Operating System Concepts

SunBeam Institute of
Information & Technology,
Hinjwadi, Pune & Karad.

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Operating System Concepts

# Scope of the Subject OS Concepts from CCAT point of

view:
Section-B : Total 9 Questions
- Almost 95% questions are concept/theory oriented and GK
about the subject.

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Operating System Concepts

* Introduction:
- Why there is need of an OS?
- What is an OS?
- Booting process in brief
- Functions of an OS

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* UNIX System Architecture Design

- Major subsystem of an UNIX system: File subsystem & Process Control
subsystem.
- System Calls & its catagories
- Dual Mode Operation

* Process Management
- What is Process & PCB?
- States of the process
- CPU scheduling & CPU scheduling algorithms
- Inter Process Communication: Shared Memory Model & Message
Passing Model

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Operating System Concepts

* Process Management
- Process Synchronization/Co-ordination
- Deadlocks & deadlock handling methods

* Memory Management
- Swapping
- Memory Allocation Methods
- Internal Fragmentation & External Fragmentation
- Segmentation
- Paging
- Virtual Memory Management

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* File Management
- What is file?
- What is filesystem & filesystem structure?
- Disk space allocation methods
- Disk scheduling algorithms

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Q. Why there is a need of an OS?

- Computer is a machine/hardware does different tasks
efficiently & accurately.
- Computer hardware mainly contains:
1. CPU/Processor
2. Memory Devices
3. I/O Devices
- As any user cannot communicates/interacts directly with any of
the computer hardware components to do different tasks, hence
there is need of some interface between user and hardware and
to provide this interface is the job of an OS.

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Operating System Concepts

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Q. What is a Software?
- Software is a collection of programs.
Q. What is a Program?
- Program is a finite set of instructions written in any programming language
(either low level or high level programming language) given to the machine to do
specific task.
- 3 types of programs are there:
1. "user programs": programs defined by the programmer user/developers
e.g. main.c, hello.java, addition.cpp etc....
2. "application programs": programs which comes with an OS/can be installed later
e.g. MS Office, Notepad, Compiler, IDE's, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Calculator,
Games etc....
3. "System Programs": programs which are inbuilt in an OS/part of an OS.
e.g. Kernel, Loader, Scheduler, Memory Manager etc...

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Q. What is an IDE (Integrated Software Developement) ?

- It is an application software i.e. collection of tools/application programs like source code
editor, preprocessor, compiler, linker, debugger etc... required for faster software
developement.
e.g. VS code editor, MS Visual Studio, Netbeans, Android Studio, Turbo C etc....
Source Code – Program written in any programming langauge.
1. "Editor": it is an application program used to write a source code.
e.g. notepad, vi editor, gedit etc...
2. "Preprocessor": it is an application program gets executes before compilation and does
two jobs - it executes all preprocessor directives and removes all comments from the
source code.
e.g. cpp
3. "Compiler": it is an application program which converts high level programming
language code into low level programming language code i.e. human
understandable language code into the machine understandable language code.
e.g. gcc, tc, visual c etc...

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4. "Assembler": it is an application program which converts

assembly language code into machine language code/object code.
e.g. masm, tasm etc...
5. "Linker": it is system program which links object file/s of a
program with precompiled object modules of library functions exists
in a lib folder and creates final single executable file.
e.g. ld: link editor in Linux.
Loader : It is a system program (i.e. inbuilt program of an OS) which loads an
executable file from HDD into the main memory.
Dispatcher : It is a system program (i.e. inbuilt program of an OS) which loads
data & instructions of a program which is in the main memory onto the CPU
(i.e. into the CPU registers).

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Operating System Concepts

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Q. What is an Operating System?

- An OS is a system software (i.e. collection of system
programs) which acts as an interface between user and
hardware.
- An OS also acts as an interface between programs(user &
application programs) and hardware.
- An OS allocates resources like main memory, CPU time, i/o
devices access etc... to all running programs, hence it is also
called as a resource allocator.
- An OS controls an execution of all programs, it also controls
hardware devices which are connected to the computer system
and hence it is also called as a control program.

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Q. What is an Operating System?

