Manufacturing Process

(ME 3803)

Dr. Swarnambuj Suman

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna, Patna

Manufacturing Processes 1
 MODULE 4

Powder Metallurgy
Introduction
• Powder metallurgy may defined as, “the art and science of producing metal powders and utilizing them to make
serviceable objects.”
• Powder metallurgy is the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into
a desired shape, and then heated to bond surfaces
What is a powder?
• A powder can be defined as a finely divided solid whose maximum dimension is less than 1 millimeter.
• It should have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio, the powder particles exhibit behavior that is
intermediate between that of solid and liquid.
• For example, powders flow under gravity to fill containers or die cavities and in this case they behave like liquids
because they are flowing and they can go to different places inside the mold.
• So, like how a liquid flow the powder particles can also flow and that is why it is said that their (powder)
characteristics is in between that are solid and liquid.
• Powders are compressible like a gas and compression of a metal powder is irreversible that is once powder is
compressed one cannot get back back the powder to the initial condition.
Introduction
• Outline of Powder Metallurgy Process
Steps in Powder Metallurgy
• Steps in powder metallurgy
Production of Metallic Powders
Production of metallic powders
There are a number of processes used for the manufacture of metal/alloy powders:
-Solid state reduction
-Atomization
-Electrolysis

1) Solid state reduction:

