ENG506 Handouts New

World Englishes
(ENG506)
Lesson-01
English as a Global Language
Topic-001: Introduction to the Course Learning Theories
The course gives an engaging overview of the development and concept of World Englishes. The
course discusses the role of English as a single global language all over the world and its advantages for
the world as well as the dangers for the minor languages. The course also describes various political,
social and historical contexts which led to the spread of English throughout the world and eventually
caused it to become a lingua franca.
The course aims to:

• understand globalization, global language and the need of a global language
• comprehend the relation between language and identity and the dominance of a global language
over minor languages.
• have a conceptual understanding of English as native, second, foreign and international language
and the factors affecting them.
Topic-001: Globalization
World Englishes is a term coined by Braj Kachru (an Indian-American linguist) initially to refer
to the institutionalized varieties of English. Now the term refers to various varieties of English across the
world. The pluralization of World English in the title refers to the large number of varieties that English is
accrued as a result of its contact with sociolinguistic context. It means that English is no longer used by
native English speakers in native English speaking countries like America, Australia, New Zealand, etc.
Now English is also used by non-native English speakers in non-native English speaking countries for
various professional, official and educational purposes. These countries include Pakistan, India, Sri
Lanka, Hong Kong, etc. These distinct varieties are grouped together under the heading of World
Englishes.
Globalization refers to a great number of things taking place in the world and their
interconnectedness. It is a process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and
governments of different nations. This interaction can take various forms, e.g. political cooperation
among countries with the hope that this kind of co-operation will help prevent disputes or in case of a
dispute will help resolve such disputes. Some examples are SAARC, European Union and NATO.
Another form that this interaction can take is through sharing of ideas and information. In today’s world
sharing of information takes place through social media and internet. This can also take place with the
help of TV programs, films and books.
Trade and exchange of resources greatly enhances this interaction. Countries like America sell
their finished products and technologies to countries which lack them. Similarly, developing countries sell
their natural resources to the developed countries which need them.
Globalization is not a new phenomenon. For thousands of years countries and later corporation have been
selling and buying things from far off lands. Similarly, for centuries, countries have been investing in
enterprises in foreign countries. It increased as result of technological development. Globalization has
also led to cultural exchange among different countries and this cultural exchange may lead to
harmonization of world cultures with the result that one day all the people of the world maybe eating the
same food, listening to the same music and speaking the same language.
Topic-002: What is a Global Language?

A language achieves a global status when it develops a special role recognized in every country.
Now the question arises what determines a special role? If the mother tongue status of a language makes
it global then Spanish should be the global language as it is the mother tongue of over 20 countries around
the world. If the speakers’ number determines it then English is spoken by millions of people around the
world.
However, it is neither the mother tongue status nor the number of speakers which determine the
global status of a language. It is, in fact, identities of the speakers which determine the global status of a
language.
Millions of people around the world speak English as a first language. Even a great number of speakers
speak it as their second language. Today, total 1.5 billion speakers of English exist around the world. No
other language can match this degree of growth and development.
A global language essentially refers to a language that is learned and spoken internationally, and
is characterized not only by the number of its native and second language speakers, but also by its
geographical distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations.
A global language is a language taken up by people in countries in which it is not the mother tongue. It
can be done in two ways:
• By making it the official language of the country (second language)
• By making it a priority in foreign-language teaching e.g. Russian is popular in former Soviet
Union countries
Topic-003: The Need for a Global Language
There is an urgent need for global language but this need is not new. Linguistically mixed
communities have been communicating with each other for thousands of years. Communication in the
past was through translators and interpreters. Monarchs, kings and ambassadors met with each other in
the presence of interpreters. However, this kind of communication has its own problems. It was restricted
and incomplete information because intensity and mildness of feelings cannot be communicated through
translation. Having a common language (lingua franca) is the solution to this problem. Lingua franca can
be defined in the follow words:
A lingua franca is a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose
native languages are different.
Choice of a language as the lingua franca

• A simplified language used by different trading communities (Pidgin)
• An indigenous language can be adopted as a lingua franca, e.g. Mandarin Chinese
• A foreign language of a powerful nation becomes lingua franca, e.g. English
The extent of the use of a lingua franca depends on these factors.

• Between a few ethnic groups in one part of a single country, e.g. Urdu can be a lingua franca in
Lahore if people from four provinces get together.
• Between the trading populations of just a few countries instead of the whole world
• Between the countries in a particular part of the world, e.g. Mandarin Chinese as a lingua franca
in East Asian countries (China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South and North Korea)
Global lingua franca is comparatively a newer idea. It emerged in the twentieth century (in
particular since 1950s after World War II). There are two separate factors which are responsible for the
growth in contacts among countries:
• Increased Interaction among countries at international forums. After 2nd world war, several
international organizations such as United Nations Organization (UNO), World Bank, World
Health Organization (WHO), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), were developed to bring countries closer and to resolve their disputes.
• Increased contacts among countries because of technological developments, especially
advancement in communication technology and technology for transportation.
• Need for a common language at international forums
UN has a membership of 190 countries at the moment. It started with five official languages but
there was a need to reduce the number of official languages in order to save the cost of translation and
interpretation. However, language choice is a sensitive issue as no country would like the official status of
its language to be changed or lowered at international levels. The solution is the voluntary use of a
common language as a working language. English has proved to be such a language due to the increase of
general competence in it or its popularity to be learnt as a foreign language.
Another need for a global language is on business and academic front. Collaboration among
scientists and scholars from different countries is possible only through a lingua franca, e.g. a scientist
from Sweden and a scientist from India want to work together on a research project, they will not be able
to do so without using a common language. Similarly, a common language provides a lot of facilitation in
international business. A businessman from Japan and a businessman from America cannot work together
on a business project unless they use a common language.
Topic-004: What Makes a Global Language?
Here are few misunderstandings about the success of a language.

• Perceived aesthetic qualities
• Clarity of expression
• Literary power
• Religious influence
• Simple structure and grammar
In the following, some misunderstandings about the popularity of English have been provided.
• Ease of learning
• Few inflectional endings,
• a word changes form in the end, e.g., adopt, adopted (V), word, words (Noun)
• Gender neutral
• English makes no distinction of gender in the use of nouns, verbs and adjectives.
• Appealing properties of a language
• Familiar vocabulary because thousands of words are borrowed from various languages.
• Democratic nature of the language (English grammar does not distinguish between social classes)
• Cosmopolitan (multicultural) character because of a large number of borrowed words
A language does not become a global language because of its:

• Structural properties
• Vocabulary
• Association with great literature, culture or religion
• A strong power base
• Political power and military power
• Economic power
• Technological power
• Cultural power
• Economic Power
Now-a-days, along with politics and military power, economics is also the chief driving force behind
the world events. If the military power establishes a language in a region, it is the economic power
which spreads and maintains it.
Topic-005: Emergence of English as a Global Language

Communication technologies expanded the scope of economic developments leading to:
• Formation of countless multinational organisations
• Rapid increase in international marketing and advertising
• Empowerment first of press and then of broadcast media
Economic empowerment and communication technologies

