ENG506 1

ENG506

HANDOUTS

Video Topic: 01 onward

Globalization

A process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments of different nations

Forms of interaction

 Political cooperation
 Sharing of ideas
 Exchange of resources

Global Language (GL)

A language achieves a global status when it develops a special role recognized in every country.

A language can be adopted by any country in two ways;

1. By making it the official language of the country (Second language)

2. By making it a priority in foreign language teaching (Foreign language)

Three pronged developments of a language;

1. As a first language
2. As a second language
3. As a foreign language

Lingua Franca (1950)

A simplified language used by different trading communities.

The extent of use of a lingua franca

1. Between a few ethnic groups in one part of a country

2. Between the trading population of just a few countries
3. Between the countries in a particular part of the world

Factors responsible for the growth in contacts among countries (A global lingua franca)

 International forums
 Technological developments

Need for a common language at international forums

 UN started with Five official languages

 To reduce the number of official languages

Misunderstandings about the success of a language

 Perceived aesthetic qualities

 Clarity of expression
 Literary power
 Religious influence
 Simple structure and grammar
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Appealing properties of a language

 Familiar vocabulary
 Democratic nature of the language
 Cosmopolitan character

What makes a Global Language?

A Strong Power Base

 Political power
 Military power
 Economic power
 Technological power
 Cultural power

……………………………..2, 6-12

Possibility of change in the status of English

1. A change in the existing balance of power

 Political power
 Economic influence
2. An alternative method of communication
 Use of Translations
 To communicate in first language

Dangers of a Global Language

 Gap between social classes

 Unpopularity of other languages

Advantaged position of mother tongue users

 Language as an instrument of action and power

 Higher achievement of the mother tongue speakers of English

Solution: Powerful bilingualism

 Proper attention to language teaching/ learning

 Early introduction of the global language in educational contexts
 Continued maintenance

Linguistic Complacency

Refers to the situation where people being satisfied with single language as a tool to communicate.

Lack of motivation for learning languages other than English

 Lack of money
 Lack of opportunity
 Lack of interest

The phenomenon of language death

This is an occurrence throughout history. Fifty percent of 7, 099 languages are at risk.
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Factors that cause language death

 Natural disasters: Earthquakes, Floods, Storms , Famines

 Military Superiority
 Economic Reasons

Conservation of endangered languages

Formation of international organizations:

 The International Clearing House for Endangered Languages, Tokyo

 The Foundation for Endangered Languages
 The Endangered Language Fund, USA

Impact of English as global language on linguistic diversity

 Loss of linguistic diversity and spread of English

 Influences the structure of other languages
 Provides loan words

Factors behind the adoption of English

 Global interdependence
 Place in the world forums
 Access to trade markets
 Functional approach to English

Issue of National and Cultural Identity

Mutual intelligibility (Need for mutual interaction for global interdependence) vs. identity (Language as a symbol of
identity)

Intelligibility and identity are not opposing to each other but can be kept on through;

Bilingualism

o Global Language
o Regional Language

Video Topic: 13 onward

Kachru’s classification of English

 Inner circle -ENL– comprises countries where English is being used as L1/NL i.e. USA, UK
 Outer circle -ESL– Comprises countries where English is being used as official or institutional language i.e. Pak,
Ind.
 Expanding circle -EFL- Comprises countries where English is being used in classrooms as FL i.e. Japan, China

Classification of English

 English as native language (ENL)

 English as second language (ESL)
 English as a foreign language (EFL)

Phases of development of English language varieties

 The local variety remain unrecognized

 Local variety and inner circle variety exist side by side
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 The local variety becomes recognized as the standard

Genetic classification of English

English belongs to Indo-European family of languages (One of the 94 top level language families of the world
comprises 430 actively spoken languages)

Stages of English Development

1. Old English (400 – 1100) Adj. had three genders

2. Middle English (1100 – 1500) New French words began to creep in
3. Early Modern English (1500 – 1800)
 Time of the Renaissance (Time for the revival of classical knowledge)
 Invention of printing
 Fixation of spelling and grammar
 Dialect of London became the standard
4. Modern English (1800 – Present) Expansion of vocabulary
5. Contemporary English (Present and onwards)

Three stages of Slave Trade

Stage I Ships, carried finished goods (cloth, guns), left from British ports to West Africa

Stage II African dealers kidnaped villagers from hundreds of miles inland

Stage III Slaves were transported to the Caribbean islands & American coasts

Pidgin (A language with simplified grammar)

The Unique codes of communication among slaves and between slaves and masters

It’s a reduced variety of a language that results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in
common.