- An OS manages limited available resources among all running programs,
hence it is also called as a resource manager.
- An OS is a software (i.e. collection of thousands of system programs and
utitlity programs in a binary format) comes either in CD/DVD/PD, has
following main components:
1. Kernel: It is a core program/part of an OS which runs continuosly
into the main memory does basic minimal functionalities of it.
e.g. Linux: vmlinuz, Windows: ntoskrnl.exe
2. Utility Programs - Softwares: e.g. disk manager, windows firewall,
anti-virus software etc...
3. Application Programs - Softwares: e.g. google chrome, shell,
notepad, msoffice etc...

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# Functions of an OS:
Basic minimal functionalities/Kernel functionalities – must be
supported by any OS – compulsory functionalities :
1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. Hardware Abstraction
4. CPU Scheduling
5. File & IO Management
Extra utility functionalities/optional:
6. Protection & Security
7. User Interfacing
8. Networking

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# UNIX Operating System:

- UNIX: UNICS – Uniplexed Information & Computing
Services/System.
- UNIX was developed at AT&T Bell Labs in US, in the decade of 1970’s
by Ken Thompson, Denies Ritchie and team.
- It was first run on a machine DEC-PDP-7 (Digital Equipment Corporation
– Programmable Data Processing-7).
- UNIX is the first multi-user, multi-programming & multi-tasking
operating system.
- UNIX was specially designed for developers by developers
- System architecture design of UNIX is followed by all modern OS’s like
Windows, Linux, MAC OS X, Android etc..., and hence UNIX is referred as
mother of all modern operating systems.

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- Kernel acts as an interface between programs and hardware.

- Operating System has subsystems like System Call Interface
Block, File Subsystem Block, Process Control Subsystem
Block (which contains IPC, Memory Management & CPU
Scheduling), Device Driver, Hardware Control/Hardware
Abstraction Layer.
- There are two major subsystems:
1. Process Control Subsystem
2. File Subsystem
- In UNIX, whatever is that can be stored is considered as a file and
whatever is active is reffered as a process.
- File has space & Process has life.

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- From UNIX point of view all devices are considered as a file

- In UNIX, devices are catagorises into two catagories:
1. Character Devices: Devices from which data gets transfered
character by character --> character special device file
e.g. keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor etc...

2. Block Devices: Devices from which data gets transfered block by

block --> block special device file
e.g. all storage devices.
- Device Driver:It is a program/set of programs enable one or more
hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s operating
system.

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- Hardware Control Layer/Block does communication with control logic block

i.e. controller of a hardware.
# System Calls: are the functions defined in a C, C++ & Assembly
languages, which provides interface of services made available by the kernel
for the user (programmer user).
- If programmers want to use kernel services in their programs, it can be
called directly through system calls or indirectly through set of libary
functions provided by that programming language.
- There are 6 catagories of system calls:
1. Process Control System Calls: e.g. fork(), _exit(), wait() etc...
2. File Operations System Calls: e.g. open(), read(), write(), close() etc...
3. Device Control System Calls: e.g. open(), read(), write(), ioctl() etc...

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Operating System Concepts

4. Accounting Information System Calls: e.g. getpid(), getppid(),

stat() etc...
5. Protection & Security System Calls: e.g. chmod(), chown()
etc...
6. Inter Process Communication System Calls: e.g. pipe(),
signal(), msgget() etc...
- In UNIX 64 system calls are there.
- In Linux more than 300 system calls are there
- In Windows more than 3000 system calls are there
- When system call gets called the CPU switched from user defined
code to system defined code, and hence system calls are also called
as software interrupts/trap.

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# Dual Mode Operation:

- System runs in two modes:
1. System Mode
2. User Mode
1. System Mode:
- When the CPU executes system defined code instructions, system runs in a system
mode.
- System mode is also reffered as kernel mode/monitor mode/supervisor
mode/priviledged mode.
2. User Mode:
- When the CPU executes user defined code instructions, system runs in a user mode.
- User mode is also reffered as non-priviledged mode.
- Throughout execution, the CPU keeps switch between kernel mode and user mode

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Operating System Concepts

# Dual Mode Operation:

- Throughout an execution of any program, the CPU keeps
switcesh in between kernel mode and user mode and hence
system runs in two modes, it is reffered as dual mode
operation.
- To differentiate between user mode and kernel mode one bit is
there onto the CPU which is maintained by an OS, called as mode
bit, by which the CPU identifies wheather currently executing
instruction is of either system defined code instruction/s or user
defined code instruction/s.
- In Kernel mode value of mode bit = 0, whereas
- In User mode mode bit = 1.