Growth of new mass entertainment industry in the form of movies and music, e.g. availability of movies
on computer screens, USB drives, discs, etc.
• Desire for progress in science and technology has resulted in the development of an international
intellectual and research environment.
• Economic supremacy of English speaking countries
• Countries at the centre of this plethora of activities were USA and Great Britain.
Britain
• The world’s leading industrial and trading country by the beginning of the 19th century
• Biggest colonial power
USA
• Fastest growing population in whole of the Western Europe (100 million by the end of the 19th
century)
• Fastest growing and most productive economy in the world
• Power of English established by British colonial power was maintained by America, making
English a truly global language.
Topic-006: Change in the Status of English
The following question arises in the minds of the people about the global status of English:
Is the reversal of status of English possible? The answer is yes it is possible.
Possibility of change in the status of English
• A change in the existing balance of power
• An alternative method of communication
Change in the balance of power
• Political power
• Economic influence
Change in the balance of power
A large scale change in the current balance of power may lead to a change in the status of
English. A small change cannot reverse the status of English as the popularity and use of
English has spread to countess nations; therefore, its ownership belongs to many nations.
An alternative method of communication
• Using machine translations
• Making it possible to communicate in the first language
An alternative method of communication
• Global spread and economic accessibility of such a method
• Doesn’t pose a threat to the need of a global language
Lesson-02
Dangers of a Global Language
Having a single global language for the whole world may have its advantages; e.g. it may facilitate
interaction among countries thus promoting trade and business among them. It may also open new
avenues for education, research and scholarship. A single global language may also contribute to
bringing countries closer by enabling them to share books, music and movies thus promoting peace and
harmony in the world. But we cannot overlook the fact that a global language also has its disadvantages.
It can unduly empower its native speakers as well as eliminate minor languages entirely from the face of
the world.
Topic-007: Dangers of a Global Language
Due to the hegemonic presence of English, an elite monolingual class comes into existence which is
overly self-satisfied due to the fact that it has access to the global language and the people belonging to
this class look down upon other languages. Therefore a gap between social classes is created.
Users have an advantage over non-users of English in:
• Business
• Employment
• Academics
• Computers
• Entertainment
Unpopularity of other languages
• Lack of interest in learning other languages
• Reduced opportunities for learning other languages
Topic-008: Undue Empowerment of Mother Tongue Users of Global Language
One of the most important disadvantages of a single global language is the advantaged position of mother
tongue users as compared to the non-native users. As language as an instrument of action and power, the
mother tongue speakers of English get empowerment in professional fields such as
• Science and technology
• Business
• Academics
The solution to this problem is powerful bilingualism. To maintain powerful bilingualism, proper
attention should be paid to language teaching/ learning of the global language in educational contexts.
The global language should be introduced early in schools to improve students’ skills.
Difficulty in achieving bilingualism
• Financial implications
Only those countries are able to achieve powerful bilingualism which are financially better off e.g.
Germany, Sweden, etc. This type of bilingualism is not available to the citizens of the developing
countries e.g. Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.
Topic 9: Linguistic Complacency
Linguistic Complacency means being satisfied with one’s language and lack of motivation for
learning other languages. The following factors in involved in linguistic complacency.
• Lack of money
• Lack of opportunity
• Lack of interest
A change of attitude is needed to save the minor languages from elimination.
• Breakaway from monolingual bias
• Sensitivity to business partner’s language
• Respect of other cultures
• Readiness for language learning
Topic 10: Loss of Linguistic Diversity
The phenomenon of language death is an occurrence throughout the history. There are 7, 099 languages
in the world these days out of which fifty percent are at risk.
The following natural catastrophes often cause death of a language.

• Earthquakes
• Floods
• Storms
• Famines
• Droughts
Other factors that cause language death are mentioned below.
• Cultural assimilation
• Demographic submersion
• Military superiority
• Economic reasons
• Urbanisation and Consumer culture
The following international organizations have been formed for conservation of endangered languages.
• The International Clearing House for Endangered Languages, Tokyo
• The Foundation for Endangered Languages
• The Endangered Language Fund, USA
Topic 11: Loss of Linguistic Diversity II

English has affected minority languages only in the areas where it was the dominant first
language, e.g. North American, Australia, etc. Therefore, it only had a limited effect on
disappearance of languages from the earth.
Impact of English as global language on linguistic diversity
• Loss of linguistic diversity and spread of English
• Influences the structure of other languages
• Provides loan words
English and loss of linguistic diversity
• Correlation between English adoption and decline of minority languages
• Asymmetrical power relations
• Impact on first world countries
Other factors behind the adoption of English
• Global interdependence
• Place in the world forums
• Access to trade markets
• Functional approach to English
• Empowerment of the subjugated and marginalized people
Topic 12: Issues of National and Cultural Identity
Language is a major means (some would say the chief means) of showing where we belong, and
of distinguishing one social group from another, and all over the world we can see evidence of
linguistic divergence rather than convergence. For decades, many people in the countries of
former Yugoslavia made use of a common language, Serbo-Croatian. But since the civil wars of
the early 1990s, the Serbs have referred to their language as Serbian, the Bosnians to theirs as
Bosnian, and the Croats to theirs as Croatian, with each community drawing attention to the
linguistic features which are distinctive. A similar situation exists in Scandinavia, where
Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish are largely mutually intelligible, but are none the less
considered to be different languages.
Arguments about the need for national or cultural identity are often seen as being opposed to
those about the need for mutual intelligibility. But this is misleading. It is perfectly possible to
develop a situation in which intelligibility and identity happily co-exist. This situation is the
familiar one of bilingualism – but a bilingualism where one of the languages within a speaker is
the global language, providing access to the world community, and the other is a well-resourced
regional language, providing access to a local community.
Lesson-03
Historical, Political and Social Contexts
Topic 13: Introducing World Englishes
World Englishes as a field of study has been recently established.

There are two distinct positions on it:
• A single standardised form of English as the model (Randolph Quirk, 1985)
• Many linguistically equal varieties of English (Baraj Kachru, 1985)
Kachru’s classification of English
Kachru classified English into three concentric circles:

1. Inner Circle
2. Outer Circle
3. Expanding Circle
Traditional classifications of English
• English as a native language (ENL)
• English as a second language (ESL)
• English as a foreign language (EFL)
Phases of development of English language varieties
1. The local variety remains unrecognized
2. Local variety and inner circle variety exist side by side
3. The local variety becomes recognized as the standard
Topic 14: Origins-I
Topic 15: Origins-II
Origins of English
• Was spoken in the north-west corner of Europe
• Then called Teutish, or Teutsch, or Deutsch
• Brought to Britain by settlers like Jutes, Angles and Saxons in 449
Arrival of English in Britain
• An invading army or uncoordinated bands?
• Ruling minority or large group of settlers?
• Pushed the inhabitants of the island – the Britons – to the north and west (Scotland, Wales,
Cornwall and Ireland)
Arrival of English in Britain
• The settlers had more power and prestige e.g. Wealh = Britons, foreigners/slaves
• Germanic became the dominant language
• These groups were closely related in language and culture.
• The word Engle ‘the Angles’ was applied to all the settlers.
• The related adjective Englisc was applied to all these people and their language.
Spread of English over Britain
• The Jutes who came from Juteland (Jutland) settled in Kent
• The Saxons settled in the south and western parts of England.
• Essex: the kingdom of the East Saxons
• Wessex: the kingdom of the West Saxons
• Middlesex: the kingdom of the Middle Saxons
• Sussex: The kingdom of the South Saxons
• The Angles settled chiefly on the east coast.
• The kingdom of East Anglia was divided into the regions of the:
• North Folk (Norfolk)
• South Folk (Suffolk)
Topic 16: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: America
Settlement history
Expeditions to America
1584
•First expedition ending in failure
1607
• (Chesapeake Bay): First permanent settlement
Expeditions to America
1640
•Successful settlement
•Number of immigrants increased (twenty-five thousand more immigrants arrived)
Dialectical diffusion
• Diverse group: different regional, social, occupational and linguistic backgrounds
Tidewater accent
•Southern settlement included settlers from England’s ‘West Country’
•Brought their characteristic accent
•z voicing of s sounds
•r strongly pronounced after vowels
Dialectical diffusion
•Northern colonists came from the east of England lacked r sound after vowels
•Later population movements preserved this dialect distinction
•Blurred dialect picture because of frequent movements
Topic 17: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: America II

