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Logical Fallacies2-1

Logical fallacies are common in persuasive writing and speaking. Some fallacies include: - False or doubtful cause, which gives simplistic cause-and-effect relationships for complex issues. - Ad hominem, which focuses on a person's character rather than the issue. - Appeal to emotion, which exploits audience feelings rather than reason. - Begging the question, which assumes a premise without evidence. - Hasty generalization, making conclusions from little or biased evidence. Learning to identify these fallacies helps detect false or deceptive claims.

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52 views3 pages

Logical Fallacies2-1

Logical fallacies are common in persuasive writing and speaking. Some fallacies include: - False or doubtful cause, which gives simplistic cause-and-effect relationships for complex issues. - Ad hominem, which focuses on a person's character rather than the issue. - Appeal to emotion, which exploits audience feelings rather than reason. - Begging the question, which assumes a premise without evidence. - Hasty generalization, making conclusions from little or biased evidence. Learning to identify these fallacies helps detect false or deceptive claims.

Uploaded by

kyte walker
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Logical fallacies

Below is a list and brief description of logical fallacies commonly found in persuasive or argumentative writing
and speaking. Such fallacies were first described by ancient Greek and Roman writers (especially orators and
rhetoric teachers), so some of them have Latin names. Such rhetorical techniques have been used throughout
history by orators, scholars, and common people alike. Today they are often used in advertising, politics,
and any form of persuasive speaking or writing. Learn to watch out for use of these fallacies. Unfortunately,
these are used by all kinds of people, no matter what is their educational level, social status, political affiliation,
etc. Use this knowledge for what Carl Sagan calls “baloney detection” – detecting false, nonsensical, or
deceptive claims.

ERRORS OF CAUSALITY

false or doubtful cause (post hoc fallacy; post hoc, ergo propter hoc; after this; therefore, because of this)
Simplistic cause-and-effect relationships are given for complex problems or issues; two events are given as
cause-and-effect, when the relationship may be much more complicated or non-existent.

EXAMPLE: Poverty causes crime. (It’s a factor, but not the cause.)
EXAMPLE: The welfare system is causing a breakdown in American families.

In the 50's, for example, after some nuclear bomb tests, the US was hit by a severe winter; some claimed that the
bomb tests were responsible, even though meteorologists showed that the weather was caused by a
predictable shift in the Gulf Stream.

Politicians rely heavily on false cause, e.g., by priding themselves on economic achievements that happened while
they were in office, or by blaming incumbents for economic problems that happened during their time in office.

One might claim that eating ice cream causes drowning! In the summer, there are more cases of drowning, and
people eat more ice cream. Of course, the real cause is the summer heat, for which people eat ice cream, and for
which people go swimming more, hence the increase in drowning. Hence, no correlation exists between ice
cream and drowning; ice cream does not cause drowning. The causal relationship is much more complex.

ad hominem (argument to the or against the person)

Such an argument focuses on an individual’s personal life or character and ignores real issues; it is common in
political campaigning and advertising.

EXAMPLE: We shouldn’t adopt the proposed health care plan, because its advocates are simply a bunch
of scheming socialists.

ad populum (argumentum ad populum, argument to the people)

This is an emotional appeal to common values or deep biases of the masses; it is similar to ad hominem,
and likewise is common in politics and advertising.

EXAMPLE: This fine, patriotic, church-going American deserves your vote.


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Variations of this common in advertising and politics are:
a) snob appeal: advertisements that appeal to desire for status and wealth
b) bandwagon: “Are you the only one on your block who doesn’t have a box of Super Choco-Bombs cereal?”
c) flattery: “You are obviously a very intelligent person, so can I get you to take a look at our encyclopedia?”
d) guilty by association: “This man is a communist, because he associates with other known communists
argument from false authority

faulty appeal to authority (ad vericundium or appeal to celebrity)


We should accept someone’s claim or argument simply because of his or her authority in a field or if the
person is well respected person.

EXAMPLE: Michael Jordan uses this product, so you should too.


EXAMPLE: You should believe this theory because this famous scientist says it’s true.
EXAMPLE: My dentist says she’s voting for the conservative candidate, so I will too.

appeal to emotion
Exploiting the audience’s feelings to convert them to a particular viewpoint. Appeals to fear, flattery, ridicule,
pity, or spite are among the most common forms this fallacy takes. In some circumstances, appealing to
emotion may be appropriate, but writers should avoid appeals to emotion when reason and logic are expected
or needed.

EXAMPLE: I’m sure someone with your vast experience can see that plan B is better. (Appeal to flattery)

begging the question (loaded assertion, circular reasoning/argument)


A writer “begs the question” by assuming a premise to the argument to be already proved or disproved
without providing evidence for this assumption — a sort of circular reasoning.

EXAMPLE: Since evolution is simply a theory, and has never been observably proven, public schools should
teach any other theory of origins alongside evolution.
EXAMPLE: Are you going to listen to this liar, or impeach him like you should?!
(His reputation as a liar here is asserted, not proven.)

either/or fallacy (black/white fallacy, false dilemma fallacy)


Writers and speakers often try to force their audience to choose between two conflicting alternatives by
suggesting that no other options or middle ground exist — an unfair oversimplification of options.

EXAMPLE: America — love it or leave it!


EXAMPLE: Those who reject socialism are merely neo-fascists.
EXAMPLE: If you don’t like our capitalist system, you’re some kind of communist!”

non-sequitur (“it doesn’t follow”)


One point or argument does not follow logically from the preceding one, i.e., no logical relationship exists
between two or more supposedly connected ideas.

EXAMPLE: He has my vote for senator, because he has the best run campaign.
(What does a campaign organization have to do with qualifications?)

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ERRORS OF EVIDENCE

hasty generalization

This is a conclusion based on too little evidence or unrepresentative evidence.


EXAMPLE: If the team is losing, the coach should be fired.
EXAMPLE: He always screws up important projects. (“always” may not be true — just sometimes)

COMPLEX FALLACIES AND OTHER FALLACIES

slippery slope
One creates an irrational fear that by accepting a valid argument you will be drawn in turn toward similar, but
less valid ones, until you are persuaded to accept completely unacceptable arguments. In other words, if you
accept one argument, this automatically leads to accepting more serious claims.

EXAMPLE: If you accept a nationalized health care system, you’ll be on the road toward socialism, and
then communism.

false analogy
The writer draws a comparison between two essentially unlike things, based on too few similarities. Just
because they are alike in a few respects, they must supposedly be similar in other respects as well.

Analogies can only illustrate a point, not prove it.

EXAMPLE: Non-human primates care for their young and protect their weak members. Why then must
contemporary humans go excessively beyond this, with their Social Security, child care, welfare, national health
care, etc., to protect every conceivable class of weak or infirm?

(To be consistent, one must ask why we speak to each other when apes do not.)

strawman argument
One argues against a theory or idea not by objectively criticizing the idea, but by attacking a misrepresentation
of it. An incorrect and distorted representation of the idea is set up, like a fake strawman, and attacked.

EXAMPLE: Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I
can’t understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that.

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