Unit3

Linear Distance Measurement

3.1. DIFFERENT METHODS
There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative merit
depends upon the degree of precision required. They can .be mainly divided into three heads :
1. Direct measurements.
2. Indirect measurements
In the case of direct measurements, distances are actually measured on the ground with help of
a chain or a tape or any other instrument.
In Indirect method, observations are taken through a telescope and calculations are done for
the distances, such as in tacheometry or trianguIation.
3.2. DIRECT MEASUREMENTS
The various methods of measuring the distances directly are as follows
1. Pacing·
2. Measurement with passometer
3. Measurement with pedometer
4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer
5. Chaining
(1) Pacing.
Measurements of distances by pacing is chiefly confined to the preliminary surveys and
explorations where a surveyor is called upon to make a rough survey as quickly
as possible. It may also be used to roughly check the distances measured by other means.
The method consists in counting the number of paces between the two points of a line.
The length of the line can then be computed by knowing the average length of the pace.
The length of the pace varies with the individual, and also with the nature of the ground,
the slope and the speed of pacing. One can soon learn to pace distances along level,
unobstructed ground with a degree of accuracy equivalent approximatey to 1 in 100. However,
pacing over rough ground or on slopes may be difficult.
(2) Passometer:
Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is carried in pocket. The mechanism of
the instrument is operated by motion of the body and it automatically registers the number of
paces, thus avoiding the monotony and strain of counting the paces, by the surveyor. The
number of paces registered by the passometer can then be multiplied by the average length .of
the pace to get the distance.
(3) Pedometer:
Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except that, adjusted to the length of the
pace of the person carrying it, it registers the total distance covered by any number of paces. .
(4) Odometer and Speedometer:
The odometer is an instrument for registering the number of revolutions of a wheel. The well-
known speedometer works on this principle. The odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled
along the line whose length is required. The number of revolutions registered by the odometer
can then be multiplied by the circumference of the wheel to get the distance. Since the
instrument registers the length of the surface actually passed over, its readings obtained on
undulating ground are inaccurate. If the route is smooth, the speedometer can be used to
measure the distance approximately.
(5) Chaining:
Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance either with the help of a chain
or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct measurements. For work of
ordinary ptecision, a chain can be used, but for higher precision a tape can be used. The
distances determined by chaining form the basis of all surveying.

3.3. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAJNING

The various instruments used for the determination of the length of line by chaining
are as follows
1Chain or tape
2.Arrows
3. Pegs
4. Ranging rods
5. Offset rods
7. Plumb bob.

1. Chain

Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at the ends and
joined each other by three small circular or oval wire rings. These rings offer flexibility to the
chain. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handle at each end with swivel joint, so
that the chain can be turned without twisting. The length of a link is the distance between the
centres of two consecutive middle rings, while the length of the chain is measured from the
outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle.
Following are various types of chains in common use :
(i). Metallic chains
(ii) Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain
(iii) Engineer's chain
(iv) Revenue chain
(v) Steel band or band chain.

(i)Metallic chains
the metric chains are widely used. Metric chains are generally available in lengths of 5, 10, 20
and 30 merres.

(ii) Gunter's Chain or Surveyor's Chain

A Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain is 66 ft. long and consists of 100 links. Each link being
0.66ft. The length of 66 ft. was originally adopted for convenience in land measurement since
10 square chains are equal to 1 acre. Also when linear measurements are required in furlongs
and miles, it is more convenient since 10 Gunter's chains = 1 furlong and 80 Gunter's chains = 1
mile
(iii) Engineer's Chain
The engineer's chain is 100 ft. long and consists of 100 links, each link being 1 ft. long. At every
10 links, brass tags are fastened, with notches on the tags indicating the number of 10 link
segments between the tag and end of the chain. The distances measured are recorded in feet
and decimals.
(iv) Revenue ,Chain
1
The. revenue chain is. 33 ft. long and consisists of 16 links, each link being 2 ft. long. The
16
chain is mainly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey.

(v) Steel band or band chain

Metric steel bands are available in lengths of 20 or 30 m and is divided by brass studs at every
20 cm and numbered at every metre.