Increase in population
Seventeenth century
• A large number of immigrants from Midlands and northern England
1720s
• New wave of immigrants from Ireland
Increase in population
Nineteenth Century
• Increase in immigration due to poverty
• Revolutions in Germany and Italy
• Jewish pogrom in Europe
Increase in Population
• Between 1790 and 1890, the population grew from four million to 50 million
• 1900: the population was just over 75 million
• 1950: this total had doubled
• 2016: 323.1 million
Increase in mother tongues users of English
• Within one or two generations immigrants began to speak English
• A massive growth in mother-tongue use of English
• Eighty percent of the 323.1 million population used English as their mother tongue
Topic 18: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: Australia and New Zealand
Settlement history
1770
• James Cook discovered and charted New Zealand and Australia
1788
• Australia was colonized by the British
1840
• New Zealand was colonized by the British
Settlement history of Australia
• Australia was made a penal colony.
• Housed 130, 000 prisoners between 1788 and 1808
• Other settlers also entered the country but in small numbers
Increase in Population
• Rate of immigration increased rapidly in mid nineteenth century
• Population grew from 400, 000 to 4 million in 50 years
• In 2002, it was nearly 19 million
• In 2016, 24.13 million
Influences on Australian English
• Settlers included convicts from London and Ireland
• Cockney accent of London and brogue of Ireland
• Aboriginal languages
• American English
• Immigrants
Settlement history of New Zealand
1790
• European settlements began
1814
• Christian missionary work
Settlement history of New Zealand
1840
• Treaty of Waitangi between Maori chiefs and the Crown
• Official establishment of a British colony
Increase in immigrant population
• 1840-1850: 20, 000 – 25, 000
• 1850 – 1900: 25, 000 –750, 000
• Gold rush
• Increased immigration from Britain
• 2002: 3.8 million
• 2016: 4. 693 million
Influences on New Zealand English
• Perception of stronger ties with Britain
• A growing sense of national identity
• Concern for the rights and needs of the Maori people
Lesson-04
Topic 19: Spread of English: Caribbean
Slave trade gave rise to a distinctive kind of English in West Indies and mainland America.
Black slave trade

• Cheap goods exchanged for black slaves
• Atlantic triangle of journeys between Europe, West Africa and West Indies and America
Three stages of slave trade
Stage I
1. Ships left from British ports to West Africa
2. Carried finished goods (cloth, guns, ironware, drinks)
3. West African countries: Senegal, Nigeria
Stage II
1. African dealers kidnapped villagers from hundreds of miles inland.
2. Treated them cruelly.
3. Slaves were traded for the goods brought from Europe.
Stage III
1. Slaves were transported to the Caribbean islands and American coasts.
2. Sold to the highest bidder at slave auctions
3. Worked on sugar plantations for nothing
4. Goods were bought with the money made from the sale of slaves
Emerging of a new linguistic code
1. Growth of several unique codes of communication called pidgin
2. Pidgins gave rise to Creole English
3. Intermingling of different Creoles with standard English resulted in several varieties of English
Topic 20: Spread of English: South East Asia
America established its sovereignty over Philippines in 1898. Strong influence of American
English in Philippines persists. It includes the largest population of the English speaking states in the
region (90 million in 2016). British colonial empire in Southeast Asia was begun by Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles (British statesman). After that, several British settlements took place in Penang, Malacca and most
notable Singapore (1786 - 1824). By 1867, English had been established as the medium of law and
administration. English rapidly became the language of power in the British territories of South-east Asia.
Many other regions in Southeast Asia also came under the British control:
• Hong Kong island (1842) Kowloon (1860)
• The New Territories, which form the largest part of the colony, were leased from China in 1898
for ninety-nine years.
Introduction of a British educational system:
• English medium schools began in Penang (now Malaysia’s leading port) in 1816.
• Teaching staff routinely brought in from Britain.
• Standard British English model
• English became the language of professional advancement and the language of higher education
• Became a prestigious lingua franca among those who had received an English education
Southeast Asian Englishes: Singapore
• 1950s: a bilingual educational system with English alongside Chinese, Malay, and Tamil.
• English remained the language of government, legal system, education and the media.
• Popular among population in family settings
• Development of Singlish
Southeast Asian Englishes: Malaysia
• Bahasa Malaysia was adopted as the national language after the independence in 1957
• Role of English became restricted.
• Malay-medium education was introduced, with English as a compulsory subject
Southeast Asian Englishes: Hong Kong

• Limited use of English in government, military administration, law, business and the media
• English and Chinese have joint official status.
• Chinese predominates in most speech situations.
Topic 21: Spread of English: South Africa I
Contemporary situation
• Eleven national languages
• Afrikaans is the first language of the whites of Dutch origin.
• Symbol of identity for Afrikaners
• First language of most of the coloured population
• English enjoys more prestige than any other language
• English belongs to two of the three concentric circles in Kachru’s model of world Englishes:
• Inner
• Outer
• Expanding
• English used by the whites of British background ( 4.9 million, 9.6%)
• Increasingly used by black population
• Taken up by Afrikaners due to its value for upward mobility
• Roughly 11 million users of English as a second language
South African Varieties of English
A continuum of accents exists:
• Influenced by Afrikaans
• Influenced by British Received Pronunciation
• Influenced by African languages
South African varieties of English
A continuum of accents exists:
• White South African English (SAE)
• Black SAE
• Indian SAE
• Colored SAE
South African varieties of English
Gradually, a more homogeneous accent has emerged.
1. Uses of English in South Africa
• Interpersonal
• Instrumental
• Regulative
• Innovative/imaginative
Topic 22: Spread of English: South Africa II
Colonial rules
• Dutch from 1652 to 1795
• British from 1795 to 1948
• Dutch (by now called Afrikaners) 1948 – 1994
• Several British settlements were established in 1840s and1850s.
Immigrations
• Witwatersrand gold rush attracted a large number of immigrants in the 1870s
• Arrival of half a million English speaking immigrants towards the end of nineteenth century
History of English language in South Africa

• First Dutch (later Afrikaan) then English were used as the official languages
• Struggle for power and privilege for the speakers of a particular language
• Language was used to strengthen apartheid.

