respectively, into signal-flow graphs.
Solution: In each case, we start by drawing the signal nodes for that system. Next we
interconnect the signal nodes with system branches.
The signal nodes for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms are shown in Figure
5.18(a), (c), and (e), respectively.
The interconnection of the nodes with branches that represent the subsystems is shown in
Figure 5.18(b), (d), and (f) for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms, respectively.

Figure 5.3: a. Cascaded subsystems

Figure 5.18: Building signal flow graphs; a. cascaded system nodes; b. cascaded system signal-flow graph

SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow Graphs
Problem: Convert the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms of the block diagrams shown
in Figures 5.3(a), 5.5(a), and 5.6(b), respectively, into signal-flow graphs.
Solution: In each case, we start by drawing the signal nodes for that system. Next we
interconnect the signal nodes with system branches.
The signal nodes for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms are shown in Figure
5.18(a), (c), and (e), respectively.
The interconnection of the nodes with branches that represent the subsystems is shown in
Figure 5.18(b), (d), and (f) for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms, respectively.

Figure 5.18: Building signal flow graphs; c. parallel system

Figure 5.5: a. Parallel sub-systems nodes; d. parallel system signal-flow graph

20
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow Graphs
Problem: Convert the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms of the block diagrams shown
in Figures 5.3(a), 5.5(a), and 5.6(b), respectively, into signal-flow graphs.
Solution: In each case, we start by drawing the signal nodes for that system. Next we
interconnect the signal nodes with system branches.
The signal nodes for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms are shown in Figure
5.18(a), (c), and (e), respectively.
The interconnection of the nodes with branches that represent the subsystems is shown in
Figure 5.18(b), (d), and (f) for the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms, respectively.

Figure 5.18: Building signal flow graphs; e. feedback system

Figure 5.6: a. Feedback control system nodes; f. feedback system signal-flow graph

SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
Converting Common Block Diagrams to
Signal-Flow Graphs
Problem: Convert the block diagram of
Figure 5.11 to a signal-flow graph.
Solution: Begin by drawing the signal nodes, Figure 5.11: Block diagram

as shown in Figure 5.19(a). Next,

interconnect the nodes, showing the
direction of signal flow and identifying each
transfer function. The result is shown in
Figure 5.19(b). Notice that the negative signs
at the summing junctions of the block
diagram are represented by the negative
transfer functions of the signal-flow graph.

Figure 5.19: Signal-flow graph development: a. signal nodes; b.

signal-flow graph

21
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS
Converting Common Block Diagrams to
Signal-Flow Graphs
Problem: Convert the block diagram of
Figure 5.11 to a signal-flow graph.
Solution: Finally, if desired, simplify the Figure 5.11: Block diagram

signal-flow graph to the one shown in Figure

5.19(c) by eliminating signals that have a
single flow in and a single flow out, such as
( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ).

Figure 5.19: Signal-flow graph development: c. simplified signal-

flow graph

MASON’S RULE
 We discussed how to reduce block diagrams to single transfer functions.
 Now we are ready to discuss a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to single
transfer functions that relate the output of a system to its input.
 The block diagram reduction technique we discussed before requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer
function.
 On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer
function requires the application of one formula.
 The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow graph to the
simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.
 In general, it can be complicated to implement the formula without making mistakes.
 Specifically, the existence of what we will later call nontouching loops increases the
complexity of the formula.
 However, many systems do not have nontouching loops.
 For these systems, we may find Mason’s rule easier to use than block diagram
reduction.

22
 MASON’S RULE
 Mason’s formula has several components that must be evaluated.
 First, we must be sure that the definitions of the components are well understood.
 Then we must exert care in evaluating the components. To that end, we discuss some
basic definitions applicable to signal-flow graphs; then we state Mason’s rule and do an
example.
Definitions
 Loop Gain. The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that starts at a node
and ends at the same node, following the direction of the signal flow, without passing
through any other node more than once.
 For examples of loop gains, see Figure 5.20. There are four loop gains:

Figure 5.20: Signal-flow graph for demonstrating Mason’s rule

MASON’S RULE
Definitions
 Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by traversing a path from the input
node to the output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal flow.
 Examples of forward-path gains are also shown in Figure 5.20. There are two forward-
path gains:

 Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in common. In Figure 5.20, loop
( ) ( ) does not touch loops ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , and
( ) ( ) ( ).