Cloth or Linen Tape

cloth tape is commonly available in lengths of 10 metres, 20 metres, 25 metres and 30 metres,
and in 33 ft., 50 ft., 66 ft. and 100 ft. The end of the tape is provided with small brass ring whose
length is included in the total length of the tape. A cloth tape is rarely used for making accurate
measurements, because of the following reasons : (i) it is easily affected by moisture or
dampness and thus shrinks ; (ii) its length gets altered by stretching and thus linen tape is
commonly used.
Metallic Tape:
A metallic tape is made of varnished strip of water proof linen interwoven
with small brass, copper or bronze wires and does not stretch as easily as a cloth tape.
Since metallic tapes are light and flexible and are not easily broken. Metallic tapes are made in
lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 metres. In the case of tapes of 10, 20, 30 and 50 m lengths a
metal ring is attached to the outer ends and fastened to it by a metal strip of the same width as
the tape.

Steel Tape:
Steel tapes vary in quality and accuracy of graduation, but even a poor steel tape is generally
superior to a cloth or metallic tape for most of the linear measurements that are made in
surveying. A steel tape consists of a light strip of width 6 to 10 mm and is more accurately
graduated. Steel tapes are available in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 20, 30 and 50 metres. The tapes of
10, 20, 30 and 50 metre lengths, are provided with a brass ring at the outer end, fastened to it
by a metal strip of the same width as the tape. The length of the tape includes the metal ring. It
is wound in a corrosion resisting metal.

Invar Tape:
Invar tapes are used mainly for linear measurements of a very high degree of precision, such as
measurements of base lines. The invar tape is made of alloy of nickel (36%) and steel, and has
very low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Arrows:
Arrows are made of steel wire and generally 10 arrows are supplied with a chain. An arrow is
inserted into the ground after every chain length measured on the ground. Arrows are made of
good quality hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in diameter. The length of arrow may
vary from 25 cm to 50 cm, the most common length being 40 cm. One end of the arrow is made
sharp and other end is bent into a loop or circle for facility of carrying.
PEGS
Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the stations or terminal points of a survey line.
They are made of timber, generally 2.5 cm or 3 cm square and 15 cm long, tapered at the end.
They are driven in the ground with the help of a wooden hammer and kept about 4 cm
projecting above the surface.
RANGING RODS
Ranging rods are used for marking the positions of stations while ranging a line. It is made of
well seasoned straight grained timber of teak or deodar and is generally available in 2 m or 3 m
length having a 3 cm nominal diameter. It is divided into equal parts, each part measuring 0.2
m. Its lower end is provided with a cross shoe of 15 cm length. It is generally painted
alternatively black and white throughout its length.
Plumb Bob
It is used to transfer the end points of the chain onto ground while measuring distances in a
hilly terrain. It is also used for testing the verticality of ranging poles, ranging rods or levelling
staves.

RANGING A LINE
The process of marking a number of intermediate points on a survey line joining two stations in
the field so that the length between them may be measured correctly, is called ranging. When
the line is short or its end station is clearly visible, the chain may be laid in true alignment.
If the line is long or its end station is not visible due to undulating ground, it is required to mark
a number of points with ranging rods such as a, b, c, d, etc. (Fig. ) along the chain line prior to
chaining the distance between A and B. Ranging may be done either by eye estimation or by
using a line ranger or a theodolite. Theodolites are generally used only for important work.

Fig: Ranging a line

Classification of Ranging
Ranging may be classified as :
(i) Direct ranging (ii) Indirect ranging.
i. Direct Ranging.
When intermediate ranging rods are fixed along the chain line, by direct observation from
either end station, the process is known as ‘Direct Ranging’.
Following steps are taken in direct ranging:
1. Erect ranging rods or poles vertically behind each end of the line.
2. Stand about 2 m behind the ranging rod at the beginning of the line.
3. Direct the assistant to hold a ranging rod vertically at arm’s length at the point where the
intermediate station is to be established.
4. Direct the assistant to move the rod to the right or left, until the three ranging rods appear to
be exactly in a straight line.
5. Stoop down and check the position of the rod by sighting over their lower ends in order to
avoid error due to non-verticality of the ranging rods.
6. After ascertaining that the three ranging rods are in a straight line, signal the assistant to fix
the ranging rod.
Code of signals. The following codes of signals are used to direct the assistant while ranging a
line.
Code Meaning
1.Rapid sweeps with right hand Move considerably to the right
2. Rapid sweeps with left hand Move considerably to the left
3. Slow sweeps with right hand Move slowly to the right