Video Topic: 22 onward

Role of English during the Empire

 English was considered a symbol of political unity

 Unifying medium of communication within a colony
 Access to industrial developments

Reasons behind Britain’s industrialization (nineteenth century)

 Population growth
 Economic growth
 Production growth

Presence of English on international travel (End of nineteenth century)

 Signs in the shop window

 Restaurant menus
 Credit card facilities
 Selling of artifacts
 Beg money from the passing visitor

Video Topic: 28 onward

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Reasons for the emergence of English as a Lingua Franca

 Retaining of English as an official language by former British colonies

 USA’s economic power
 Internal political reasons
 Intellectual reasons
 Practical reasons
 Entertainment reasons

Common views about pidgins

 Marginal languages
 Degenerations
 Deviations
 Imperfectly learned languages

Common views about speakers of pidgins

 Deficient
 Ignorant
 Inferior
 Lazy

Process of Creolization

Creole

The word means ‘to nurse, breed, or bring up’ and the term evolves from a pidgin into richer language.

 Has Native speakers (the children learn the pidgin as their first language)
 Has wide range of function as compare to pidginization
 Has a larger vocabulary
 Has more complicated grammatical resources than pidgins

Video Topic: 33 onward

Theories of Origin of Pidgin and Creole

Can be divided into three groups;

 Polygenesis - Evolved from various sources

o Nautical Jargon Theory

Pidgin developed from a shipboard lingua franca. The lingua franca not pidginized standard language was
used on trading routes.

 Monogenesis - Evolved from a single source

 Afrogenesis hypothesis
 Universal Strategies - Derived from universal strategies

Baby Talk Theory

It’s considered the earliest pidgin generation theory. It compares pidgin speakers to young children first learning to
speak.
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Theory of Relexification

A mechanism in which one language changes its vocabulary with the vocabulary of another language but grammar
remained intact.

Sabir was used as a lingua franca by traders on trade routes in the middle ages.

Universal Principles theory

It is similar to Bay talk theory. It proposed that language simplification/learning process is an innate ability. All L1
speakers simplify/learn their languages in similar ways.

Video Topic: 40 onward

Pidgins and Creoles linguistic features;

1. Lexis
2. Phonology
3. Grammar

Lexifier

The dominant language is called the lexifier which gives its vocabulary to the pidgin.

Pidgin Lexis

It is systematic and uses rules moves from simpler to more complicated.

Rules

 Lengthy coding of concepts

 Reduplication

Vowel sounds

 Pacific pidgins: 5
 Caribbean pidgins: 12
 American English: 17
 British English: 20

Conflation of Consonants

The process of reducing inflected words to their word stem, base or root form.

Development from Pidgins to Creoles

Four types of changes take place;

1. Increase in speech rate resulting in assimilation and reduction

2. Expansion in vocabulary
3. Development of a tense system
4. Greater sentence complexity

Development in pidgin and creoles due to; Social function

Pidgins perform a wide range of social functions and capable of expressing all the needs of its users.
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Now pidgins are used in;

 Education
 Literature
 Mass media
 Advertising

Video Topic: 45 onward

London Jamaican

A combination of creole and a form of non-standard English and also called; black talk, nation language, black slang.

Recreolization

The movement of a creole language towards the more creole end of the continuum

Ebonics (African American Vernacular English)

A blend of words ‘ebony’ (black) and ‘phonics’ (sound)

Video Topic: 49 onward

Native vs. Non-native speakers and ELT

 The distinction is of particular relevance to ELT

 Native speakers are a preference for ELT
 Native speakers are considered superior to non-native English language teachers

Native speaker criteria

 Exposure to the language from early childhood

 Use of English as a first language
 Intuitive knowledge of the structure of language
 Creative use of language

Discrimination between native and non-native speakers

The discrimination of people on the basis of the accent, vocabulary and sentence structure is based on ‘the politics of
identity’.

Native spearkerism and economic exploitation

 Internationally most of the jobs are reserved for native English speaking teachers.
 Most text books are published by native English publishers.
 Teaching methods are introduced by native theorists.