Figure 5.20: Signal-flow graph for demonstrating Mason’s rule

23
 MASON’S RULE
Definitions
 Nontouching-loop gain. The product of loop gains from nontouching loops taken two,
three, four, or more at a time. In Figure 5.20 the product of loop gain ( ) ( ) and
loop gain ( ) ( ) is a nontouching-loop gain taken two at a time. In summary, all
three of the following of the nontouching-loop gains taken two at a time are

 The product of loop gains ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) is not a nontouching-

loop gain since these two loops have nodes in common. In our example there are no
nontouching-loop gains taken three at a time since three nontouching loops do not
exist in the example.

Figure 5.20: Signal-flow graph for demonstrating Mason’s rule

MASON’S RULE
We are now ready to state Mason’s rule
 Mason’s Rule
 The transfer function, ( )⁄ ( ), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is

where
= number of forward paths
= the th forward-path gain
Δ = 1 − Σ loop gains +Σ nontouchnig-loop gains taken two at a time −Σ nontouching-
loop gains taken three at a time +Σ nontouching-loop gains taken four at a time.
Δ = Δ − Σ loop gain terms in Δ that touch the th forward path. In other words, Δ is
formed by eliminating from Δ those loop gains that touch the th forward path.
 Notice the alternating signs for the components of Δ.

24
 MASON’S RULE
Transfer Function via Mason’s Rule
Problem: Find the transfer function, ( )⁄ ( ), for
the signal-flow graph in Figure 5.21.

Solution: First, identify the forward-path gains. In this

example there is only one:
Figure 5.21: Signal-flow graph

Second, identify the loop gains. There are four, as

follows:

MASON’S RULE
Transfer Function via Mason’s Rule
Problem: Find the transfer function, ( )⁄ ( ), for
the signal-flow graph in Figure 5.21.
Solution: Third, identify the nontouching loops taken
two at a time. From Eqs. (5.30) and Figure 5.21, we can
see that loop 1 does not touch loop 2, loop 1 does not
touch loop 3, and loop 2 does not touch loop 3. Figure 5.21: Signal-flow graph

Notice that loops 1,2 and 3 all touch loop 4. Thus, the
combinations of nontouching loops taken two at a time
are as follows:

Finally, the nontouching loops taken three at a time are

as follows:

25
 MASON’S RULE
Transfer Function via Mason’s Rule
Problem: Find the transfer function, ( )⁄ ( ), for
the signal-flow graph in Figure 5.21.
Solution: Now, from Eq. (5.28) and its definitions, we
form and . Hence,
Figure 5.21: Signal-flow graph

We form Δ by eliminating from Δ the loop gains that

touch the th forward path:

MASON’S RULE
Transfer Function via Mason’s Rule
Problem: Find the transfer function, ( )⁄ ( ), for
the signal-flow graph in Figure 5.21.
Solution: Expressions (5.29), (5.33), and (5.34) are now
substituted into Eq. (5.28), yielding the transfer
function:
Figure 5.21: Signal-flow graph

Since there is only one forward path, ( ) consists of

only one term, rather than a sum of terms, each
coming from a forward path.

26
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS OF STATE EQUATIONS
 Now we draw signal-flow graphs from state equations.
 At first this process will help us visualize state variables.
 Later we will draw signal-flow graphs and then write alternate representations of a
system in state space.
 Consider the following state and output equations:

 First, identify three nodes to be the three state variables, , , and ; also identify
three nodes, placed to the left of each respective state variable, to be the derivatives of
the state variables, as in Figure 5.22(a).
 Also identify a node as the input, , and another node as the output, .

Figure 5.22: Stages of development of a signal-flow graph for the system of Eqs. (5.36) a. Place nodes

SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS OF STATE EQUATIONS

 Next interconnect the state variables and their derivatives with the defining
integration, 1⁄ , as shown in Figure 5.22(b).
 Then using Eqs. (5.36), feed to each node the indicated signals.
 For example, from Eq. (5.36a), ̇ receives 2 −5 +3 + 2 , as shown in Figure
5.22(c).

Figure 5.22: Stages of development of a signal-flow graph for the system of Eqs.
(5.36) b. interconnect state variables and derivatives; c. form ⁄

27
 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS OF STATE EQUATIONS
 Similarly, ̇ receives −6 − 2 + 2 + 5 , as shown in Figure 5.22(d), and ̇
receives − 3 − 4 + 7 as shown in Figure 5.22(e).
 Finally, using Eq. (5.36d), the output, , receives −4+ 6 + 9 , as shown in Figure
5.19(f), the final phase-variable representation, where the state variables are the
outputs of the integrators.