4. Slow sweeps with left hand Move slowly to the left

5. Right arm extended Continue to move to the right

6. Left arm extended Continue to move to the left

7. Right arm up and moved to the right Plump the rod to the right

8. Left arm up and moved to the left Plump the rod to the left
9. Both arms above head and then brought Correct
down
10. Both arms extended forward and Fix
depressed briskly

Note: The following points may be noted:

(i) The signals should be made clearly without any confusion.
(ii) When the assistant is at a great distance, the surveyor should use his handker-chief for
signalling.

2. Indirect Ranging:
When end stations are not intervisible and the intermediate ranging rods are placed in line by
interpolation or by reciprocal ranging or by running an auxiliary line (or random line), the
process is known as Indirect Ranging.
Indirect ranging is resorted to the following situations:
(1) When the end stations of a line are not intervisible due to interveiwing raised ground.
(2) When the end stations of a line are not distinctly visible due to a large distance.
Intervening a raised ground

Fig: Indirect ranging

Let A and B be two end stations intervened by raised ground. The ranging on intermediate
points, may be done as discussed below. (Fig.)
Steps. The following steps are followed:
(i) Fix two ranging rods A and B at the ends of the chain line.
(ii) Send two assistants with ranging rods to take positions at C and D as nearly on the line as
can be judged.
(iii) Ensure that the assistant at C can see the ranging rods held at B and D and the assistant at D
can see the ranging rods held A and C.
(iv) Direct the assistants to proceed to line themselves alternately.
(v) Assistant at C should direct the assistant at D to be in line with B, and then the assistant at D
should direct the assistant at C to be in line with A.
(vi) By successively directing each other, the two assistants go on changing their positions until
both are exactly on the line AB.
(vii) Erect the ranging rods at C and D which serve as intermediate stations for ranging other
points.
The above method may also be used for ranging a line across a valley.

CHAINING A LINE
For a chaining operation, two chainmen are required. The chainmanat the forward end of the
chain is called a leader while the other chainman at the rear end, is called a follower.
The duties of the leader and follower are tabulated under:
S. No. Leader Follower
1. To drag the chain forward To direct the leader to be in line
with the ranging rod at the end
station.
2. To insert an arrow at the To carry the rear end of the chain
end of every chain. ensuring that it is dragged above
the ground.
3. To obey the instructions of To pick up the arrows inserted by
the follower. the leader.

UNFOLDING A CHAIN
Unfolding a chain must be done with great care. After removing the leather strap, both the
handles should be held in the left hand and the chain should be thrown well forward with the
right hand. The leader, then should take one handle of the chain and move forward until the
chain is extended to its full length. The chain is then examined to see if there are any kinks or
bent links. This operation is called unfolding the chain.

METHOD OF CHAINING
To chain a line, the follower holds the handle of the chain in contact with the peg at the
beginning of the line and direct the leader to be in line with the ranging rod fixed at the end of
the chain line. The leader, taking 10 arrows in one hand and the other handle of the chain in
other hand, walks along the line dragging the chain. At the end of the chain, the leader holds a
ranging rod vertically in contact with the outside of the handle at arm’s length and faces the
follower. Using the code of signals, the follower directs the leader to move the rod to the right
or left as required by the follower until it is exactly in line. The leader then holds the handle in
both hands, stands in the line and straightens the chain by jerking it and stretches over the
mark. He then holds the arrow against the end of the handle and inserts it vertically into the
ground to mark the end of a chain length. If the ground is hard, the end of chain length may be
marked by a cross (×) scratched with an arrow or with a chalk. An arrow is laid at the cross. The
leader, then holding the ranging rod and the remaining nine arrows, starts off dragging the
chain a little off the line so that the arrow placed in position, is not disturbed. The follower,
holding the rear handle comes to the last fixed arrow and calls ‘chain’ to give a warning to the
leader that he has already reached a chain length and that he should stop moving forward. The
process as explained in earlier paragraphs is again repeated. When the tenth chain length is
measured, the follower is left with no arrow. The follower then asks him to wait. He hands over
all the ten arrows to the leader. The surveyor records the transfer of arrows in his field work. To
measure a fractional length of a chain, the leader should drag the chain beyond the station and
the follower holds the chain handle against the last arrow. The leader after stretching the chain
comes to the station mark and counts the odd links.

