Networking 2

Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

⇒ describe what is data communication.

⇒ describe the functional components of a data communication network.

⇒ describe major transmission functions.

⇒ differentiate between serial and parallel transmission.

⇒ differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous transmission.

⇒ describe bit rate and baud rate.

⇒ describe simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission.

⇒ describe Interface standard RS-232C.

Networking 2
1.1 Introduction
A computer network is defined as an interconnection of network components that allow movement of information between the
users. The users may be the end-users or service providers.
The types of information that are carried by a computer network has significantly changed over the years. In the 1970's this
information was mostly voice with very small amount of data. This has changed in present decade and will keep on changing in the years
to come. Now the information includes voice, text, data, video, and images. Each of these types of information places different
requirements on the network. The speed at which this information needs to be moved varies from 100 bits/sec (for telemetry types of
application) to 100 m bits/sec (for high resolution TV application).

1.2 Functional Components of a Computer Network

Network components can be any piece of hardware or software that helps in the movement of information. The figure below
shows some of the possible candidates of network components.

Services provided by a data communication network are provided by two major categories of components: customer premises
component and the network components. The customer premises components include all the terminals and other communication
equipment that reside in customer premises. The most common one is, of course, the telephone set. It also includes PC's and workstations
etc. On the other hand, network components will provide connectivity functions so that the terminals can communicate effectively.
Network components include transmission links, switching nodes, signaling links etc. Network components provide four major services
and they are:
Transmission
Switching
Signaling
Network Management

1.3 Major Transmission Function

The major transmission functions include the following:
Transmitting / Receiving
The basic function of transmission is to transmit information over a media to the receiving side. An example will be
a telephone set which includes a transmitter and receiver.
Modulation / Demodulation
Modulation converts a signal from one form to another form, suitable for transmission. Demodulation restores the
signal back to its original form. An example will be the use of modem to convert digital signal to analog and vice
versa.
Coding / Decoding
Coding is a technique that defines quantized signals into a predetermined binary sequence for transmission on a digital
system. At the receiving end, the signal is decoded. This technique is used for better synchronization and error detection.
Multiplexing / Demultiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique that enables several communication channels to be combined and transmitted over a common
broadband channel. At the receiving end, demultiplexing of the broadband channel separates and recovers the original channels.
The primary purpose of multiplexing is to make efficient use of transmission facilities bandwidth capability to achieve a low
transmission cost.

Signal amplification or regeneration

As signals travel through the transmission media, the strength of the signal decreases with distance because of losses. These
signals must be amplified (analog) or regenerated (digital) in order to have acceptable levels at the receiving end.
Synchronization
Synchronization is required in a network for accurate frequency and stable time signals to co-ordinate numerous analog and
digital transmission. In a digital system, synchronization is especially important.

1.4 Signal Power

Signal power is a very important parameter in a transmission system. When signal travels through the transmission media, the
strength of a signal attenuates with distance. It is important to know the signal power at various points along the transmission path. Each
signal possesses a unique power which is conventionally expressed in terms of watts, mw, uw, nw and pw. But there are times that signal
power at various points of a transmission network are too small to be expressed in conventional units. The unit dBm becomes handy.
Expression of dBm
from mw to dBb
P (dBm) = 10 log P(mw)
from dBm to mw
P (mw) = 10 P(dBm)/10
Example:
Express the transmitted and the received signal powers in dBm. Students should be aware of the numerical distinction
between the conventional power unit and dBm.

1.5 Signaling Rate

The rate of transmission in data communication systems is expressed in terms of number of bits sent per second or the number
of signaling elements sent per second. Depending on the application, both measures are important.
The signaling rate is expressed as the number of signaling elements per second or baud. A 1600 baud transmission then, is one
that sends 1600 signaling elements per second.

The definition of a signaling element will depend on the transmission scheme used. In the example shown above, pulses are
defined as signaling elements. Different signaling elements within a transmission might have different duration. Typically, baud is
calculated based upon the signaling element of the shortest length. Thus, if the shortest signaling element last y seconds, the band is 1/y.

1.6 Bit Rate Vs Baud

Baud and bit rates are not always the same. This is because of the reason that a signaling element can carry more than a single
bit of data. The relationship between baud and bit rate is:

bit rate (in bits/sec) = (signaling rate in band) X (number of bits per signal element).
The bit rate is given as the number of bits per second (bps). If each signaling element carry one bit of data, then bps = baud.
Example:
Voltage Level Information content
0 volts 00
2 volts 01
4 volts 10
6 volts 11

Then 01 11 00 01 10 11 00 will be transmitted as:

1.7 Serial Transmission

In serial transmission, data bits of a character are transmitted serially one bit after another. Typically, the least significant bit of
a character is transmitted first. Serial transmission is slow as the bits are sent one at a time on a single path. Consequently, to transmit a
character which consists of 8 bits, 8 bit-times is required for transmission.