• After taking over from the Dutch in 1806, British tried to Anglicise the region.
• 1910: formation of Union of South Africa
• Declaration of Dutch and English as co-official languages
• In 1948 Afrikaners came into power and introduced Afrikanerization.
• English came to be used, by those with an ethnically mixed background.
• Also adopted by many immigrants from India
Controversial Language Policy
Bantu Education Act
• Imposition of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in black schools
• Resistance from Black students resulted in bloody uprising
Controversial Language Policy
• Afrikaan perceived by the black as the language of oppression and English as the language of
liberation
• Blacks viewed English as a tool for achieving an international voice
• The Bantu Education Act had the opposite effect than desired for it.
Topic 23: Spread of English: Africa
Colonial Africa
• Cape of Good Hope: the only colonial settlement until 1794
• By 1914 several colonial territories had emerged.
Colonial Africa
• Repartitioning after the two World Wars
• Liberation of African countries towards the second half of the 20th century
• Formation of Organization of African Unity
Spread of English in Africa
• Increase in commerce
• Anti-slave activities facilitated the spread of English.
• In 1807, the British Parliament passed an Act for the abolition of the slave trade.
• Royal Navy’s West Indies squadron seized thousands of ships and slaves were freed.
• Settlements made for freed slaves
• Served as bases for the anti-slave trade squadrons
• Later became crown colonies
• Visited by missionaries

1. Sierra Leone
2. Ghana
3. Nigeria
4. Gambia
5. Cameroon
• Highly multilingual region
• Standard varieties of English used by the colonial officials and missionaries
• Emergence of English based pidgins and creoles
• English based creole – Krio major form of communication
Spread of English in East Africa
• Formation of British East African Company in 1888
• Establishment of British colonial protectorates
• Almost all the protectorates declared English their official language after independence
East African English
• A large number of emigrants and Africa-born whites
• British model used in schools
• A range of mother tongue English varieties
Topic 24: Spread of English: South Asia
South Asian countries

• India
• Pakistan
• Bangladesh
• Sri Lanka
• Nepal
• Bhutan
Arrival of English in South Asia
• Formation of the East India Company in 1600
• The decline in the powers of the Mughal emperors
• Trading transformed into dominance over India
Role and status of English during the Empire
• Became the language of administration
• English education system was introduced in 1835
• Became the medium of instruction in higher education
• Increased the growth and status of English
Role and status of English during the Empire
• Two systems of education: English medium and vernacular medium
• English became language of empowerment
Role and Status of English in Pakistan
• Inherited the dual system of education from the British
• Urdu was declared the national and English the official language in 1947.
• The government continued to support English medium schools.
Use of English
A number of functions in important domains
• The courts
• Government administration
• Higher education
• The armed forces
• The media
• Business and tourism
• In-group communication
Use of English
• Associated official language in Pakistan and India
• Emergence of an official indigenized variety
• Majority showing a leaning towards British English followed by American English
Users of English
• Pakistan: 17,000,000
• India: 200,350,000
English in South Asia
• Outnumbers the speakers in USA and UK combined
• It is due to the number of speakers in India.
• Twenty percent of one billion people speak English.
• Used as a lingua franca in the south of India
Use of English in other South Asian countries
• No official status in other South Asian countries
• Medium of international communication
• Sign of cultural modernity
Lesson-05
Topic 25: Political Developments
Role of English during the Empire

• Exerting civilising influence was a goal.
• English facilitated the achievement of this goal.
• English was considered a symbol of political unity.
• Developments of railway, roads and telegraph may be symbolized by the use of the language in
these regions
• A unifying medium of communication within a colony
• Showed bonds between the colony and the home country
• Access to industrial developments
Triumphalist attitude
• Education as a means of bringing people peacefully under subjugation
• The education was to be delivered through English.
Triumphalist attitude
“We were taught—and believed—that the best ideas were English ideas, the best government was
English government, and the best men were Englishmen” (Mandela as quoted in Rahman 2005, p.
26).
Enduring influence of English
• English chosen as the official language by many African and Asian countries
• Still considered a symbol of progress
Topic 26: Technological and Industrial Development-I
Britain’s industrialization
• Population growth
• Economic growth
• Production growth
Production growth
• Massive changes in technology and organization
• Large scale production of manufactured goods
• Britain becoming the workshop of the world
USA’s industrialization
• USA over took Britain
• Many American inventers came to fame
Linguistic consequences
• Most research being done by English speaking countries or by their collaboration
• Between 1700 – 1900 most of the scientific research had been documented in English
Linguistic consequences of industrialization
• Addition in the English lexicon
• Need of English for borrowing or buying this technology
• Exchange/hiring of expertise
Topic 27: Technological and Industrial Development-II
Access to new knowledge

Supported by:
• Developments in printing press
• Transportation
Developments in transportation
• Railway system
• Road network
• New sources of energy
Major business giants in the USA
• John D. Rockfeller
• William Randolph Hearst
• John Pierpont Morgan
Economic imperialism
• Growth of international banking system
• Growth of world trade and investment
• Investments provided to new colonies and less wealthy European countries
Economic imperialism
• London and New York became the investment capitals of the world.
• £4,500 thousand million investment abroad
Topic 28: Social and Cultural Trends
Consolidation of English after WWI

• Role as a mediating language
• Spread through colonial cultural legacies
• Expansion due to technological revolution
Role of English in international relations
• Sole or co-official language of most international organizations
• Role in restricted membership organizations
English-only organizations
• Scientific organizations
• The African Association of Science Editors
• The Cairo Demographic Centre
• Baltic Marine Biologists
• European Association of Cancer Research and the European Association of Fish Pathology
• Sporting organizations
A different kind of role
• Language of protests
• English and the right to use one’s own language
Topic 29: International Travel
Role of English in international travel

• USA: the leading tourism earner and spender
• In 2001, the USA earned over $72,000.
Role of English in international travel

• Staff at hotels
• Signs at airports and popular tourist sites
Presence of English on international travel
• Signs in the shop windows
• Restaurant menus
• Credit card facilities
• Selling of artefacts
• Beg money from the passing visitor
English as an auxiliary language
• Safety instructions
• Notices
• Road signs
Role of military travel
• Contact with the English speaking culture
• Songs and music
• Radio broadcasts
• Peace keeping missions
Topic 30: English as a Lingua Franca
Reasons for the emergence of English as a lingua franca

• Retaining of English as an official language by former British colonies
• USA’s economic power
Reasons for the emergence of English as a lingua franca
• Internal political reasons
• Intellectual reasons
• Practical reasons
• Entertainment reasons
Points of view regarding the status of English
• jeopardizes the role and status of other languages.
• Restricts the understanding of other cultures
Points of view regarding the status of English
• Wide spread use of English acknowledges diversity.
• Strengthens the possibility of planetary citizenship
Lesson-06
Contact Induced Varieties of English
Topic-031: Pidgins and Creoles
Pidgin
It is the product of a multilingual contact situation in which those who wish to communicate must
find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so.
Language contact
• A linguistic and social phenomenon
• Speakers of different languages interact with one another
• This results in transfer of linguistic features
Pidgin
• A reduced variety of a language
• Results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in common
• Arises to fulfill the restricted communication needs of such people
Origin of the term pidgin
• A Chinese corruption of the English word ‘business’
gospidgin man = God’s businessman (priest)
chow chow pidgin = cooking
• Portuguese ocupaçao meaning ‘trade, job, occupation’.
Origin of the term pidgin
• A form from the South American language Yayo ‘pidian’ meaning ‘people’
• Hebrew word ‘pidjom’ meaning ‘barter’
Creole
• A pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
• Creoles arise when pidgins become mother tongues
Topic-032: Process of Pidginization-I
Background
• A result of European colonization into Africa and Asia
• New World slavery
Background
• Slaves were deliberately drawn from a variety of language backgrounds.
• The reason was to avoid rebellion against their masters.
Background
Communication was needed between:
• Slave master and slave
• Slave and slave
Process of pidginization
The simplification of a language used by groups of speakers separated from each other by different
languages.
Process of pidginization
Contact between speakers of:
• A dominant European language
• Mutually unintelligible African and Asian languages
Topic-033: Process of Pidginization-II