FOLDING THE CHAIN

After the day’s work the chain should be folded into a bundle and fastened with a leather strap.
To do this, the handles of the chain should be brought together by pulling the chain at the
middle. Commencing from the middle, take two pairs of links at a time with the right hand and
place them obliquely across the other in the left hand. When the chain is collected in a bundle
which somewhat resembles a sheaf of corn, it is tied with a leather strap. This operation is
called folding the chain.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT DUE TO INCORRECT CHAIN LENGTH

Due to usage of a chain over rough ground, its oval shaped rings get elongated and thus the
length of the chain gets increased. On the other hand, sometimes, some of the links get bent
and consequently the length of the chain gets decreased. It may therefore, be noted that
lengths obtained by chaining with a faulty chain, are either too long or too short than the length
which would be obtained by chaining with a chain of standard length. The general rule
applicable may be stated : ‘‘If the chain is too long, the measured distance will be less and’ if
the chain is too short, the measured distance will be more.’’
Let L be true length of chain L’ be faulty length of the chain
L’
1.The true length of a line = × measured length of the line.
L
OR,
True length of lineX true length of chain= Incorrect length of the lineX Incorrect length of the
chain
i.e.
lxL=l’XL’
WHERE,
l=True length of line
L= true length of chain
l’= Incorrect length of the line
L’ = Incorrect length of the chain

L’ 2
2. The true area of plot of land =( ¿ × measured area of the plot.
L

L’ 3
3. The true volume of an excavation =( ¿ × measured volume of the excavation.
L

Remember:
Product of the correct length and correct chain length = Product of the incorrect length and
incorrect chain length. i.e.
lxL=l’XL’

Example 1. The length of a survey line measured with a 30 m chain was found to be 631.5 m.
When the chain was compared with a standard chain, it was found to be 0.10 m too long. Find
the true length of the survey line.
Solution.
Here
l=True length of line=
L= true length of chain=30m
l’= Incorrect length of the line=631.5m
L’ = Incorrect length of the chain=30.10m
We have,
lxL=l’XL’
or,lx30=631.5x30.10
or,l=631.5x30.10/30
or, l= 633.603 m Ans.

CHAINING ON SLOPING GROUNDS

Chaining on the surface of a sloping ground gives the sloping distance. For plotting the surveys,
horizontal distances are required. It is therefore, necessary either to reduce the sloping
distances to horizontal equivalents or to measure the horizontal distances between the stations
directly. There are two methods for getting the horizontal distance between two stations on a
sloping ground i.e.,

(i) Direct method (ii) Indirect method.

i) Direct method
In direct method horizontal distances are measured on the ground in short horizontal lengths.
Full length of a chain or tape is not generally used. Depending upon the steepness of the slope,
a portion of the chain or tape is used. Direct method is also, sometimes known as ‘stepping
method’.