1.8 Parallel Transmission

In parallel transmission a dedicated path is allocated to each bit position in the character. Consequently 8 paths need to be
available to transmit a 8 bit character. In the example shown below the most significant bit is transmitted on the top path whereas the
least significant bit is transmitted on the bottom path.

For parallel transmission, an explicit clock signal is required which is critical. It is a requirement that all bits of a character are
transmitted at the same time so that they can be correctly received by the receiver. The rate of transmission is controlled by the clock.
The clock signal informs the receiver when it should record or sample all its inputs simultaneously.

One major problem in parallel transmission is skew. The clock signal is used by the transmitter to send all bits of a character at
the same time. Over large distances (above 100 feet), the bits can lose the relative timing relationship. The arrival of the bits from the
same character at different times at the receiver is called skew. Skew occurs because the propagation delay is not identical for all
transmission paths. Increase in distance will cause increase in skew implying a proportional relationship. Significant skew will cause the
bits to be received wrongly at the receiving end which will mean receiving wrong character. One way to reduce skew is to reduce the
transmission distance. Recommended transmission distance ranges from fifty to seventy-five feet.

1.9 Serial Vs. Parallel Transmission

Typical usage of parallel transmission is between central processing unit and its peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and
tape drivers. Parallel nature of connection is consistent with machines internal architecture and it provides high speed data transmission.
One disadvantages of parallel transmission is that it is expensive because of the number of transmission paths. It also requires
transmission and receiving equipment to have 8-bit internal architecture. The cost increases with the distance of transmission.

On the other hand, serial transmission is typically used for long distance, computer to computer communication. Serial
connections can cover large distances at a comparatively low cost and are relatively easy to build. Serial communication has a low data
throughput compared to its parallel counterpart. Furthermore, there is an additional overhead due to serial/parallel conversion that needs
to be performed.

1.10 Simplex, Half -Duplex and Full -Duplex Transmission

Simplex transmission means that the flow of information is only in one direction. For example, an input device (card reader or
remote sensor) attached to a computer could be configured in such a way so that it can only transmit and can never receive. On the other
hand, output devices (printer or monitor) can be configured to receive data only. Normally Simplex kind of transmission is not used
generally because of lack of hand shaking.

Half duplex (HDX) transmission means that the connection is bidirectional, but information can only flow in one direction at a
time. Two- way radios are example of the half-duplex system.

Full Duplex (FDX) transmission means that both stations may transmit to each other at the same time. Full duplex transmission
usually requires two separate transmission paths. A person talking to each other over the phone is an instance of full duplex
communication.

1.11 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Serial transmission can be accomplished using either Synchronous or Asynchronous techniques. In asynchronous transmission
each character in a message is transmitted as an individual entity irrespective of when the previous character was transmitted. At least
two framing bits are associated with each character; one framing bit indicates the beginning of the character (start bit) and at least one
framing bit indicates the end of the character (stop bit). The ratio of framing bits to data bits is high. At least ten bits need to be
transmitted to transmit an 8-bit character accounting for 80% utilization. Asynchronous transmission is commonly used between
terminals and computers. This is because the terminal users are relatively slow in entering data.
• Asynchronous transmission
– Timing of each bit is specified within a character
– Inter-character time is non-uniform
– Each character must be framed individually

• Synchronous transmission
– Characters, within a block, are sent contiguously
– Each block is framed
1.12 Asynchronous Vs. Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission has a lower cost and is easy to implement. Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver is
relatively simple as individual characters are sent independently with its own framing information. Asynchronous transmission is less
efficient and the best utilization that can be achieved is 80%.

Synchronous transmission on the other hand is used for interconnection of high-speed devices. Because of the high speed, a
method for automatic error detection and correction is required. Synchronous transmission requires sophisticated timing method. In
addition to determining the beginning and end of block of characters, the receiver must also determine the duration of each bit. Both
steps are required to successfully receive a block. Since synchronous transmission speeds may be several million bits per second, either
an extremely accurate clock must be present at all transmitters or receivers, or else a signal transmission technique is required that
provides timing information. The latter is the preferred solution.

Due to required automatic error-recovery procedure, timing consideration and complex signaling techniques, Synchronous
transmission is more expensive than its Asynchronous counterpart.

1.12.1 Asynchronous Character Format

The diagram below shows the format of an asynchronous character. Observe that the line state may be either high (MARK) or
low (SPACE). Historically, the presence of a voltage on the line indicates the MARK state, and the absence of a
voltage indicates a SPACE state.

When the transmitter is not sending any signal, the line is idle. An idle line is kept in the MARK state to distinguish lack of
transmission from a cut wire; a cut wire would lose power and present itself in the SPACE state.