Simplification of dominant language
• The need for restricted communication
• Simplification of the dominant language
• Has simplified grammar
• Fewer words (700 – 2000)
• Less morphology
• Restricted range of phonological and syntactic options
• Grammatical redundancy is not needed
Example
Two big newspapers
Three tall girls
Les deux grands journax
Di tu big pepa
• Bros = friend, male friend
• Show = to come, to arrive
• Haus = house
Bros show ma haus
Dok = animal
Sik = sick
Haus dok sik = hospital (house dog sick)
• Dogbaby = puppy
• Cowbaby = calf
• Talkitalki = very talkative
• Gras bilong head = hair
• Gras bling moth = moustache
Common views about pidgins
• Marginal languages
• Degenerations
• Deviations
• Imperfectly learned languages
Common views about speakers of pidgins
• Deficient
• Ignorant
• Inferior
• Lazy
Features of a pidgin
• Has no native speakers
• Is no one’s first language
• Has a limited use
• Has simplistic structure
• Has limited functions
• Is an adjunct language (no one speaks only a pidgin)
Topic-034: Process of Creolization-I
Creole
• Evolves from a pidgin into a richer language
• Has native speakers (the children learn the pidgin as their first language)
Origin of the term creole
• Comes from the Portuguese word ‘criar’ meaning ‘to nurse’, ‘breed’, ‘bring up’
• Crioulo = an African slave born into the new world
A pidgin or a creole?
• Some pidgins exist as both pidgins and creoles.
Process of creolization
• Opposed to the process of pidginization
• Used for a wide range of functions
• Has a larger vocabulary
• Has more complicated grammatical resources than pidgins
• Expansion of morphology and syntax
• Regularization of the phonology
• Deliberate increase in the number of functions
• Development of a rational and stable system
"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom."
"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?“
"Fantom, em i go we?"
Process of creolization
"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom."
"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?“
"Fantom, em i go we?"
“If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.”
“Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?”
“Where did he go?”
Common view about creoles
• Speakers range from a low of 6–7 million to as many as 10–17
• Often regarded as lesser languages
• Speakers feel a great sense of inferiority about their languages
Topic-035: Process of Creolization-II
Process of Creolization
• Most pidgins are lingua francas, existing to meet temporary local needs.
• Very few pidgins undergo the process of creolisation.
• Pidgins are spoken by those who also use another language.
• If a pidgin is no longer needed, it dies out.
Emergence of creole continuum
• A creole continuum arises because of its relationship with a superstrate language
• An English based creole can develop a number of varieties when it is in contact with Standard
English
Decreolization
• Increase in varieties leads to an increase in the influence of the Standard English
• This process has become known as decreolization
• Considerable social stratification is involved in the process
Parts of the creole continuum
Acrolect (High speech)
• Shift toward standard form of the language
• Educated variety
• Has very few differences from the standard language
Basilect (Low speech)
• The variety at the other extreme of the continuum
• Least comprehensible to a speaker of the standard language
Mesolect (Middle speech)
• Intermediate varieties
• Not discrete varieties
• Blend into each other
Condition for continuum
• Two extreme varieties are varieties of the same language
• When different languages are involved there can be no continuum
• In case of no contact between the standard language and the creole there will be no continuum
Hypercreolization
• Aggressive reaction against the standard language on the part of creole speakers
• Speakers focus on what they see as the “pure” form of the creole
Recreolization
• Deliberately recreolize the standard language they use to assert their ethnic identity and
solidarity
Samples from the continuum
1. ai tÑuld him
2. ai to:ld him
3. ai to:l im
4. ai tyl im
5. a tyl im
6. ai tyl i
7. a tyl i
8. mi tyl i
9. mi tyl am
Topic-036: Geographical Distribution
• Distributed mainly in the equatorial belt around the world

• Found in places with direct or easy access to the oceans
• found mainly in:
• the Caribbean
• around the north and east coasts of South America
• around the coasts of Africa, particularly the west coast
• across the Indian and Pacific Oceans
• Hancock (cited in Wardaugh, 2006) lists 127 pidgins and creoles, out of which 35 are English-
based.
There are countries or areas that are almost exclusively Spanish-speaking and have no surviving pidgins
or creoles as a result of their settlement histories, e.g., the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.
• Some countries have only English-based creoles, e.g., Antigua, Barbados, Grenada, Jamaica, and
Guyana.
• Still others have only French-based ones, e.g., Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, and Haiti.
• Sierra Leone has both pidginized and creolized Englishes.
• The pidgin is indigenous West African Pidgin English used as a trading language.
• The creole, Krio, is found in and around the capital, Freetown.
• It may have originated among the returning slaves from Jamaica and Britain.
• The language distribution reflects the social and political history of these regions.
Lesson-07
Pidgins and Creoles: Theories of Origin
Topic-037: Independent Parallel Development Theory
Theories of Origin can be divided into 3 groups:

1. Polygenesis
Evolved from various sources
2. Monogenesis
Evolved from a single source
3. Universal strategies
Derived from universal strategies
The independent parallel development theory (Polygenetic)
• Pidgins and creoles developed independently from variety of origins
• Similarities due to shared circumstances of origin
Shared circumstances of origin
• Need for communication for the purposes of trade
• Often share the same superstrate language i.e. English
• Other superstrates belong to the same language family i.e. Indo-European Shared circumstances
of origin
• Simplification processes for any language are the same
• Shared social contexts
• Common communicative needs
• Shared substrate
Topic-038: Nautical Jargon Theory
Developed as a lingua franca

• The possible influence of nautical jargon noted by the American linguist John Reinecke in 1938.
• Ships had crews from different nationalities.
• Developed from a shipboard lingua franca
• The lingua franca not a pidginized standard language was used on trading routes
• Was passed on to the Asians and Africans the sailors came in contact with
• Served as the origin for various pidgins
Characteristics
• Consisted of a core vocabulary of nautical items and a simplified grammar
• Evidence is the presence of nautical elements in many pidgins and creoles
Examples:
hivim = heave
kapsite = capsize
haisim = hoist
Evidence against the theory
• There are only a few sea-based terms in different pidgins
• Structural similarities among existing pidgins and creoles that arose from different European
languages
Topic-039: Monogenesis Theory: Afrogenesis Hypothesis
Polygenesis vs. monogenesis