Procedure:
The follower holds the zero end of the tape at A while the leader selects any suitable length l1
of the tape and moves forward along the chain line duly ranged. The follower directs the leader
for correct ranging. The leader pulles the tape, stretches it horizontally above the ground at a
convenient height (less than 1.8 m). The point C vertically below a definite chainage, is
accurately located on the ground by suspending a plumb bob or drop arrow. For less accurate
and small scale surveys where small errors in lengths are not plottable, the end of the
suspended length of the chain, may be transferred on to the ground by dropping a pebble. The
follower then reaches the point C and the process is continued until the entire length of the
sloping line, is measured. If l1, l2, l3, l4.....ln are the tape lengths used in stepping between
stations A and B, the total horizontal distance between the two stations, A and B is equal to the
sum of the lengths of the steps i.e.,
l1 + l2 + l3 + l4........ + ln
Precautions: Following precautions are taken;
(i) The tape should be stretched horizontally and should be checked by the surveyor himself,
standing clear to one side, directing the leader.
(ii) As the error due to sag is proportional to (Weight/Tension) 2, the chain or tape lighter in
weight, should be used with a maximum pull.
(iii) It is not necessary to keep the length of steps uniform throughout and may vary inversely
proportional to the steepnes of the slope and the weight of the chain or tape. Short steps may
be taken if the chain is heavy or the slope is steep.
(iv) It is always convenient to chain the slopes down the hill than to chain up the hill.

(ii) Indirect method.

The horizontal distance between two stations on a sloping ground may be obtained by any one
of the following methods:
(i) By measuring along the slope and the angle of slope of the ground.
(ii) By applying the Hypotenusal Allowance to each chain length laid along the slope.

ERROR IN CHAINING
The errors that generally occur in chaining, are classified under two categories i.e.,
(i) Cumulative errors
(ii) Compensating errors
1. Cumulative Errors. The errors which occur in the same direction and tend to accumulate, or
to add up, are called Cumulative errors. Such an error makes the apparent measurements
always either too long or too short.
A. Positive Cumulative Errors.
The error which makes the measured length more than the actual, is known as positive
cumulative error. Positive errors are caused in the following situations:
1. The length of the chain or tape is shorter than its standard length due to :
(i) Bending of the links.
(ii) Removal of too many rings from the chain during adjustment of its length.
(iii) Knots in the connecting links.
(iv) The field temperature being lower than that at which the tape was calibrated.
(v) Shrinkage of the tape when moist.
(vi) Clogging of rings with mud.
2. The slope correction ignored while measuring along the sloping ground.
3. The sag correction, if not applied, when the chain or tape is suspended at its ends.
4. Incorrect alignment.
5. Working in windy weather, when the tape bellys out.
B. Negative Cumulative Errors.
The error which makes the measured length less than the actual, is known as Negative
Cumulative error. Negative errors are caused in the following situations :
1. The length of the chain or tape is shorter than its standard length due to :
(i) Flattening of the connecting rings.
(ii) Opening of the ring joints.
(iii) The field temperature being higher than that at which the tape was caliberated.
Note. The following points may be noted :
(i) Cumulative errors are always proportional to the length of the line.
(ii) Cumulative errors, though large, can be corrected by applying the required correction.
2. Compensating Errors. The errors which are liable to occur in either direction and tend to
compensate, are called compensating errors. These are caused in the following situations :
1. Incorrect holding of the chain.
2. The chain is not uniformly calibrated throughout its length.
3. Refinement is not made in plumbing during stepping method.
4. Chain angles are set out with a chain which is not uniformly adjusted.
Note. The following points may be noted :
(i) Compensating errors are proportional to the length of the line.
(ii) Though compensating errors are small as compared to cumulative errors, these can not be
corrected as the nature of correction cannot be ascertained.

COMMON MISTAKES IN CHAINING

While chaining a line, an inexperienced chainman generally commits the following mistakes
1. Displacement of the arrows
2. Failure to observe the zero point of the tape
3. Adding or omitting a full chain length
4. Reading from the wrong end of the chain
5. Reading numbers wrongly
6. Reading wrong metre marks
7. Calling numbers wrongly
8. Wrong recording in the field book

CORRECTIONS FOR LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

For precise measurements, the following corrections are made :
(i) Correction for standard length
(ii) Correction for alignment
(iii) Correction for slope
(iv) Correction for tension
(v) Correction for temperature
(vi) Correction for sag
 Correction for Standard Length :
Before using a tape, its actual length is ascertained by comparing it with a standard tape of
known length. The designated nominal length of a tape is its designated length e.g., 30 m, or
100 m. The absolute length of a tape is its actual length under specified conditions. The
absolute length of a tape is seldom equal to the nominal length of the tape .
Let L = measured length of a line.
Ca = correction for absolute length.
l = nominal or designated length of the tape.
C = incorrect length of the tape.
Then correction for standard length is given by,
Ca = L.C./l …………… (i)

Correction for Slope.