Now, what we need to do is to contextualize language teaching – understanding of local linguistic, sociocultural and
political particularities.

Video Topic: 51 onward

Speech community

It’s a broader term refers to the groups that share values and attitudes about language use, verities and practices.

Speech Fellowship

It’s a narrower term which refers to the sub-verities that we use.

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Speech - A form of social identity

It’s used as an indication of membership of different social groups and speech communities

ESL

It’s generic term. It’s considered inclusive label for teaching English to those who already speak other languages.

 ESL is used by immigrants to Inner Circle countries (UK, USA, Australia)

 ESL users are considered more proficient, thus superior to EFL users.

English as a primary and as a secondary language distinction

English is used as primary language by those who grow up in an English speaking environment.

English is used as a secondary language by those who use it for the purposes of business or education.

English as a secondary language

Two distinct contexts

 English as a FL - Not a medium of instruction, code for administration, medium of education

 English as an OL-official language - a medium of code for administration, education, social interaction

Video Topic: 53 onward

EIL

Difference between EIL and IE

IE refers to a particular variety of English e.g. Australian English, Chinese Eng., Pakistani Eng., Indian Eng.

EIL focuses on communication instead of the spacers’ nationality or race. It does not refer to particular variety of Eng.

Models and of classification of English

Classification and models attempt to explain the differences in the ways English is used in different countries.

ENL, ESL & EFL

Shortcomings of this classification

Misunderstandings caused by the term ‘native language’;

 Considered standard
 Spoken by all people
 Is considered superior

Alternative Models

 Geographical locations
 Regional varieties
 Individual users

Modiano’s Centripetal Circles of IE 1999

 This model is not concerned with historical and geographical divisions of a variety.
 Individual users and their choices of a variety are given equal importance.
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The Structure of Modiano’s Model (Four Circles)

1. The center circle comprises speakers who are proficient speakers of English as an IL irrespective of being
native or non-native.
2. The next circle consists of proficient users of English as a first or second language rather than as an
international language.
3. The third circle consists of Learners of English.
4. The final band outside this circle consists who do not know English at all.

Modiano after facing strong criticism on his first Model he redrafted the model and presented another one.

Modian’s English as an International Language Model

This model is based on the features of English common to all varieties of English.

1. The center comprises ‘English as an International Language’ that consists of a core of features that are
common to native and competent non-native varieties of English.
2. The second circle consists of features which may or may not become internationally common.
3. The outer area consists of Five groups;
 American English
 British English
 Other major varieties
 Other local verities
 EFL speakers

Video Topic: 58 onward

Diaspora

It refers to the movement or migration of a group of people away from their established homeland.

First Diaspora - Inner circle -ENL

English speakers from Britain carried the language to Australia, New Zealand.

Second Diaspora - Outer circle -ESL

This spread the language through colonization in Asia and Africa and allowed a section of population to learn English
as a second language.

Third Diaspora - Expanding circle -EFL

This has distinct manner of dispersal of English from the other two Diasporas. It is spread by the individuals acquiring
it as an additional language for international communication.

Status and functions of English in the outer and expanding circles can be seen with respect to Two dimensions;

1. Range

It means that English performs a wide range of functions;

Formal

 Education at all levels

 Business
 Legal system
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Social

 Family
 Social network

Range of verities

Use of a range of varieties in or across utterances like, British and America

2. Depth

It means that variety of people have access to English at;

 Different educational levels

 Socioeconomic levels
 Different jobs and professions
 Differing degrees of proficiency
 Basilect: Speaker with little contact with standard variety
 Acrolect: speakers with higher socioeconomic class

Video Topic: 62 onward

Institutionalization

It means official recognition of a language. English is institutionalized language in the countries that were British
colonies in the past.

In Asia

 English is official language in Pakistan used in several domains.

 In India, English is an associate official language with Hindi.

Norm

It is set of expected behavior. In term of language, it refers to the appropriate use of language.

In the light of Kashrus’s model, where do these norms come from? Whether these come from inner circle, outer
circle, or expanding circle?

Inner circle – Norm providing

It is the native English speakers who determined the appropriate use of language and provide teaching methods and
textbooks.