Polygenesis
• Pidgins and creoles are European-language-based.
• Newly created in different places
Monogenesis
• Originated from a single source
Afrogenesis hypothesis
• Presented by Mc Whorter in 1995
• Monogenetic
• A single source accounts for the perceived similarities among pidgins
Slave trade as the origin
• Existence of English and French slave forts
• Development of contact languages in slave forts
• Contact languages are the bases of most pidgins
Evidence for the hypothesis
• Relative paucity of Spanish based creoles in the New World
• Spain did not have large slave forts and settlements in Africa
• It did not use labour-based cultivation systems
Topic-040: Baby Talk Theory
Origin
• Proposed in 1876 by Charles Leland
• Considered the earliest pidgin generation theory
• Compares pidgin speakers to young children first learning to speak
Rationale
• Similarities identified between early speech of children and certain pidgins:
• Use of a high proportion of content
• Lack of structural words
• Lack of morphological change
• Approximation of standard pronunciation
Use of the baby-talk
• The subordinate class perceived as unable to master the dominant class’s language
• Masters try to imitate their servants’ incorrect speech patterns
• Results from intentional simplification of speech
Use of the baby-talk
• Deprives the learners the opportunity to learn the correct model
• Their only option is to learn the new “baby-talk" pidgin.
• Simplified forms provide pidgins with their basic structures and lexicon
Evidence against the theory
• Pidgins are far more frequently used among non-Europeans than between Europeans and non-
Europeans
Topic-041: Theory of Relexification
Theory of relexification
• All European-language-based pidgins derive from a single source: A pidgin called Sabir
Theory of relexification
• Sabir was used as a lingua franca by traders on trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea in the
Middle Ages
• Portuguese relexified Sabir
What is relexification?
• A a mechanism of language change
• One language changes its vocabulary with the vocabulary of another language
• Not much change occurs in the relexified language's grammar
Process of relexification
• This pidgin was relexified into pidginized French, English, and Spanish
• Vocabulary was replaced
• Grammar remained intact
Sabir
Portuguese Pidgin
Atlantic Indian-Pacific
Portuguese Portuguese
Pidgin Pidgin
Classification
• Atlantic Portuguese Pidgin
• Portuguese varieties (Guiné Crioule)
• Hispanic varieties
(Papiamentu)
• Anglicized varieties
(Jamaican)
• Gallicized varieties
(Louisiana, Haitian)
Classification
• Indo-Pacific Portuguese Pidgin
• Gallicized varieties (Seychelles)
• Nederlandized (Afrikaan)
• Anglicized (Tok Pisin)
Topic-042: Universal Principles Theory
Universal principles theory

• Similar to Baby-Talk theory
• Presents the perspective of universal language behaviour in contact situations
• All L1 speakers simplify their languages in similar ways
• Language simplification process is an innate ability
Evidence for the theory
• All children go through the same stages of language mastery
• Children produce their own regular patterns across L1s different from adults
• Language simplification is practiced in all language communities between proficient and less
proficient speakers
Development of language in L1 children
• Children move on from simple register to conform to the adult norms
Retention of simplified language by pidgin users
• Children of the pidgin speakers do not have an unsimplified norm to conform to
• They use the innate ability for language learning to transform pidgins into creoles
Retention of simplified language by pidgin users
• Children of the pidgin speakers do not have an unsimplified norm to conform to
• They use the innate ability for language learning to transform pidgins into creoles
Monogenetic or Polygenetic?
• Monogenetic: Creoles developed by a single linguistic bioprogramme
• Polygenetic: Independent origin in separate locations
Lesson-08
Pidgins and Creoles: Theories of Origin
Topic-043: Pidgins and Creoles Linguistic Features: Lexis
Source
• Dominant language: the source of lexis
• Usually a European language
• The dominant language is called the lexifier
Pidgin lexis
• Is systematic
• Uses rules
• Rules move from simpler to more complicated
Rules of pidgin lexis
Lengthy coding of concepts
Example:
Bilong (of) = Belong
Papa bilong me = my father
Haus bilong you = your house
Reduplication
• To intensify meaning
Example:
tok= talk
toktok = chatter
look = look
looklook = stare
Haus bilong you = your house
Reduplication
• To avoid confusion
Example:
sip = ship
sipsip = sheep
was = watch
waswas = wash
Topic-044: Phonology
Reduction of sounds
Vowels
• Have fewer sounds than the corresponding standard languages
• Pacific pidgins have only five vowel sounds
• Some Caribbean pidgins have 12
• Compared to American English’s 17 and British English’s 20 Vowels
Examples
/i:/ (deep) = / ɪ/ (dip)
eat = it
ɔ: (walk) = /3:/ (work)
Simplification of consonant clusters
Examples:
friend = fren
salt = sol
cold = col
Conflation of consonants
The process of reducing inflected words to their word stem, base or root form.
Examples (Caribbean Creoles)
/t/ = /θ/
/d/ = /ð/
/tʃ/ = /ʃ/
Conflation of consonants
Examples (Pacific Pidgin:Tok Pisin Creoles)
/f/ = /p/
friend = pren
/s/, / ʃ / = /tʃ/
Topic-045: Grammar I
• Pidgins show a simplification of linguistic structure

Morphology
• Few inflections in nouns and verbs:
• Nouns not marked for case, number and gender
• Verbs have no tense marker
Grammar
Morphology
Case
• A single pronoun serves as both subject and verb:
em = 'he' and 'him‘
ol = ‘they’ and ‘then’
Grammar
Morphology
Number
• Plurality is not indicated by inflection
• Plural marking is realized by:
• an actual number
• the context or
• separate lexical item 'ol'
Morphology
Number
Example:
• Actual number indicating plurality
Long dispela wik, moa long 40 meri bilong Milen Be
Along this-fellow week, more along 40 woman belong Milne Bay

This week, more than 40 women from Milne Bay
Morphology
Number
Example:
• Lexical item indicating plurality
Ol opisa bilong Melanesin Envairomen Faundesen
All officer belong Melanesian Environment Foundation

The officers of the Melanesian Environment Foundation
Morphology
Gender
• Gender distinctions are missing
• A single pronoun stands for both male and female referents:
• em = 'he' and 'him‘
‘she’ and ‘her’
Prepositions
• Only two proper prepositions:
• bilon = means "of" or "for“
• long (means everything else)
Tense
• Verbs not inflected to mark tense
• Tense is marked externally to the verb by a lexical item
Example:
Bung i bin stat long Mande
Meeting he been start along Monday

The meeting started on Monday
Topic-046: Grammar II
Grammar
Sentence structure
• Negative formed with a negative particle ‘no’
Jan no waan go
John no want go
John does not want to go
Clause structure is not complicated
• There are no embedded clauses
Sentence structure
• There are no complex sentences (e.g. sentences with relative clauses)
Upi lo pikanin yena funa skafu?
Where the child s/he want food?
Where is the child who wants food?

Development from pidgins to creoles
Four types of changes take place:
1. Increase in speech rate resulting in assimilation and reduction
man bilong me momblomi
my husband
2. Expansion in vocabulary
• New shorter words are formed
man bilong pait
man belong fight
Paitman = fightman (fighter)
• Word building capacity
im added to adjectives to form verbs
bik bikim
(large) (to enlarge)
brait braitim
(wide) (to widen)
3. Development of a tense system
bin past tense
Bung i bin stat long Mande
Meeting he been start along

Monday
The meeting started on Monday

bai future
(from by and by)
na bai pinis long Fraide, Epril 22
And by finish along Friday April 22
And will finish on Friday, April 22

4. Greater sentence complexity
Use of relative clauses
Meri ya i-stap long hul i-hangre
Woman (relative subject marker) stay in hole was hungry
The woman who stayed in the hole was hungry
Topic-047: Social Functions
• Perform a wide range of social functions