• This process is generally used for producing iron powder.
• In this process, the selected metal/alloy is crushed, mixed with carbon and passed through a continuous furnace where a
reaction takes place, which leaves a cake of sponge metal.
• This sponge metal is then crushed after separating from all non-metallic material.
• Then it is sieved to produce powder.
Production of Metallic Powders
2) Atomization:
• Atomization breaks molten metal into small droplets by rapidly freezing them before the droplets come into
contact with each other or with a solid surface.
• The atomization is achieved by bringing the thin molten metal stream in contact with the impact of high energy
jets of gas or liquid.
• Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly used gases and water is the most widely used liquid.
• In atomization, the particle shape is determined largely by the rate of solidification and varies from spherical, if
a low-heat-capacity gas is employed, to highly irregular if water is used.
• By varying the design and configurations of the jets, pressure and volume of the atomization fluid, thickness of
the stream of metal etc., it is possible to control the particle size distribution over a wide range.
• This technique is applicable to all metals that can be melted and is used commercially for production of iron,
copper, alloy steels, brass, bronze, aluminum, tin, lead, zinc and cadmium.
• It can also be used in selected instances for high melting-point materials such tungsten, titanium and rhenium.
Another variation of the gas atomization process.
Production of Metallic Powders
Types of atomization
Atomization of molten metal can be done in different ways depending upon the factors like economy and required
powder characteristics. At present, water or gas atomizing medium can be used to disintegrate a molten metal
stream. The various types of atomization techniques used are,
Water atomization:
High pressure water jets are used to bring about the disintegration of molten metal stream. Water jets are used
mainly because of their higher viscosity and quenching ability. This is an inexpensive process and can be used for
small or large scale production. But water should not chemically react with metals or alloys used.
Gas atomization:
Here instead of water, high velocity argon, nitrogen and helium gas jets are used. The molten metal is
disintegrated and collected as atomized powder in a water bath. Fluidized bed cooling is used when certain
powder characteristics are required.
Vacuum atomization:
In this method, when a molten metal supersaturated with a gas under pressure is suddenly exposed into vacuum,
the gas coming from metal solution expands, causing atomization of the metal stream. This process gives very
high purity powder. Usually hydrogen is used as gas. Hydrogen and argon mixture can also be used.
Production of Metallic Powders
Production of Metallic Powders
Rotating disk method:
• Molten metal falls on to a disk that is rotating at high speeds.
• The liquid metal that is impinging on the disk will be thrown out rapidly into small droplets by the disk, which are
solidified and collected in the collection chamber.
Rotating consumable electrode method:
• Here the metal is melted by the arc between the rotating consumable electrode and the stationary electrode.
Since the electrode is rotating, the molten metal is atomized by centrifugal force and collected in the chamber in
which inert gas is filled.
3) Electrolysis:
• The desired metal is made as anode in an electrolytic cell, such that it is dissolved by the electrolyte in the cell
and then transported and deposited on the cathode in a spongy or powdery form.
• The deposit is removed, washed and dried to get the metal powder.
• Copper is the primary metal produced by electrolysis but iron, chromium and magnesium powders are also
using this process.
Mixing and Blending
Mixing and blending:
• To achieve the required properties a number of different powders with the requisite properties are mixed
to achieve the necessary balance of the properties.
• The lubricating materials are also added to the metallic mixtures.
• Blending refers to the mixing of the same metal or alloy powders of different size distributions to reduce
the porosity levels in the P/M product.
• The main function of the lubricant is to reduce the friction between the powder and the die walls, core
rods etc., where the powder slides during the compaction process.
• This ensures the desired uniformity of density from top to bottom of the contact.
• The lubricant will also help in reducing the friction for easy ejection of the compact and minimizes the
tendency to form cracks.
• Popular lubricants are stearic acid, stearin metallic stearates, zinc stearate and organic compounds of a
waxy nature.
• Blending and mixing is normally done by using mechanical processes.
• Except for powders, some other ingredients are usually added:
• Lubricants: to reduce the particles-die friction
• Binders: to achieve enough strength before sintering
• Deflocculants: to improve the flow characteristics during feeding.
Mixing and Blending
Mixing and Blending
Depending on the extent of mixing, mixing can be classified as
(i) Perfectly mixed or uniform mixing,
(ii) Random mixed
(iii) Totally un-mixed.
The mixing should be stopped when random mixture is achieved.
Overmixing leads to reduced flow characteristics of the mix.
Compaction of Metal Powders
• Compaction is an important step in powder processing as it enables the forming of loose metal powders into
required shapes with sufficient strength to withstand till sintering is completed.
• In general, compaction is done without the application of heat.
• Loose powders are converted into required shape with sufficient strength to withstand ejection from the tools
and subsequent sintering process.
• In cases like cemented carbide, hot compaction is done followed by sintering. One can not call this as
compaction strictly, as sintering is also involved in this.
• Powder compaction methods
Powder compaction techniques can be classified as,
1. Methods without application of pressure –
• Loose powder sintering in mould
• Slip casting
• Slurry Casting
• Vibration Compaction
2. Methods with applied pressure –
• Die compaction
• Isostatic pressing,
• Powder rolling,
Compaction of Metal Powders
Methods Without Application Of Pressure
1. Loose powder sintering
• Also known as loose powder shaping, gravity sintering, pressure less sintering.
• In this method, the metal powder is vibrated mechanically into the mould, which is the negative impression of the
product and heated to sintering temperature.
• This is the simplest method and involve low cost equipment.
• The main reasons for not using this method for part production are, difficulty of part removal from the mould after
sintering, & considerable shrinkage during sintering.
• Applications:
• Amount of porosity ranges from 40 vol% to as high as 90 vol%;
• Highly porous filter materials made of bronze, stainless steel, and monel, porous nickel membrane for use as electrodes in
alkaline storage batteries and fuel cells are typical examples.