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# Process Management
- When we say an OS does process management it means an OS is
responsible for process creation, to provide environment for
an execution of a process, resource allocation, scheduling,
resources management, inter process comminication,
process coordination, and terminate the process.
Q. What is a Program?
- User view: Program is a finite set of instructions written in any
programming language given to the machine to do specific task.
- System view: Program is an executable file in HDD which
divided logically into sections like exe header, bss section, data
section, rodata section, code section, symbol table.

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Q. What is a Process?
User view:
- Program in execution is called as a process.
- Running program is called as a process.
- When a program gets loaded into the main memory it is reffered as a process.
- Running instance of a program is reffered as a process.
System view:
- Process is a program loaded into the main memory which has got PCB into the
main memory inside kernel space and program itself into the main memory
inside user space has got bss section, rodata section, code section, and
two new sections gets added for the process:
stack section: contains function activation records of called functions.
heap section: dynamically allocated memory

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- As a kernel, core program of an a OS runs continuosly into the main memory, part
of the main memory which is occupied by the kernel reffered as kernel
space and whichever part is left is reffered as an user space, so main memory
is divided logically into two parts: kernel space & user space.
- User programs gets loaded into the user space only.
- When we execute a program or upon submission of a process very first one structure
gets created into the main memory inside kernel space by an OS in which all the
information which is required to control an execution of that process can be kept, this
structure is reffered as a PCB: Process Control Block, is also called as a Process
Descriptor.
- Per process one PCB gets created and PCB remains inside the main memory
throughout an execution of a program, upon exit PCB gets destroyed from the main
memory.
- PCB mainly contains: PID, PPID, PC, CPU sched information, memory management
information, information about resources allocated for that process, execution context
etc...

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Operating System Concepts

# Process States:
- Throughout execution, process goes through different states out of which at a
time it can be only in a one state.
- States of the process:
1. New state: upon submission or when a PCB for a process gets created into
the main memory process is in a new state.
2. Ready state: after submission, if process is in the main memory and waiting
for the CPU time, it is in a ready state.
3. Running state: if currently the CPU is executing any process then state of
that process is considered as a running state.
4. Waiting state: if a process is requesting for any i/o device then state of that
process is considered as a waiting state.
5. Terminated state: upon exit, process goes into terminated state and its PCB
gets destroyed from the main memory.

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1. multi-programming: system in which more than one processes can be

submitted/an execution of more than one programs can be started at a time.
- degree of multi-programming: no. of programs that can be submitted into the
system at a time.
2. multi-tasking: system in which, the CPU can execute more than one programs
simultaneously/concurrently, the speed at which it executes multiple programs
simultaneosuly it seems that it executes multiple programs at a time.
At a time the CPU can execute only one program
- time-sharing: system in which CPU time gets shared among all running programs.
3. multi-threading: system in which it seems that the CPU can execute more than
one threads which are of either same process or are of different processes
simultaneously/concurrently.
4. multi-processor: system can run on a machine in which more than one CPU’s are
connected in a closed circuit.
5. multi-user: system in which multiple users can loggedin at a time.

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# Process States:
- To keep track on all running programs, an OS maintains few data structures reffered as
kernel data structures:
1. Job queue: it contains list of PCB’s of all submitted processes.
2. Ready queue: it contains list of PCB’s of processes which are in the main memory and
waiting for the CPU time.
3. Waiting queue: it contains list of PCB’s of processes which are requesting for that
particular device.

1. Job Scheduler/Long Term Scheduler: it is a system program which selects/schedules

jobs/processes from job queue to load them onto the ready queue.
2. CPU Scheduler/Short Term Scheduler: it is a system program which selects/schedules
job/process from ready queue to load it onto the CPU.
- Dispatcher: it is a system program which loads a process onto the CPU which is scheduled
by the CPU scheduler, and the time required for the dispatcher to stops an execution of one
process and to starts an execution of another process is reffered as dispatcher latency.