Outer circle – Norm developing

In these countries, on the one hand, people considered English as a prestige language but on the other hand, these are
also concerned with political and cultural identities. They want to learn English but at the same time they are worried
about their own culture.

Expanding circle – Norm dependent

In these countries English is only a performance variety. Historically, these countries never been colonized.

Video Topic: 64 onward

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Kachru’s Three circle Model Limitations

 Based on geography and history

 Based on the basic distinction of native and non-native speakers
 Actual use of English by speakers in these regions is overlooked
 Native speakers being considered superior regardless of the quality of language
 Pidgins and creoles don’t fit into the categorization
 Does not define users’ proficiency

Nativeness Paradigm

A binary classification of speakers; native and non-native speakers

Some scholars believed that it asserts a powerful influence on society in term of that the native speakers are ‘the best’
teachers of English.

Some scholars believed that it served important functions that it serves as a model and inspiration for English
language learning.

Problems in defining native speakers

Which?

 Accent
 Social group
 Age group

Alternative to native non-native distinction

Use of the tem ‘Expert’ to describe accomplished users of English

Advantages of term ‘Expert’

 Expertise is not identity

 Expertise is learned not innate
 Expertise is relative
 Expertise is partial
 Expertise goes through testing and evaluation

Reconceptualization (another alternative)

 Monolingual English speakers (MES)

 Bilingual English speakers (BES)
 Non-bilingual English speakers (NBES)

Video Topic: 68 onward

Modifying or Redrawing Three Circle Model by David Graddol

Change in terminology

1. Inner circle – L1 speakers

2. Outer circle – L2 speakers
3. Expanding circle – L3 speakers
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Jenifer Jenkin division of English into Two categories

 ‘new’ Englishes
Is a result of first Diaspora and developed independently of the British English comprises USA or Canada.
 ‘New’ Englishes
Second is a result of second diaspora and used as second languages by bilingual or multilingual people
comprises Pak English, Indian English etc.

‘New’ Englishes characteristics

 Includes a large number of varieties

 Different in features and usage
 Learned in schools
 Used as a medium of instruction

‘New’ Englishes

Factors determining the status of an innovation

 Demographic
 Geographic
 Authoritative
 Codification

Video Topic: 72 onward

Nativization

It refers to a process in which a language gains native speakers. This happens when a second language used by adult
parents becomes the native language of their children. Other terms that can be used synonymously are; Acculturation,
Indigenization and Hybridization.

Nativization in English

Changes in English has undergone as a result of contact with other languages in diverse cultural and geographical
settings in the outer circle.

Reasons/Prompts of the process of Nativization

 Absence of native speakers

 Inadequate teaching
 Acquisitonal limitations
 Transfer from local languages to English
 Transfer of English to the new cultural environment and communicative needs

Functional Nativization

Functional nativeness is determined by the range and depth of a language in a society.

1. Range: domains of function

2. Depth: the degree of social penetration of the language

English is nativized in south Asia as Indian English and Pakistani English.

Range of functional domains;

 Trade
 Media
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 Government
 Higher education
 Science technology

Recognition of nativized varieties

 English has acquired new identities in new socio-cultural contexts

 Autonomous local varieties
 Their own set of rules
 Cannot be treated as mistake of deficient Englishes

Nativized English social lectal continuum ranges between;

 Acrolect – Near to real English

 Mesolect - intermediate
 Basilect – away from real English

Video Topic: 76 onward

Contact literature

The literature written in distinctive varieties of English is often called contact literature.

Depending on the cultural and social context, verities differ in;

 Formal characteristics
 Dscoursal characteristics
 Thought patterns

Contact with non-western cultures and languages enables English to express new linguistic and cultural functions.

Nativized varieties of English are produced through contact of English with new cultures and surrounding languages.

Concerns about contact literature

 Doubt about credibility of contact

 Doubt about varieties of English

Literature in any language consists of two dimensions;

Linguistic – syntax, lexicon

Cultural – personal or cultural content of a text

Features of contact literature

 A blend of two linguistic features

 Literary traditions
 Extensions of linguistic categories
 It exhibit national identity

Video Topic: 80 onward

Multilinguals possess a range of languages with distinct grammars and functions in their linguistic range.
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Limiting nature of nativization of texts

The readers from a different cultural context must actively participate to understand the text. If they cannot do this, the
text becomes limiting.