• Capable of expressing all the needs of its users
• Used in:
• Education
• Literature
• Mass media
• Advertising
• Leads to overall structural elaboration of the pidgin in both vocabulary and grammar
• Its initial structural simplicity becomes much more complex in the process
Examples of expanded social functions of pidgins and creoles
Literature
Pren man bilong Rom, Wantok, harim nau.
Mi kam tasol long plantim Kaesar. Mi noken beitin longen
Examples
Literature (English version)
Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him
Examples
Advertising
Colgate i save strongim tit bilong yu
Lukaut: planti switpela kaikai na loli i savi bagarapim tit hariap
Examples
Advertising (English version)
Colgate strengthens your teeth
Take care. Lots of sugary foods and sweets rot your teeth fast
Examples
News headline
Ol meri gat bikpela wari yet
All women got big fellow worry yet
Women still have big worries
Topic-048: Creole Development in the US and UK
London Jamaican
(Patios/Patwa)
• Originated from the Atlantic creoles of West Africa and Caribbean
• A combination of creole and a form of non-standard English
• Also called:
• Black talk
• Nation language
• Black slang
Symbol of group identity
Used as a symbol of group identity by:
• British Black children
• British Black adolescents
• White adolescents
Recreolization
The movement of a creole language towards the more-creole end of the continuum
Recreolization of Jamaican Creole
Post-creole continuum
• A situation where a creole language consists of a spectrum of varieties arranged on a continuum
according to level of formality and prestige
Post-Creole Continuum
Features of London Jamaican Creole
• Interchangeable use of pronouns
• ‘i’ and ‘me’ both used for I and me
• ‘im’ and ‘i’ both used for he, she, it , him, her, its, his, hers
• Use of present tense for both present and past
• ‘an I se’ (and I said)
Features of London Jamaican Creole
• Elimination of tense suffixes and of participle endings: - es, -ed, -t, - ing, -ed, -en,
• Yu bret stink (Your breath stinks)
• Expressing negation with ‘no’ with phonological changes
• ‘no bret stink’ (my breath doesn’t stink)
Ebonics (African American Vernacular English)
• A blend of words ‘ebony’ (black) and ‘phonics’ (sound)
• Considered improper speech by many Americans
• Symbol of linguistic and social identity among African Americans
Linguistic Features of Ebonics
• Habitual be for intermitten activity
• Sometimes my ears be itching
• Absence of copula in contracted forms of ‘is’ and ‘are’
• She nice
• Present tense third person – s absence
• She walk
Linguistic Features of Ebonics
• Ain’t for didn’t
• He ain’t do it
• Use of ‘f’ and ‘v’ for final ‘th’
• Smoov for smooth and toof for tooth
Ebonics controversy (1996)
• Oakland (CA) School Board recognized it as the 'primary' language of its majority African
American students
• Resolved to use it for teaching them standard or academic English and subsequently other
subjects
Ebonics controversy (1996)
Was considered by many as:
• A separatist move
• An action that stigmatized the English varieties of disenfranchised
• Labelling African Americans as foreigners
• Encouraging a dialect that is likely to to increase their alienation
Lesson-09
Models and Classifications
Topic-049: English as a Native Language
Distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers

Non-native speakers
• Do not use it as a mother tongue or a first language
• Accents and lexicon are different from that of native speakers
Distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers

Native speakers
Those who have “internalized” a language rather than learning it deliberately
Native vs. non-native speakers and ELT
• The distinction is of particular relevance to English language teaching
• Native speakers are a preference for English language teaching
• Considered superior to non-native English language teachers
Native speaker criteria
• Exposure to the language from early childhood
• Use of English as a first language/home language
The other criteria include:
• Intuitive knowledge of the structure of the language
• Creative use of the language
These criteria depend on such parameters as:
• Contact with other people
• Opportunities for active use of the language
• Others’ attitude towards one’s use of the language
Discrimination between native and non-native speakers
The discrimination of people on the basis of the accents, vocabulary and sentence structure is based on
the ‘politics of identity’
Topic-050: Native and Non-Native English Speakers
Discrimination between native and non-native speakers

The discrimination of people on the basis of the accents, vocabulary and sentence structure is based on the
‘politics of identity’
Native vs. non-native speakers
• The fundamental opposition between native speaker and non-native speaker is one of power
Native vs. non-native speakers

• A factor responsible for marginalizing the periphery communities is also what Phillipson calls the
“monolingual tenet”
Native speakerism
• The monolingual tenet was central to the colonial agenda
• It marginalizes the English language learners and privileges native speakers
• Extends the colonial agenda of economic exploitation and cultural domination
Native speakerism and economic exploitation

• “Economy is the engine that drives ELT”
• Native speakerism unveils ELT as a tool for economic exploitation
Native speakerism and economic exploitation
• Internationally most of the jobs are reserved for native English speaking teachers
• Most text books are published by native English publishers
• Teaching methods are introduced by native theorists and practitioners
Need to contextualize language teaching

• All pedagogy, like all politics, is local
• Understanding of local linguistic, sociocultural and political particularities
• To ignore local needs is to ignore lived context-sensitive pedagogic knowledge
Topic-051: English as a Foreign Language
Different English language learning situations
• Mid 20th century brought the realization that all English language learning situations
were not the same
English Language Teaching (ELT)
English English as
as a Second a Foreign
Language Language
(ESL) (EFL)
• Learners have other languages at their disposal

• Learn English without any native speakers around them
• Learn English for restricted purposes:
• Reading keep up with Western science and technology
• Academics
• Typically takes place in a foreign country

• Usually with students from the same country
• Students share the same language and culture
• Learning English may not have any obvious practical benefit.
• The teacher may be the only English speaker students have exposure to
• Few opportunities to use English outside the classroom
• Students have limited exposure to English-speaking culture
• Users are not expected to be able to speak the language
• Lower proficiency level expected
• Perceived as less than ESL
Topic-052: English as a Second Language (ESL)
English as a second language

• Generic
• Inclusive label for teaching English to those who already speak other languages
English as a second language situations
• ESL is used by immigrants to Inner Circle countries
• Learners take up English as their language for all necessary business
• Social interactions also take place in English
English as a second language situations
• ESL users study English with more interest
• ESL situations involve more intensive study of English
• Learners aim at developing proficiency in speaking
ESL situations perceived as superior
• ESL users are considered more proficient, thus superior to EFL users
• ESL situations involve more intensive study of English
• Learners aim at developing proficiency in speaking
English as a primary and as a secondary language distinction
• English is used as a primary language by those who grow up in an English speaking environment
• English is used as a secondary language by those who use it for the purposes of business,
education and diplomacy
English as a secondary language
Two distinct contexts
• English as a foreign language
• English as an official language
English as a foreign language
In contexts where it is not:
• a medium of instruction
• a code for administration
• a medium of education, legal affairs, broadcasting, print media, public and private discourse
English as an official language
In contexts where it is used as a language of:
• education
• creative literature
• officially designated functions
• social interaction
Topic-053: English as a an International Language (EIL)
• IE refers to particular variety of English e.g. Australian English, Singaporean English, Chinese
English etc.
Difference between EIL and International English (IE)
• EIL paradigm overlooks the symbolic markers of the politicized construct of native speaker
• It focuses on communication instead of the speakers’ nationality or race
English as an International Language
• Does not refer to a particular variety of English
• Rejects the idea of selecting a particular variety as a lingua franca for international
communication
EIL and the paradigm shift
• Refers to a paradigm shift in response to the complexities emerging from the rapid global spread
of English
• Suggests a revisiting of the notions, analytical tools, approaches and methodologies within the
established disciplines of English studies
English as an International Language
• Recognizes English as a language of international and intercultural communication
EIL and the paradigm shift
• In EIL context, English is used between speakers from different cultural and national
backgrounds
• Recognizes world Englishes irrespective of its origin
Topic-054: Speech Community and Speech Fellowship
Speech Community
• Speech communities are groups that share values and attitudes about language use, varieties and
practices
Speech Community
Speech:
• A form of social identity
• Is used as an indication of membership of different social groups and speech communities
Membership of a speech community
People who speak the same language are not always members of the same speech community
Speech community and speech fellowship
The current state English require us to make a distinction between speech community and speech
fellowship
Speech community and speech fellowship
Speech community
• A wide-ranging ‘association’ of different varieties
• Subsumable as ‘sub-varieties’ under a broad label
Speech fellowship
Refers to the:
• Real world of English users
• Their underlying distinct differences and characteristics
• Sub varieties
Speech fellowship
The distinction suggests fellowship to be narrow and close and community to be wider
Speech fellowship
• The distinctions and dichotomies between NS/NNS or ESL/EFL on the basis of forms an
functions are not very useful
• Grouping together different varieties under the concept of Englishes functional characteristics is
more desirable
Lesson-10
Models of World Englishes
Topic-055: Models of World Englishes
Models and classification of English