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# Context Switch:
- As during context-switch, the CPU gets switched from an execution context of one
process onto an execution context of another process, and hence it is reffered as
"context-switch".
- context-switch = state-save + state-restore
- state-save of suspended process can be done i.e. an execution context of
suspended process gets saved into its PCB.
- state-restore of a process which is scheduled by the CPU scheduler can be done
by the dispacther, dispather copies an execution context of process scheduled by
the cpu scheduler from its PCB and restore it onto the CPU registers.
- When a high priority process arrived into the ready queue, low priority process
gets suspended by means of sending an interrupt, and control of the CPU gets
allocated to the high priority process, and its execution gets completed first, then
low priority process can be resumed back, i.e. the CPU starts executing suspended
process from the point at which it was suspended and onwards.

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- CPU Scheduler gets called in the following four cases:

Case-1: Running -> Terminated
Case-2: Running -> Waiting
Case-3: Running -> Ready
Case-4: Waiting -> Ready
- There are two types of CPU scheduling:
1. Non-preemptive: under non-preemptive cpu scheduling, process
releases the control of the CPU by its own i.e. voluntarily.
e.g. in above case 1 & case 2
2. Preemptive: under preemptive cpu scheduling, control of the CPU
taken away forcefully from the process.
e.g. in above case 3 & 4.

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- Following algorithms used for CPU Scheduling:

1. FCFS (First Come First Served) CPU Scheduling
2. SJF (Shortest Job First) CPU Scheduling
3. Round Robin CPU Scheduling
4. Priority CPU Scheduling
- Multiple algorithms are there for CPU scheduling, so there is
need to decide which algorithm is best suited at specific situation
and which algorithm is an efficient one, to decide this there are
certain criterias called as scheduling criterias:
cpu utilization, throughput, waiting time, response time
and turn-around-time.

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# CPU Scheduling Criterias:

1. CPU Utilization: one need to select such an algorithm in which utilization of
the CPU must be as maximum as a possible.
2. Throughput: total work done per unit time.
One need to select such an algorithm in which throughput must be as maximum
possible.
3. Waiting Time: it is the toal amount of time spent by the process into the
ready queue for waiting to get control of the CPU from its time of submission.
One need to select such an algorithm in which waiting time must be as minimum
as possible.
4. Response Time: it is a time required for the process to get first response from
the CPU from its time of submission.
One need to select such an algorithm in which response time must be as
minimum as possible.

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5. Turn-Around-Time: it is the total amount of time required for the

process to complete its execution from its time of submission.
One need to select such an algorithm in which turn-around-time
must be as minimum as possible.
Execution Time: it is the total amount of time spent by the process
onto the CPU to complete its execution.
OR CPU Burst Time: total no. of CPU cycles required for the
process to complete its execution.
- Turn-Around-Time = Waiting Time + Execution Time.
- Turn-around-time is the sum of periods spent by the process into
ready queue for waiting and onto the CPU for execution from its time
of submission.

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1. FCFS (First Come First Served ) CPU Scheduling

- In this algorithm, process which is arrived first into the ready queue
gets the control of the CPU first i.e. control of the CPU gets allocated
for processes as per their order of an arrival into the ready queue.
- This algorithm is simple to impelement and can be implemented by
using fifo queue.
- It is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm.
# Convoy effect: in fcfs, due to an arrival of longer process before
shorter processes, shorter processes has to wait for longer duration
and due to which average waiting time gets increases, which results
into an increase in an average turn-around-time and hence overall
system performance gets down.

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2. SJF(Shortest Job First) CPU Scheduling:

- In this algorithm, process which is having minimum CPU burst time gets the
control of the CPU first, and whenever tie is there it can be resolved by using
fcfs.
- SJF algorithm ensures minimum waiting time.
- Under non-preemptive SJF, algorithm fails if the submission time of processes
are not same, and hence it can be implemented as preemptive as well.
- Non-preemptive SJF is also called as SNTF(Shortest-Next-Time-First).
- Preemptive SJF is also called as SRTF(Shortest-Remaining-Time-First).
Starvation: in this algorithm, as shorter processes has got higher priority,
process which is having larger CPU burst time may gets blocked i.e. control of
the CPU will never gets allocated for it, such situation is called as
starvation/indefinite blocking.