The distance measured along the slope between two stations, is always greater than the
horizontal distance between them. The difference in slope distance and horizontal distance, is
known as slope correction which is always subtractive. Angle of slope is measured with a
theodolite.
The formulae for the slope correction is as:

C=h2/2L
Where, h is difference in elevation between B and C having slope distance L.

Correction for Tension or pull:

If the pull applied to the tape during measurements, is more than the pull at which it was
standardised, its length increases and hence the measured distances become less than actual.
Correction for tension is therefore positive. On the other hand, if the applied pull is less, its
length decreases and consequently the measured distances become more. The correction for
tension is negative.
Remember: If applied pull (or tension) is more, tension correction is positive, and if it is less, the
correction is negative.
Cp=(P-P0)L/AE
Where, Po = standard pull
P = pull applied during measurements
A = Cross−sectional area of the tape in square cm.
L = Length of the measured line.
E= Youngs modulus of elasticity

Correction for Temperature:

The length of a tape increases if its temperature is raised and decreases if its temperature is
lowered. If the temperature of a tape is above normal, the correction is positive and if it is
below normal, the correction is negative.

Ct=α x (Tm- To) L.

L = measured length of the line

Tm = mean temperature during measurements
To = normal temperature at standardisation
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
Temperature correction

Sag Correction:
When a tape is suspended from two supports in air, it assumes the shape of a catenary. The
difference between the curved length of the tape and the horizontal distance between the
supports, is known as ‘sag correction.’ The apparent length of the tape is too long and as such
sag correction is always negative. Sag correction is given by:
Cs=W2l/24p2
Where,
W= total weight of load
P=pull applied

Example 1.
A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30 metres at 20o C at a pull of 100 N
(or 10 kgf), the measured length being 1650.00 metres. The temperature during measurement
was 30oC and the pull applied was 150 N (or 15 kgf). Find the length of the line, if the cross
sectional area of the tape was 0.025 sq. cm. The coefficient of expansion of the material of the
tape per 1° C = 3.5 × 10−6 and the modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape = 2.1 × 105
N/mm2 (2.1 × 106 kg/cm2).
Solution.
(i) Correction of temperature per tape length
= α (Tm − To) L = 0.0000035 (30 − 20) × 30
= 0.00105 m ( + ve)
(ii) Correction for pull per tape length
=
(Pm − Po) L/AE
= (150 − 100) × 30/2.5*2.1*105
= 0.00286 m ( + ve)
Combined correction = 0.00105 + 0.00286 = 0.00391 m
True length of the tape = 30 + 0.0039 = 30.0039 m
True length of the line
= 30.0039 × 1650.00/30

= 1650.21 m. Ans.

Example 2.10. To measure a base line, a steel tape 30m long standardised at 15°C with a pull of
100 N (or 10 kgf) was used. Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time
of measurement was 20o C and the pull exerted was 160 N (or 16 kgf.) Weight of of 1 cubic cm
of steel is 0.0786 N (or 0.00786 kgf). Weight of the tape = 8N (or 0.8 kgf). E = 2.1 × 1 0 5 kg/sq.
cm. Coefficient of expansion of the tape per1°C = 7.1 × 10−7.

Solution.
Let A = area of cross−section of the tape in sq. cm.
Then, A × 30 × 100 × 0.0786 = 8
A = 8/30*100*0.0786
= 0.034sq. cm = 3.39 mm2.
(i) Correction for pull
=
(Pm − Po) L/ AE

= (160 − 100) × 30/3.39 × 2.1 × 105

= 1800/33,927 × 21

= 0.0025 m
(ii) Correction for temperature
= α (Tm − To) × L = 7.1 × 10−7 × (20 − 15) × 30
= 5 × 30 × 7.1
107
= 0.0001065 m.
Total correction per tape length = 0.0025 + 0.0001
= 0.0026 m. Ans.