Strategies for Text Nativization

 Rhetorical strategies – ways used by writer to effectively, efficiently present their points of views on a topic.
 Authentication by cultural history and tradition – supporting the text by cultural history and tradition
 Transcreating proverbs and idioms – The process of adapting a message from one language to another,
while maintaining its style, tone and context

Culturally dependent speech style

1. Sentence initial conjuctions

2. Asking direct questions
3. Asking rhetorical questions

Video Topic: 85 onward

Accent

The way you sound when you speak. It results from how, where, and when a person learned the language that he/she
speaks.

Features of Distinctive Stress and Rhythm in outer circle

 Nativized verities of English follow the conventions of their first language in stress assignment.
 Do not use stress to make a distinction between nouns and verbs. Verb – im’port , Noun – ‘import
 Do not use stress for focusing
 There is a practice of spelling pronunciation

Features of Distinctive Sound in outer circle

 Simplify the final consonant

All vowels are voiced

Consonants can be voiced or not;

Unvoiced - P, t, s, k, f, th

Voiced - B, d, g, z, v, th

 They don’t care of these voiced and unvoiced sounds

Light ‘L’- Comes at the beginning, near the beginning or before a consonant sound in a word

Dark ‘L’- Comes at the end of the word or before a vowel sound

 They don’t take care of this distinction as well.

 They don’t distinct between ‘r’ and ‘l’ sound.

Video Topic: 88 onward

Lexis

Lexis is a term in linguistics for the vocabulary of a language. Adjective: lexical. The study of lexis and the lexicon (a
collection of words) is called lexicology.
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Borrowing from indigenous languages (Examples)

 Chai – tea (East African, Pakistani, Indian English)

 Crore – Ten million
 Goondasim – Behaving in a violent way

Lexical repetition and redundancy

An extra element in a sentence or phrase that is regarded as a universal feature of spoken verities

South Asian lexis in native English

 Chit – a note
 Tiffin – small box
 Buggy – a carriage

Quantifiers

We use quantifiers (much, little, few, a lot, etc.) to talk about quantities, amount and degrees & comes before a noun
or noun phrase.

Countability

In English, this is concerned with a noun’s potential for combining with various types of determiners.

Stative verbs

Verbs that express a state rather that an action and are related to thoughts, opinions, feelings and emotions. These
verbs are not use din progressive tenses. For instance; understand, doubt, like, want, hate

Types of questioning and answering system

 Positive-negative system
If question is positive or negative, the answer will also be positive or negative respectively. For instance, Isn’t
he coming? Ans: No, he isn’t.
 Agreement-disagreement system
Answer is always in positive manner. For instance, isn’t he coming? Ans: Yes, he is.

Outer and expanding circle Englishes follows the agreement-disagreement system.

Use of general Question Tags

In the outer and expanding circle varieties, a General Tag, isn’t, is it, no is used.

Video Topic: 95 onward

Discourse Style

Variations in outer and inner circle Englishes can also be observed in the way texts are organized in the two kinds of
Englishes.

Variations in aspects of discourse (between outer circle English and inner circle)

 More formal character than the inner circle English

 More complex vocabulary and grammar
 Lengthy constructions
 Redundancy of expression
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Focus and theme in Inner circle English

 The initial element in the sentence usually signals the theme

 The element that follows the main verb is in focus.

For instance, She(theme) went to the beach(focus).

Intelligibility

It means;

 Understanding
 Making sense

Lack of intelligibility is a natural phenomenon when a language becomes widespread. Intelligibility is considered in
both productive (speaking) and receptive (listening) skills.

Variation and intelligibility

Differences across verities may lead to difficulties in intelligibility. Variations may be caused by;

 Geography (Location)
 Ethnicity (Color or race)
 Age

Varieties may differ from each other in;

 Grammar
 Lexis
 Sentence structure
 Accent

Variations may cause issues of intelligibility and frustration to speakers of different varieties. In this situation, there
might be two reactions;

 Change the situation

 Accept the situation and learn to deal with it

Intelligibility can be considered only in a particular context that may include;

 The speaker
 The listener
 Situation
 Time
 Purpose

Components of intelligibility by Smith

The holistic notion of intelligibility is divided into three components:

 Intelligibility
 Comprehensibility
 Interpretability

Intelligibility – refers to Level of sound and Parsing

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Difficulties can be overcome by:

 A clarification request
 Repair device
 Stored in memory for checking later
 Ignored because of the redundancy in the message

Comprehensibility

It is the second component on the intelligibility continuum proposed by Smith that involves;

 Assigning meaning to utterances

 Recognizing an utterance’s referents

Example:

- Please put the package on the table (piece of furniture).