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3. Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm

- In this algorithm, before allocating the CPU for processes, some fixed time slice or
time quantum gets decided in advanced, and at any given time control of the CPU may
remains allocated with any process maximum for that decided time-slice, once the given
time slice is finished of that process, it gets suspended and control of the CPU will be
allocated to the next process again for maximum that decided time slice and so on...,
each process gets control of the CPU in a round robin manner i.e. cpu gets shared among
processes equally.
- If any process completes its execution before allocated time slice then control of the
CPU will be released by that process and CPU gets allocated to the next process as soon
as it is completed for effective utilization of the CPU.
- There is no starvation in RR Scheduling algorithm.
- This algorithm is purely preemptive.
- This algorithm ensures minimum response time.
- If time slice is minimum then there will be extra overhead onto the CPU due to frequent
context-switch.

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4. Priority Scheduling
- In this algorithm, process which is having highest priority gets control of the CPU
first, each process is having priority in its PCB.
- priority for a process can be decided by two ways:
1. internally – priority for process can be decided by an OS depends on no. of resources
required for it.
2. externally – priority for process can be decided by the user depends on requirement.
- Minimum priority value indicates highest priority.
- This algorithm is purely preemptive.
- Due to the very low priority process may gets blocked into the ready queue and
control of the CPU will never gets allocated for such a process, this situation is reffered as a
starvation or indifinite blocking.
- Ageing: it is a technique in which, an OS gradually increments priority of blocked
process, i.e. priority of blocked process gets incremented after some fixed time interval by
an OS, so that priority of blocked process becomes sufficient enough to get control of the
CPU, and starvation can be avoided.

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Inter Process Communication

- Processes running into the system can be divided into two catagories:
1. Independent Processes:
- Process which do not shares data (i.e. resources) with any other process reffered
as an independent process. OR Process which do not affects or not gets
affected by any other process reffered as an independent process.
2. Co-operative Processes:
- Process which shares data (i.e. resources) with any other process reffered as co-
operative process. OR Process which affects or gets affected by any other
process reffered as co-operative process.
Q. Why there is need of an IPC?
As concurrently executing co-operative processes shares common resources, so
there are quite chances to occur conflictions between them and to avoid this
conflictions there is a need of communication takes place between them.

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What is an Inter Process Communication?

- An IPC is one of the important service made available by the kernel, by using
which co-operative processes can communicates with each other.
- Inter process communication takes place only between co-operative processes.
- Any process cannot directly communicates with any other process, hence there is a
need of some medium, and to provide this medium is the job of an OS/Kernel.
- There are two techniques by which IPC can be done/there are two IPC Models:
1. Shared Memory Model: under this technique, processes can communicates with
each other by means of reading and writing data into the shared memory region (i.e.
it is a region/portion of the main memory ) which is provided by an OS temporarily on
request of processes want to communicates.
2. Message Passing Model: under this technique, processes can communicates with
each other by means of sending messages.
- Any process cannot directly send message to any other process.
- Shared Memory Model is faster than Message Passing Model.

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Inter Process Communication

2. Message Passing Model: there are further different IPC techniques under message
passing model.
i. Pipe:
- By using Pipe mechanism one process can send message to another process, vice-
versa is not possible and hence it is a unidirectional communication technique.
- In this IPC mechanism, from one end i.e. from write end one process can writes data into
the pipe, wheras from another end i.e. from read end, another process can read data from it,
and communication takes place.
- There are two types of pipes:
1. unnamed pipe: in this type of pipe mechanism, only related processes can
communicates by using pipe ( | ) command.
2. named pipe: in this type of pipe mechanism, related as well as non-related
processes can communicates by using pipe() system call.
- By using Pipe only processes which are running in the same system can
communicates,

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Inter Process Communication

ii. Message Queue:
- By using message queue technique, processes can communicates by means
of sending as well as recieving message packets to each other via message
queue provided by the kernel as a medium, and hence it is a bidirectional
communication.
- Message Packet: Message Header(Information about the message) +
Actual Message.
- Internally an OS maintains message queue in which message packets sent by
one process are submitted and can be sent to reciever process and vice-versa.
- By using message queue technique, only processes which are running in the
same system can communicates.