Figure 5.22: Stages of development of a signal-flow graph for the

system of Eqs. (5.36) d. from ⁄ ; e. from ⁄ ; f. form output

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 In previous lecture, systems were represented in state space in phase-variable form.
 However, system modeling in state space can take on many representations other than
the phase-variable form.
 Although each of these models yields the same output for a given input, an engineer
may prefer a particular one for several reasons.
 For example, one set of state variables, with its unique representation, can model
actual physical variables of a system, such as amplifier and filter outputs.
 Another motive for choosing a particular set of state variables and state-space model is
ease of solution.
 As we will see, a particular choice of state variables can decouple the system of
simultaneous differential equations.
 Here each equation is written in terms of only one state variable, and the solution is
effected by solving first-order differential equations individually.

28
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
 Ease of modeling is another reason for a particular choice of state variables.
 Certain choices may facilitate converting the subsystem to the state-variable
representation by using recognizable features of the model.
 The engineer learns quickly how to write the state and output equations and draw the
signal-flow graph, both by inspection.
 These converted subsystems generate the definition of the state variables.

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 We will now look at a few representative forms and show how to generate the state-
space representation for each.
Cascade Form
 We have seen that systems can be represented in state space with the state variables
chosen to be the phase variables, that is, variables that are successive derivatives of
each other. This is by no means the only choice.
 Returning to the system of Figure 3.10(a), the transfer function can be represented
alternately as

 Figure 5.23 shows a block diagram representation of this system formed by cascading
each term of Eq. (5.37).
 The output of each first-order system block has been labeled as a state variable. These
state variables are not the phase variables.

Figure 5.23: Representation of Figure 3.10 system as cascaded first-order systems

29
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
 We now show how the signal-flow graph can be used to obtain a state-space
representation of this system.
 In order to write the state equations with our new set of state variables, it is helpful to
draw a signal-flow graph first, using Figure 5.23 as a guide.
 The signal flow for each first-order system of Figure 5.23 can be found by transforming
each block into an equivalent differential equation.
 Each first-order block is of the form

 Cross-multiplying, we get

 After taking, the inverse Laplace transform, we have

Figure 5.23: Representation of Figure 3.10 system as cascaded first-order systems

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 Solving for ( )⁄ yields

 Figure 5.24(a) shows the implementation of Eq. (5.41) as a signal-flow graph.

 Here again, a node was assumed for ( ) at the output of an integrator, and its
derivative was formed at the input.

Figure 5.23: Representation of Figure 3.10 system as cascaded first-order systems

Figure 5.24: a. First-order subsystem; b. Signal-flow graph for Figure 5.23 system

30
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
 Cascading the transfer functions shown in Figure 5.24(a), we arrive at the system
representation shown in Figure 5.24(b). Now write the state equations for the new
representation of they system. Remember that the derivate of a state variable will be at
the input to each integrator:

Figure 5.23: Representation of Figure 3.10 system as cascaded first-order systems

Figure 5.24: a. First-order subsystem; b. Signal-flow graph for Figure 5.23 system

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 The output equation is written by inspection from Figure 5.24(b):

 The state-space representation is completed by rewriting Eqs. (5.42) and (5.43) in

vector-matrix form:

 Comparing Eqs. (5.44) with Figure 5.24(b), you can form a vivid picture of the meaning
of some of the components of the state equation.

Figure 5.24: a. First-order subsystem; b. Signal-flow graph for Figure 5.23 system

31
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 For the following discussion, refer back to the general form of the state and output
equations, Eqs. (3.18) and (3.19).
 For example, the matrix is the input matrix since it contains the terms that couple the
input, ( ), to the system.
 In particular, the constant 24 appears in both the signal-flow graph at the input, as
shown in Figure 5.24(b), and the input matrix in Eqs. (5.44).
 The matrix is the output matrix since it contains the constant that couples the state
variable, , to the output, ( ).

Figure 5.24: a. First-order subsystem; b. Signal-flow graph for Figure 5.23 system

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

 Finally, the matrix is the system matrix since it contains the terms relative to the
internal system itself.
 In the form of Eqs. (5.44), the system matrix actually contains the system poles along
the diagonal.
 Compare Eqs. (5.44) to the phase-variable representation in Eqs. (3.59).