- Invite guests of the committee to the table (to take part in discussion).

Difficulty in comprehensibility

 Unfamiliar vocabulary
 Unfamiliar expressions
 Borrowed lexical items

Interpretability

It is the Third component on the intelligibility continuum proposed by Smith that involves;

 To understand the purpose and intent of an utterance

Video Topic: 101 onward

Intercultural Competence

Research on different varieties of English show that there are differences in the following aspects:

 Use of standard and non-standard English with respect to age and gender
 Performance of different speech acts
 Use of ‘yes’ in different cultures
In Burundi: the addressee may say: ‘Yes, I definitely agree’, and then proceed to state their opinion which is
contradictory to what the first speaker had said.
In American English (women): ‘yeah’ to mean they are following what the speaker is saying
In American English (men): ‘yeah’ to mean they agree with the speaker
In Japanese: ‘I am paying attention to what you are saying’.

Sociocultural Context in World Englishes

Refers to the idea that language is closely linked to the culture and society in which it is used

Culture and Language

The culture of a community leaves a significant effect on their language. Various nations adapt English to their own
culture. So, it’s necessary to be aware of the cultural differences for successful intercultural communication.

Standard Language (18th century)

 The variety of a language which is considered the norm

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 Used for educational purposes

 A yard stick for measuring the other varieties
 Is a prestige variety
 Spoken by a minority of people with power and position in a society

Standardization of a language

Language standardization is the process by which conventional forms of a language are established and maintained.

Codification (early 1970s by Einar Haugen)

He defined it as a process that leads to "minimal variation in form".

The methods used to complete the process of standardization include the creation and use of:

 Dictionaries
 Style and usage guides
 Traditional grammar textbooks

Bases of Standard English

Factors to be considered as basis for Standard English:

1. Grammar

Grammar more than pronunciation because;

 Grammar is fixed and uniform

 Educated speakers may differ in:
 Pronunciation
 Vocabulary
 Idiom
2. Writing

Associated more closely with writing than spoken forms because;

 Easily recognizable in written forms

 Written English is more rule-governed than spoken English

3. Language ideology

Social, cultural and economic factors are at play when decision about Standard English is to be taken.

Video Topic: 106 onward

Language Standards

It refers to prescriptive language rules which together constitute the standard.

Process of Standardization – Four Stages

 Selection – involves selection of one variety as the standard led by politically and socially powerful
 Codification – involves the writing & development of; dictionaries, grammar textbooks and usage guides
 Elaboration of functions – capability of performing functions in government & educational domains
 Acceptance – accepted by the relevant population who are supposed to use that language
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Paradox of Standardization

 A symbol of a state’s independence

 A strong unifying force
 A symbol of inferior status of the poor who use a regional, social dialect

Non-Standard Englishes

Varieties considered non-standard

 All the regional native speaker dialects of English

 All the ‘New English’ varieties

Lack of acceptance of non-standard varieties may be due to:

 Attitude towards race in the US

 Attitude towards class in the UK

Standardization vs codification

Standardization is concerned with;

 Language status
 Language variability
 Language ideology

Codification is concerned with;

 Recognition of creativity and innovation

 Purpose and domain of use
 Perceived superiority of the native speaker

Issues of codification

Codification in the outer circle involves five challenges;

Prescription or Description?

 Prescriptivism is the belief that one variety of a language is superior to others and should be promoted as
such.
 Descriptivism is a nonjudgmental approach to language that focuses on how it is actually spoken and written.

Selection

Outer-Circle English users communicate within their region and with speakers from other circles so, selection of an
exclusively internal or external model as the standard is difficult

Functions

 Participatory function

Codification for purposes of mutual collaboration

 Separatist function

Marking boundaries of distinct identity

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Content of standards

Two possibilities:

 Stay with the British or American model: easy and economical

 Select an internal model: involves a large amount of work

Acceptance - Locally defined standards need the approval and support of Experts and professionals

Codification and Teacher Education

 Teachers need to maintain a balance between teaching and language. Teacher education programmers should
prepare teachers to make decisions and consider the choices that can be made.
 Avoid blindly following the inner circle practices.
 Select teaching techniques appropriate to their context.