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Operating System Concepts

Inter Process Communication

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Inter Process Communication

iii. Signals:
- Processes communicates by means of sending signals as well.
- One process can send signal to another process through an OS.
- An OS sends signal to any process but any other process cannot sends signal to an OS.
Example: When we shutdown the system, an OS sends SIGTERM signal to all processes,
due to which processes gets terminated normally, but few processes can handle
SIGTERM i.e. even after recieving this signal from an OS they continues execution, to such
processes an OS sends SIGKILL signal due to which processes gets terminated
forcefully.
e.g. SIGSTOP, SIGCONT, SIGSEGV etc...
- By using signal ipc technique, only processes which are running in the same system can
communicates.

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Inter Process Communication

iv. Socket
- Limitation of above all IPC techniques is, only processes which
are running on the same system can communicates, so to
overcome this limitation Socket IPC mechanism has been designed.
- By using socket IPC mechanism, process which is running on one
machine can communicates with process running on another
machine, whereas both machines are at remote distance from
each other and provided they connected in a network (either
LAN / WAN/Internet).
- Socket = IP Address + Port Number.
e.g. chatting application.

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Operating System Concepts

# Process Coordination / Process Synchronization

Why Process Co-ordination/Synchronization?
- If concurrently executing co-operative processes are accessing common
resources, then conflictions may takes place, which may results into the
problem of data incosistency, and hence to avoid this problem co-
ordination / synchronization between these processes is required.
Race Condition: if two or more processes are trying to access same
resource at a time, race condition may occures, and data inconsistency
problem may takes place due to race condition.
- Race condition can be avoided by an OS by
1. deciding order of allocation of resource for processes, and
2. whichever changes did by the last accessed process onto the resource
remains final changes.

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Critical Section Problem:

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Synchronization Tools:
1. Semaphore: there are two types of semaphore
i. Binary semaphore: can be used when at a time resource can be
acquired by only one process.
- It is an integer variable having either value is 0 or 1.
ii. Counting / Classic semaphore: can be used when at a time resource
can be acquired by more than one processe
2. Mutex Object: can be used when at a time resource can be acquired by
only one process.
- Mutex object has two states: locked & unlocked, and at a time it can be
only in a one state either locked or unlocked.
- Semaphore uses signaling mechanism, whereas mutex object uses
locking and unlocking mechanism.

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Deadlock:
- There are four neccessary and sufficient conditions to occure
deadlock / characteristics of deadlock:
1. Mutual Exclusion: at a time resource can be acquired by only
one process.
2. No Preemption: control of the resource cannot be taken away
forcefully from any process.
3. Hold & Wait: every process is holding one resource and waiting
for the resource which is held by another process.
4. Circular Wait: if process P1 is holding resource and waiting for
the resource held by another process P2, and process P2 is also
holding one resource and waiting for the resource held by process P1.

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Deadlock: Resource Allocation Graph

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- Three deadlock handling methods are there:

1. Deadlock Prevention: deadlock can be prevented by
discarding any one condition out of four neccessary and sufficient
conditions.
2. Deadlock Detection & Avoidance: before allocating
resources for processes all input can be given to deadlock
detection algorithm in advanced and if there are chances to occure
deadlock then it can be avoided by doing neccessary changes.
- There are two deadlock detection & avoidance algorithms:
1. Resource Allocation Graph Algorithm
2. Banker’s Algorithm

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3. Deadlock Recovery:
- System can be recovered from the deadlock by two ways:
1. Process termination: in this method randomly any one
process out of processes causes deadlock gets selected and
terminated forcefully to recover system from deadlock.
- Process which gets terminated forcefully in this method is
reffered as a victim process.
2. Resource preemption: in this method control of the
resource taken away forcefully from a process to recover system
from deadlock.

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# Memory Management
Q. Why there is a need of memory (main
memory )management?
- As main memory is must for an execution of any program and it is a
limited memory, hence an OS manages main memory.
- To achieve maximum CPU utilization, an OS must support multi-
tasking, and to support multi-tasking multiple porcesses must be
submitted into the system at a time i.e. it must support multi-
programming, but as main memory is limited to support multi-
programming an OS has to do memory management to complete an
execution of all submitted processes.
- Memory space of one process should gets protected from another
process.