2. Slip casting:
• Used for compacting metal and ceramic powders to make large & complex shapes for limited production runs
• A slip is a suspension of metal or ceramic powder (finer than 5 μm) in water or other soluble liquid which is pored
into a mould, dried and further sintered.
Compaction of Metal Powders
• Slip is usually made of,
• a dispersion agent to stabilize the powder against colloidal forces
• a solvent to control the slip viscosity and facilitate casting,
• a binder for giving green strength to the cast shape,
• plasticizer to modify the properties of the binder
• Steps in slip casting:
i) Preparing assembled plaster mould,
ii) Filling the mould,
iii) Absorption of water from the slip into the porous mould
iv) Removal of part from the mould,
v) Trimming of finished parts from the mould
Compaction of Metal Powders
• Sometimes mould release agents like oil, graphite can be used.
• Hollow and multiple parts can be produced
• For successful slip casting, formation of appropriate and a consistent slip is important.
• This is achieved by proper control of particle size, size distribution, order of component addition, their mixing time,
addition of proper deflocculant (to prevent the settling and aggregation of powders and maintains the desirable
viscosity of the slip)
• Mostly water is used as suspending medium, also other organic liquids may also be employed.
• Additives like alginates – ammonium and sodium salts of alginic acids, serve three fold functions of deflocculant,
suspension agent & binding agent to improve green strength of the compact.
• The slip to be cast is obtained in a form of suspension of powder in a suspending medium.
• The slip should have low viscosity & low rate of setting so that it can be readily poured.
• The slip cast should be readily removable from the mould.
• Low shrinkage and high strength after drying is expected.
Compaction of Metal Powders
3. Slurry casting:
• This process is similar to slip casting except that a slurry of metal powders with suitable liquids, various additives,
and binders is poured into a mould and dried.
• The solvent is removed either by absorption into the POP or by evaporation.
• Very high porous sheet for use as electrodes in fuel cells and nickel cadmium rechargeable batteries are
produced by this method.
4. Vibratory compaction:
• Vibratory compaction uses vibration energy to compact the powder mass.
• During this process, smaller voids can be filled with particles of still smaller size and this sequence is carried out
till a high packing density of powder is achieved even before consolidation.
• Mechanical vibration facilitates the formation of nearly closed packed powder by settling particles in the voids
present in the powder agglomerate.
• During vibration, small pneumatic pressure is usually superimposed on the powder mass.
• Brittle powders can be compacted by this method as they develop crack if done by pressure compaction
• This method is generally used when,
- 1) powders have irregular shape,
- 2) use of plasticizers for forming is not desirable,
- 3) sintered density is required to be very close theoretical density
Compaction of Metal Powders
Pressure compaction techniques
• These techniques involve application of external pressure to compact the loose powder particles.
• Pressure applied can be unidirectional, bidirectional or hydrostatic in nature.
Die compaction:
• In this process, loose powder is shaped in a die using a mechanical or hydraulic press giving rise to
densification.
• The mechanisms of densification depend on the material and structural characteristics of powder
particles.
• Unidirectional and bidirectional compaction involves same number of stages and are described in
given figure.
They are,
i) charging the powder mix,
ii) applying load using a punch (uni-) or double punch (bi-) to compact powders,
iii) removal of load by retracting the punch,
iv) ejection of green compact.
Compaction of Metal Powders
• Stages in Die Compaction Method
Compaction of Metal Powders
Effect of powder characteristics
For a good compaction:
1) Irregular shaped particles are preferred as they give better interlocking and hence high green strength,
2) Apparent density of powders decides the die fill during compaction. Hence powder size, shape & density affect the apparent density,
3) Flow rate affects the die fill time, and once again powder size, shape & density affect the flow rate.
Powder behavior during compaction
Compaction involves:
• flow of powder particles past one another interacting with each other and with die-punch
• deformation of particles.
In the case of homogeneous compaction, two stages are observed.
❑ First stage => rapid densification occurs when pressure is applied due to particle movement and rearrangement resulting in improved
packing
❑ Second stage => increase in applied pressure leads to elastic and plastic deformation resulting in locking and cold welding of particles.
In the second stage, large increments in pressures are seen to effect a small increase in density.
Compaction of Metal Powders
• Compaction can be done at low and high temperatures.
• Room temperature compaction employs pressures in the range of 100-700 MPa and produce density in the range of 60- 90%
of the theoretical density.
• At higher temperatures, pressures are kept low within the limits for preventing die damage.
• In single die compaction, powders close to the punch and die walls experience much better force than in center. This results
in green density variation across the sample length.
• Longer the sample more the density difference. This non-uniformity can result in non-uniformity in properties of sintered part.
• This density variation and hence final property variation can be greatly reduced by having double ended die compaction.
• In this case, powder experiences more uniform pressure from both top and bottom, resulting in minimization of density
variation.
• But this variation will still be considerable if the components have high aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio).
• This means that long rods and tubes cannot be produced by die compaction.
• In this case, isostatic pressing can be used.
Compaction of Metal Powders