 In that representation, the coefficients of the system’s characteristic polynomial

appeared along the last row, whereas in our current representation, the roots of the
characteristic equation, the system poles, appear along the diagonal.

32
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Parallel Form
 Another form that can be used to represent a system is the parallel form.
 This form leads to an matrix that is purely diagonal, provided that no system pole is a
repeated root of the characteristic equation.
 Whereas the previous form was arrived at by cascading the individual first order
subsystems, the parallel form is derived from a partial-fraction expansion of the system
transfer function.
 Performing a partial-fraction expansion on our example system, we get

 Equation (5.45) represents the sum of the individual first-order subsystems.

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

Parallel Form
 To arrive at a signal-flow graph, first solve for ( ),

and recognize that ( ) is the sum of three terms.

 Each term is a first-order subsystem with ( ) as the input.
 Formulating this idea as a signal-flow graph renders the representation shown in Figure
5.25.

Figure 5.25: Signal-flow representation

33
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Parallel Form
 Once again, we use the signal-flow graph as an aid to obtaining the state equations.
 By inspection the state variables are the outputs of each integrator, where the
derivatives of the state variables exist at the integrator inputs.
 We write the state equations by summing the signals at the integrator inputs:

Figure 5.25: Signal-flow representation

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

Parallel Form
 The output equation is found by summing the signals that give ( ):

 In vector-matrix form, Eqs. (5.47) and (5.48) become

and
 Thus, our third representation of the system of Figure 3.10(a) yields a diagonal system
matrix.
 What is the advantage of this representation? Each equation is a first order differential
first-order differential equation is only one variable.
 Thus, we would solve these equations independently. The equations are said to be
decoupled.

Figure 3.10: Transfer function

34
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Controller Canonical Form
 Another representation that uses phase variables is called the controller canonical
form, so named for its use in the design of controllers.
 This form is obtained from the phase-variable form simply by ordering the phase
variables in the reverse order. For example, consider the transfer function

 The phase-variable form was derived in Example 3.5 as

Where = ( )

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

Controller Canonical Form
 Renumbering the phase variables in reverse order yields

 Finally, rearranging Eqs. (5.57) in ascending numerical order yields the controller
canonical form as

35
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Controller Canonical Form
 Figure 5.27 shows the steps we have taken on a signal-flow graph.
 Notice that the controller canonical form is obtained simply by renumbering the phase
variables in the opposite order.
 Equations (5.56) can be obtained from Figure 5.27(a), and Eqs. (5.58) from Figure
5.27(b).

Figure 5.27 Signal-flow graphs for obtaining forms for = ( )⁄ ( ) =

( +7 + 2)⁄ + 9 + 26 + 24): a. phase-variable form; b. controller canonical form

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

Observer Canonical Form
 The observer canonical form, so named for its use in the design of observer is a
representation that yields a left companion system matrix.
 As an example, the system modeled by Eq. (5.55) will be represented in this form.

 Begin by dividing all terms in the numerator and denominator by the highest power of
, , and obtain

 Cross-multiplying yields

 Combining terms of like powers of integration gives

36
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Observer Canonical Form

or

 Equation (5.61) or (5.62) can be used to draw the signal-flow graph. Start with three
integrations, as shown in Figure 5.28 (a).
 Using Eq. (5.61), the first term tells us that output ( ) is formed, in part, by integrating
−9 ( ) .
 We thus form − 9 ( ) at the input to the integrator closest to the output, ( ),
as shown in Figure 5.28 (b).

Figure 5.28 Signal-flow graphs for observer canonical form variables: a. planning; b. implementation

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE

Observer Canonical Form

or
 The second term tells us that the term 7 − 26 ( ) must be integrated twice.
 Now form 7 − 26 ( ) at the input to the second integrator.
 Finally, the last term of Eq. (5.61) says 2 − 24 ( ) must be integrated three
times.
 Form [2 − 24 ] at the input to the first integrator..

Figure 5.28 Signal-flow graphs for observer canonical form variables: a. planning; b. implementation

37
 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION IN STATE SPACE
Observer Canonical Form
 Identifying the state variables as the outputs of the integrators, we write the following
state equations:

 The output equation from Figure 5.28(b) is

 In vector-matrix form, Eqs. (5.63) and (5.64) becomes

38