The asynchronous character is preceded by a framing bit called the START bit. The START bit is always in the SPACE status;
thus, the receiver knows that a character is arriving when it detects the MARK-to-SPACE transition. This transition also synchronizes the
receiver's clock.

The next "N" bit-times will be comprised off the data bits, where there are "N" bits in each character. In practice, the most
common value for N is eight. Note that the LSB of the character is most sent first. If parity is used, it will be typically placed in the most
significant (MSB) position.

The character is followed by a STOP interval, which must last for at least 1, 1.5- or 2-bit times. The STOP interval always
returns the line to the MARK state. This ensures that if two asynchronous characters are sent contiguously, the MARK-to-SPACE
transition will still occur when the START bit presents itself. A long STOP interval is required for those devices that need additional
time to reset after receiving a character. The transmitter and receiver must agree upon several parameters in order to have successful
communication. These parameters include the number of bits per character, the length of a bit time (i.e.
the transmission speed), the number of STOP bits, electrical signal levels, the order of bit transmission, and the character code.

1.12.2 Synchronous Message Format

The following diagram shows the format of a generic synchronous message. A synchronous message is typically referred to as
a block or a frame. A synchronous message is sent as a contiguous bit stream, with no break between characters.

A synchronous message generally comprises the following fields:

Synchronous Characters
These characters indicate to the receiver that a message is about to be received. Furthermore, they define eight-bit
blocks so that the individual characters can be correctly interpreted
Message Header
Beginning-of-message framing, which may include the sequence number of the block (or frame)
Data
Use information
Message Trailer
End-of-message framing, which may include error detection information
 Successful synchronization transmission will depend upon the agreement of several parameters in asynchronous
transmission. These parameters include
Length of a bit time (data rate)
Signal levels
SYNC characters
Size and content of the message header and trailer

1.13 Interfacing
Digital devices generate digital signals and they are not capable of transmitting this digital data to a longer distance. So
typically, digital devices are not tied to the transmission facility directly. Computers and terminals are termed as Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE). The device which helps DTE for data communication is known as Data circuit terminating equipment (DCE) and it
sits between the DTE and the transmission media. Modem is one example of DCE. On the transmission side, DCE receives data from
DTE and transmits data over the transmission media. On the receiver end, the DCE receives data from transmission media and passes it
to the DTE.

In order to standardize the interface between DTE and DCE, the Electronics Industries Association in the United States has
come out with a interface standard known as RS- 232C. This RS-232 interface standard is described by means of mechanical, electrical,
functional and procedural specifications. Mechanical specification deals with the physical connection of DTE and DCE whereas the
electrical specification deals with voltage levels and timing of voltage changes. Functional specifications specify the functions that are
performed by different circuits. Procedural specification specifies the protocol between DTE and DCE.

RS232-C
RS232-C standard is specified in terms of the four specifications mentioned above and they are:
Mechanical Specification
- RS232-C is a 25-pin connector where the pins are organized into two rows. Pins numbered 1-13 are in the
top row whereas the pins numbered 14-25 are in the bottom row. All other mechanical dimensions are specified in this
specification.

Electrical Specification
- In RS-232C standard, voltage greater than +4 volt is
- considered as logical 0 and voltage smaller than -3 volt is considered as logical 1. The cable length between
two RS-232C connectors can range a maximum of 15 meters and it can support a data rate of 20 kbps.

Functional Specification
- Although RS-232C is a 25 pins connector, only 9 of the pins are always used in practice. Functional
specification says that the circuits connected to the pins can be grouped into four groups i.e. data, control, ground, and
timing. Data groups include transmit and receive signals which are connected to pin 2 and 3 respectively. Whenever
the PC wants to transmit data to the modem, it uses the transmit line and it uses the receive line to get data from
modem. Control group include control signals like Request To Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) lines which are
connected to pin 4 and 5 respectively. PC uses RTS signal to inform the modem that it wants to transmit data. The
modem sends CTS signal to the PC to inform that the modem is ready to receive data from the PC. Timing group
includes clock signals which are used for synchronous transmission. Ground group is the set of circuits used for
grounding.
 Procedural Specification
- The procedural specification for RS-232C specifies the sequence of events that occur between DCE and
DTE to transmit data.

The sequence of events that occur between computer and modem during communication are listed below:

1. When the computer is powered up, it sends a Data Terminal Ready signal to the modem.
2. Whenever the modem powers up, it sends a Data Set Ready signal to the PC.

Transmit
3. Whenever the PC wants to transmit data, it sends Request To Send signal to the modem.
4. In response, the modem transmits a carrier frequency on telephone line and sends Clear To Send signal to the PC to indicate
that it is ready to receive data from the computer.
5. In response to DCE signal, the computer transmits data over the transmit line.

Receive
i) Whenever the modem detects a carrier frequency on the transmission line, it means that the remote modem is transmitting.
So, modem sends a carrier detect signal to the computer.
ii) In response PC receives the incoming data over the Receive line.