Die compaction lubricants
• It is known that presence of frictional forces limits the degree of densification.
• Usage of lubricants either mixed or applied to contact surfaces can be done to minimize friction
• Lubricants Used=> organic compounds such as waxes or metallic stearates or salts and they generally have low
boiling points
• Amount of lubricant added can be 0.5 to 2 % by weight of charge
Types of Lubrication
Mixed lubrication
• Reduce the interparticle friction and aid better packing.
• But they may affect the densification property depending on their volume and density.
• The mixed lubricants should be removed before sintering to avoid distortion of compact.
Die wall lubrication
• Graphite & MoS2 can be applied physically on the die, punch surfaces
• They can be easily removed, but takes longer production times.
• Commonly used lubricants in P/M => Paraffin wax, Aluminium stearate, Lithium stearate, Zinc stearate,
Magnesium stearate, stearic acid, Oleic acid, Talc, Graphite, boron nitride etc.
Compaction of Metal Powders
Isostatic Compaction
• It is a compaction process in which isostatic fluid pressure is applied to a powder mass at room temperature to
compact it into desired shape.
• The powder parts can be compacted up to 80-90 % of their theoretical densities.
• Water or oil can be used as pressuring medium.
• Process details:
• High density near-net shape green parts, long thin walled cylinders, parts with undercuts can be readily
fabricated.
• In this process, pressure is applied simultaneously and equally in all directions using a fluid to an elastomeric
fluid with powder at room temperature.
• Sintered compact component can reach up to 97 % of theoretical density.
• Steps in this process are shown in flowchart.
Compaction of Metal Powders
• During pressing, high density is achieved at a low pressure, while
the green strength of the compact rises linearly with pressure.
• The pressure applied can range from 100- 400 MPa.
• Initially the applied stress (exactly shear stress) serves to improve
the density of the compact by particle sliding and rotation.
• In the next stage, deformation of powder particles occur and particle
characteristics like shape play vital role in deciding this stage.
• Irregular particles which interlock with one another and also deform
during both the stages, tend to densify much easily than spherical
powders.
• In the case of spherical powders, in spite of their higher initial
packing densities, particles do not mechanically interlock with one
another and hence do not easily deform.
• Hence high pressures are required for their compaction.
Compaction of Metal Powders
Powder rolling
• This process involves feeding of powders between rolls to produce a coherent
and brittle green strip.
• This green strip is then sintered & re-rolled to obtain a dense, finished product.
• Parameters affecting powder rolling are roll gap, roll diameter, roll speed,
powder characteristics;
❖ Roll gap => large roll gap leads to decrease in green density; very small roll
gap leads to edge cracking;
❖ Roll diameter => increase in density and strength with increase in roll diameter
for a given strip thickness
❖ Roll speed => Kept low, 0.3-0.5 m/s;
❖ Powder => irregular powder with rough surfaces provide better strip density
• In densification stage, either repeated cold rolling followed by annealing or hot
rolling of strip can be followed
• Applications: nickel strips for coinage, nickel-iron strips for controlled expansion
properties, Cu-Ni-Sn alloys for electronic applications, porous nickel strip for
alkaline batteries and fuel cell applications
Sintering
• Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder preform to a specific temperature i.e. below the melting
temperature of the principle powder particles while well above the temperature that would allow diffusion between
the neighboring particles.
• Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder particles and increase in the strength of the
final part.
• The heating process must be carried out in a controlled, inert or reducing atmosphere or in vacuum for very critical
parts to prevent oxidation.
• Prior to the sintering process, the compacted powder preform is brittle and confirm to very low green strength.
• The nature and strength of the bond between the particles depends on the mechanism of diffusion and plastic flow
of the powder particles, and evaporation of volatile material from the in the compacted preform.
• Bonding among the powder particles takes places in three ways:
(1) melting of minor constituents in the powder particles,
(2) diffusion between the powder particles, and
(3) mechanical bonding
• The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors that control the sintering process.
• Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the incipient holes and increasing the area of
contact among the powder particles in the compact perform.
Sintering
• A typical Sintering Cycle
Sintering
Types of sintering:
a) Solid State Sintering
This is the most commonly used sintering process for metal and alloy powders. In this, densification occurs
mainly because of atomic diffusion in solid state.
Sintering
b) Liquid Phase Sintering
• The densification in improved by employing a small
amount of liquid phase (1-10% vol).
• The liquid phase existing within the powders at the
• sintering temperature has some solubility for the solid.
• Sufficient amount of liquid is formed between the solid
particles of the compact sample.
• During sintering, the liquid phase crystallizes at the grain
boundaries binding the grains.
• During this stage, there is a rapid rearrangement of solid
particles leading to density increase.
• In later stage, solid phase sintering occurs resulting in
grain coarsening and densification rate slows down.
• Used for sintering of systems like tungsten-copper and
copper-tin. Also covalent compounds like silicon nitride,
silicon carbide can be made, that are difficult to sinter.
Sintering
c) Activated Sintering
• In this process, an alloying element called ‘doping’ is added in small amount improves the
densification by as much as 100 times than undoped compact samples.
• Example is the doping of nickel in tungsten compacts