Two concepts of Standards and Codification

-Randolph Quirk’s view

Three Models of spread of English;

 Demographic Model
 Econocultural Model
 Imperial Model

Issues of Standards – Quirk’s view

1. General – Educational concerns

2. Restricted – Special uses of English

-Kachru’s views

Sociolinguistic reality of English in global context

 Depth – multicultural varieties of English at various societal levels

 Range – extraordinary wide domains of functions

He emphasizes the User. Users make adjustments in their use of English that reflect the realities of their own
sociolinguistic contexts.

He rejects the traditional view of native speakers being the norm providers for all varieties of English.

He rejects the view that varieties are deficient or incompletely learned.

 Some scholars believe that new varieties of Englishes should follow the External Model – Use Native English
speaking countries as a Model.
 Others propose that these New varieties of Englishes should find the Model within themselves.

1. External Models in Expanding and Outer Circles

Arguments for External Models

 Need for a uniform standard world-wide

 Sufficiency of External Models
 Inseparability of English and American/British culture

2. Internal Models in Expanding and Outer Circles

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Arguments for External Models

 Unavailability of acculturation of English – focusing on sociocultural context of outer and expanding circle
 Research on Internal Models has started
 Breaking away from British and American culture – Adoption of new specific cultures
 Language standard and ideology – focusing on social identity

Standard VS. Global Language

Standard Language

 A language which has changed from a regional into a national language

 Used as a SL by the speakers of other dialects, retaining the features of their regional language

Global Language

 A language which has changed from a national into an ‘international’ language

 Used as a SL by the speakers of other languages, retaining some features of their national languages

Video Topic: 116 onward

Conventions of language use across cultures

Languages vary across cultures because of these reasons;

 The way interactions are conducted

 Sociocultural values
 Conventions of language use
 Linguistic structure

Speech act

An act that a speaker performs making an utterance, such as;

 Requesting
 Promising
 Asking
 Demanding
 Apologizing

One aspect in different varieties of English differ from each other is in the use of conventions of politeness.

Negative politeness

 The strategies that avoid offence by showing deference, for instance, use of honorific terms; Dr. or Mr.
 This type of politeness carried out where interactions between strangers are conventionally oriented more to
deference.

Positive politeness

 The strategies that avoid offence by highlighting friendliness, for instance, use of nick names
 This type of politeness carried out where interactions between strangers are expected to more friendly.

Rhetorical strategies

 It refers to the strategies used to produce appropriate and effective language in any situation.
 Selection of rhetorical strategy is motivated by considerations of sociocultural appropriateness.
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Features of Outer and Expanding Circle writing

 High sounding style

 Indirectness
 Presenting all sides of an arguments
 Extensive quotation from previous work

Features of Inner Circle writing

 Use of Direct imperatives

 Heavy emphasis on explicit, impersonal language
 Need to acknowledge the literary value of Outer circle writings
 Publishers need to shed off their prejudices

Video Topic: 119 onward

Genre - It is a type of literature or other form of artistic composition (painting, music, film) marked by distinctive
style, form or content.

For instance, Newspaper writing is a Genre. Whenever we write for newspaper, we tend to confirm to kind of writing
appropriate for newspaper. Within newspaper writing we’ve different sub Genres like news report writing is one sub-
Genre and tutorials are other Genre.

Genre identified on factors external to the text;

 Rhetorical context – the context of the use of the language

 Communicative purpose of Genre
 Sociocultural & other institutional constraints

Genre identified on factors internal to the text;

 Lexicon – vocabulary
 Grammar
 Text organization patterns

Style – generally defined in terms of text-internal factors

It can demonstrate;

 An individual use of language

 A functional use of language

Difference between Style & Genre

 Genre focuses more on the communicative values

 Style focuses more on the linguistic form

Genre in the context of World Englishes

Individual variations can be seen in the use of language in different contexts. These variations are caused by
differences in the experiences, goals, attitudes, and values of the speakers of World Englishes.