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# Swapping:
- Swap area: it is a portion of the hard disk drive ( keep reserved while
installation of an OS) can be used by an OS as an extension of the main
memory in which inactive running programs can be kept temporarily and as
per request processes can be swapped in and swapped out between swap
area and the main memory.
- In Linux swap area can be maintained in the form of swap partition,
whereas in Windows swap area can be maintained in the form of swap
files.
- Conventionally size of the swap area should be doubles the size of
the main memory, i.e. if the size of main memory is 2 GB then size of
swap area should be 4 GB, if the size of main memory is 4 GB then size of
swap area should be 8 GB and so on.

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# Swapping:
- Swapping done by the system program of an OS named as
Memory Manager, it swap ins active running programs into the
main memory from swap area and swap outs inactive running
programs from the main memory and keep them temporarily into
the swap area.
- there are two variants of swapping: swap in & swap out.

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- Addresses generated by compiler (i.e. compiler + linker) are

reffered as logical addresses.
- Addresses which can be see by the process when it is in the
main memory reffered as physical addresses.
- MMU (Memory Management Unit): wich is a hardware unit
converts logical address into physical address.
- MMU is a hardware contains adder circuit, comparator
circuit, base register and limit register. Values of base
register and limit registers gets change during context-switch,
and memory space of one process gets protected from another
process.
- CPU always executes program in its logical memory space.

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Memory Allocation:
- When a process is requesting for the main memory, there are two methods by
which memory gets allocated for any process
1. Contiguos Memory Allocation
2. Non-contiguos Memory Allocation

1. Contiguos Memory Allocation:

Under this method, process can complete its execution only if memory gets
allocated for it in a contiguos manner.
- There are two methods by which memory gets allocated for process under
contiguos memory allocation method.
1. Fixed Size Partitioning
2. Variable Size Partitioning

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1. Fixed Size Partitioning:

- In this method, physical memory i.e. main memory (user space)
is divided into fixed number of partitions and size of each
partition is remains fixed.
- If any process is requesting for the memory it can be loaded
into main memory in any free partition in which it can be fit.

# Advantages:
- This method is simple to implement

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# Disadvantages:
- Internal fragmentation: if memory remains unused which is
internal to the partition.
- Degree of multi-programming is limited to the number of
partitions in the main memory.
- Maximum size of a process is limited to max size
partition in the main memory.
- To overcome limitations/disadvantages of fixed size partitioning
method, variable/dynamic size partitioning method has been
designed.

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Operating System Concepts

2. Variable/Dynamic Size Partitioning:

- In this method, initially whole user space i.e. physical memory is considered as a single
free partition, and processes gets loaded into the main memory as they request for it.
- Size of partition and number of partitions are not fixed in advanced, it gets decided
dynamically.
# Advantages:
- there are very less chances of internal fragmentation
- Degree of multi-programming is not limited/fixed
- Size of the process is not also limited, any size process may get load into the main
memory.
# Disadvantages:
- External fragmentation: due to loading and removing of processes into and from the
main memory, main memory is fragmented i.e. gets devided into used partitions and
free partitions.

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Operating System Concepts

2. Variable/Dynamic Size Partitioning:

- External fragmentation: due to loading and removing of processes
into and from the main memory, main memory gets fragmented i.e. it
gets divided into used partitions and free partitions.
In such case, if any new process is requesting for the memory and even
if the requested size of memory is available, but due to unavaialability
of the memory in a contuguos manner request of that process cannot
be accepted, this problem is reffered as an external fragmentation.
- External fragmentation is the biggest problem under contiguos
memory allocation, and hence there are two solutions on this problem:
1. Compaction
2. Non-contiguos Memory Allocation

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1. Compaction: shuffling of main memory can be done in such a way that all used
partitions can be shifted to one side and all free partitions can be shifted to other
side and contiguos large free partition will be made available for the new processes.
- Compaction is practically not feasible as there is need to do recalculations of
addresses every time.

2. Non-contiguos Memory Allocation:

- Under this method, process can complete its execution even if memory gets
allocated for it in a non-contiguos manner, and it can be achieved by two memory
management techniques:
1. Segmentation
2. Paging
- So by using segmentation & paging techniques, process can complete its execution
even after memory gets allocated for it in a non-contiguos manner.

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