d) Reaction Sintering
• In this process, high temperature materials resulting from chemical reaction between the individual
constituents, giving very good bonding.
• Reaction sintering occurs when two or more components reacts chemically during sintering to create
final part.
• A typical example is the reaction between alumina and titania to form aluminium titanate at 1553 K
which then sinters to form a densified product.
Secondary Operations
Secondary Operations
Powder Metallurgy, secondary operations include densification, sizing, impregnation, infiltration, heat treatment, and surface
finishing.
Densification and Sizing:
• A number of secondary operations are performed to increase density, improve accuracy, or accomplish additional shaping of
the sintered part.
• Repressing is a pressing operation in which the part is squeezed in a closed die to increase density and improve physical
properties.
• Sizing is the pressing of a sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy.
• Coining is a pressworking operation on a sintered part to press details into its surface.
• Some PM parts require machining after sintering.
Machining
• Machining is rarely done to size the part, but rather to create geometric features that cannot be achieved by pressing, such as
internal and external threads, side holes, and other details.
Secondary Operations
Impregnation
• Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of powder metallurgy technology.
• It can be exploited to create special products by filling the available pore space with oils, polymers, or metals that have lower
melting temperatures than the base powder metal.
• Impregnation is the term used when oil or other fluid is permeated into the pores of a sintered PM part.
• The most common products of this process are oil-impregnated bearings, gears, and similar machinery components.
• Self-lubricating bearings, usually made of bronze or iron with10% to 30% oil by volume, are widely used in the automotive
industry.
• The treatment is accomplished by immersing the sintered parts in a bath of hot oil.
• An alternative application of impregnation involves PM parts that must be made pressure tight or impervious to fluids.
• In this case, the parts are impregnated with various types of polymer resins that seep into the pore spaces in liquid form and
then solidify.
• In some cases, resin impregnation is used to facilitate subsequent processing, for example, to permit the use of processing
solutions (such as plating chemicals) that would otherwise soak into the pores and degrade the product, or to improve
machinability of the PM work part.
Infiltration
• Infiltration is an operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled with a molten metal.
• The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of the PM part.
• The process involves heating the filler metal in contact with the sintered component so that capillary action draws the filler into
the pores. The resulting structure is relatively nonporous, and the infiltrated part has a more uniform density, as well as improved
toughness and strength.
Secondary Operations
Heat Treatment
• Heat Treatment of Powder metal components can be heat treated and finished by most of the same
processes used on parts produced by casting and other metalworking processes.
• Special care must be exercised in heat treatment because of porosity; for example, salt baths are not
used for heating PM parts.
Finishing
• Plating and coating operations are applied to sintered parts for appearance purposes and corrosion
resistance.
• Again, precautions must be taken to avoid entrapment of chemical solutions in the pores;
impregnation and infiltration are frequently used for this purpose.
• Common plating for PM parts include copper, nickel, chromium, zinc, and cadmium.
Powder Metallurgy
Advantages
• Elimination or reduction of machining
• High production rates
• Complex shapes
• Wide variations in compositions
• Wide property variations
• Scrap is eliminated or reduced
Disadvantages
• Inferior strength properties
• High tooling costs
• High material cost
• Size and shape limitations
• Dimensional changes during sintering
• Density variations
• Health and safety hazards