Variations due to world Englishes can create noticeable difference in genre and styles.
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Scholars divided Genres on the basis of the constraints they observe. The types of genre are;

Conservative genres

It includes the text which is used in academic or professional context in which both internal (grammar, vocabulary)
and external features are included.

Liberal genres

These genres have no constraints. It includes creative or innovative use of linguistic form.

Video Topic: 121 onward

SL Acquisition

The study of individuals and groups who are learning a language after learning their FL as young children

Distinction in SL in SLA

 Second language
 Foreign language
 Auxiliary language
 Additional language

According to Kachru, World Englishes claims

 There is a repertoire of models for English, not just the native English
 Localized innovation in English deserve recognition
 The ownership of English lies with all those who use it.

SLA and World Englihses

 Non-native speaker (NNS) norms should be treated as equal to native speaker norms.
 NNS norms should be used for evaluating appropriateness of English in Outer Circle contexts.

View of deviations from the Standard English;

 In SLA; errors
 In WE; variations

Benefits of world Englishes to the study of SLA

 Provides fertile ground for SLA research

 Offers research potential in Applied Linguistics and Sociolinguistics

Lack of relevance between world Englishes and SLA concepts of;

 Fossilization
 Interlanguage
 Input
 Monitor

Orthodox view of SLA

 Native-like competence is considered the goal of L2 learning

 Deviations from NS norms are considered the result of incompetence
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World Englishes view of SLA

 Native-like competence is not considered the goal of L2 learning

 Deviations from NS norms are not considered the result of incompetence especially when the use is
systematic and shared by a speech community.

Language instruction in World Englishes context

 English language instruction is carried out by non-native English teachers

 No exposure to native speakers
 No exposure to input from inner circle

FL instruction in NNS countries

Native language is considered as a model for foreign language learning

Native speaker is not a requirement as teacher or instructor.

English Language instruction in NNS countries

 Preference for native English speaking teachers

 Questions also arise like, which pedagogical model (American or British)? Which English (US or UK)?

Kachru made the distinction between Genetic and Functional nativeness

Genetic nativeness – refers to the historical relationships of contact and convergence between languages.

Functional nativeness – refers to sociolinguistic status in range (domain) and depth (people) of use in a society.

Communicative competence

It is the ability to use language to be able to achieve certain functions or goals in society. In other words, it is the tacit
knowledge of language and the ability to use it effectively.

Video Topic: 126 onward

Nativization – refers to the adaptation of English to local socio-cultural environments

Englishization – refers to the transformation which takes place in non-English cultures and languages as a result of
exposure to the English language.

Code mixing – refers to changing from one language to another within sentence, i.e. I want some Chaaye.

Code switching – changing from one language to another across sentences, i.e. I slept. Mujhy dyr hogai.

Interlanguage

It refers to the intermediate states or halfway house of a learner’s language as it moves from L1 toward the target L2.

Interlanguage hypotheses

1. Varieties of English are fossilized forms of Standard English.

2. All the varieties are the result of imperfect learning

Fossilization and World Englishes

In a multilingual context, each language has its own use.One language may not be appropriate to use in all domains.
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SlA in Outer and Expanding Circles

 Native-like competence is not considered the goal of L2 learning

 No exposure to native speakers
 No exposure to input from inner circle

Video Topic: 129 onward

SLA Theory Construction

 Foreign students in universities are used as sources of data and learners in the Outer and Expanding Circles
are overlooked.
 Little awareness of the factors relevant to English language learning in these contexts

Assumptions of SLA

 Learning goal is to attain native-like competence to communicate with native speakers

 Input comprises the entire range and depth of British and American English
 Learners ought to have integrative motivation for language learning
 Primary languages are considered as source of negative and positive transfer
 Difference from Standard British or American English is considered failure.

Five percent of learners are expected to achieve native competence in L2 and other are consigned to the category of
Interlanguage users.

Realities of Outer & Expanding Circle context

 Non-native interlocutors
 Native English norms may be viewed unfavorably
 Input available in indigenized variety of English; Teachers, Peers, Materials
 Each language with a distinct function
 Functions of English limited to the context

Integrating World Englishes into SLA paradigm

Theory construction to consider:

 Multilingualism
 Functions of language(s)
 Creative potential of human linguistic behavior
 Inclusion of ‘indigenized language’ as a type of acquisition in SLA
 Acceptability of stable variations rather than treating them errors

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