• Classifications and models attempt to explain the differences in the ways English is used in
different countries
The most common classification
• English as a native language (ENL)
• English as a second language (ESL)
• English as a foreign language (EFL)
Shortcomings of this classification
• Misunderstandings caused by the term ‘native language:
• Considered standard
• Spoken by all people
• Is considered superior
• Represents a good model for English language speakers in other countries
Shortcomings of this classification
• Inadequacy of the EFL classification
• more applicable to the contrast between city and countryside
Alternative models
• Geographical locations
• Regional varieties
• Individual users
Advantages
• Offer a pluralistic view of English
• Do not suggest superiority of one variety over others
• Present English as having multicultural identities
Topic-056: Strevens Model of World Englishes (1980)
Strevens’ Model (1980)

• The oldest model
• Shows the relationship of different varieties of English with British and American
English
Strevens’ World Map of English
Strevens’ Model
• Provides historical overview of the development of globalized English
• Presents all English varieties as having either British or American standards as their
origin
Strevens’ Model
• American English accounts for Canada, the US, Puerto Rico and the Philippines
• British English accounts for the rest of the world
Weakness of Strevens’ Model
• Overlooks the varieties that developed through contact with local vernaculars
• Developed without any direct association with either British or American Standard
English (e.g. China)
• Mainly influenced by other culturally relevant sources that are available through the
global media
Topic-057: Mc Arthur’s Circle of World Englishes
Concentric circle models
Later models were based on concentric circles. These included:
• McArthur’s Model
• Gorlarch’s Model
• Kachru’s Model
Concentric circle models
• Concentric circles reflect the cline of intelligibility that all varieties of English (native
and non-native) demonstrate
• The distance from the center of the circle decreases the mutual intelligibility of the
variety
McArthur’s Wheel Model (1987)
• The wheel is divided into geographical sections

• The varieties become more localized the further they are from the centre
• Varieties are connected to the previous geographically situated variety

• They are connected linearly, like a spoke, back to the centre
• The lines separating variety segments are not permeable

• Varieties may not be mutually intelligible
Topic-058: Manfred Gorlach’s Circle Model of English
Manfred Gorlach’s Circle Model of English

Gorlach’s Circle Model of English (1988)
• Similar to McArthur’s wheel model

• Standard English at the centre surrounded by regional standard Englishes
Gorlach’s Circle Model of English
• Is organized with greater depth

• Places varieties in a series of expanding rings
Rings of Gorlach’s circle model
1. Regional and national standards (e.g. (African, British Canadian, Caribbean, South
Asian, US)
2. Sub/Semi-regional standards (e.g. s Indian, Irish, Kenyan, Papua New Guinean)
Rings of Gorlach’s circle model
3. Non-standard Englishes
(e.g. Aboriginal English,
Jamaican English, Yorkshire
dialect)
4. Pidgins and Creoles (e.g.
Cameroon Pidgin English
and Tok Pisin)
Topic-059: Modiano’s Centripetal Circles of International English
Modiano’s Centripetal Circles of International English

Modiano’s Centripetal Circles of International English (1999)
• Not concerned with historical and geographical divisions of a variety
• Individual users and their choices of a variety are given equal importance
• Based on mutual comprehensibility of the proficient speakers of English
Implications of the word ‘Centripetal’

• The adjective “centripetal” suggests the movement of high proficiency users of English towards
the core of the global English-speaking population

• Are drawn to global English-speaking population in their efforts to make themselves
comprehensible in different context they find themselves
• Global English speakers replace the traditionally revered native speakers as the centre
• The support indicates the acceptance of the idea of “English as an International Language” (EIL)
Source:http://everythingaboutelf.blogspot.com/2016/12/world englishes.html
The Structure
The centre comprises speakers who are:
• Proficient speakers of English as an International language irrespective of being native or non-
native English speakers
• Able to speak without any strong or regional accent
• The next circle consists of proficient users of English as a first or second language rather than as
an international language
• The third circle is made up of learners of English
• The final band outside this circle represents those who do not know English at all
Weaknesses of Modiano’s model
• How do we define International English?
• How do we differentiate between proficient and non-proficient users of International English?
Weaknesses of Modiano’s model
• How do we differentiate between strong and not so strong regional accents?
• Who makes the differentiation?
Topic-060: Modiano’s English as an International Language (EIL) Model
Modiano’s model of English as an International Language

• Based on features of English common to all varieties of English
• The centre comprises ‘English as an International Language’ (EIL)
• EIL consists of a core of features
• These features are common to native and competent non-native varieties of English
• Create mutual comprehensibility
Modiano’s model of English as an International Languge
• The second circle consists of features which may or may not become internationally common
Modiano’s model of English as an International Languge
The outer area consists of five groups:
i. American English
ii. British English
iii. Other major varieties
iv. Other local varieties
v. English as a Foreign Language speakers
Weaknesses of Modiano’s EIL model
• Difficulty of distinguishing between core and non-core features
• Equating native speakers with ‘competent’ non-natives
• Labelling native varieties as ‘major’ but established Outer Circle varieties (such as Indian
English) as ‘local’
Strengths of Modiano’s models
• Disapproves ideas of prestige
• Cares for the diversity of English
• Understands the spread of the language from a geopolitical view
• Focuses just on proficiency giving English as a globally functioning language a central position
Lesson-11
Kachru’s Three Circle Model of World English
Topic-061: The Inner Circle
Spread of English in the inner circle

Inner Circle
This classification is in accordance with the three-way categorization of ENL, ESL and EFL.
The Inner circle
Inner circle includes the following countries:
• USA
• UK
• Canada
• Australia
• New Zealand
Spread of English in the inner circle
• English reached these countries as a result of its first diaspora
Diaspora
• The movement or migration of a group of people away from their established or ancestral
homeland
English diaspora
First diaspora
• English speakers from Britain carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North
America
• They established substantial settlements and displaced the indigenous population
Features of the inner circle
• Traditional monolingual native speakers of English are found
• English is the first and sometimes the only language
• Dominant culture is based around English
Topic-062: The Outer Circle
Countries in the outer circle
Some of the countries included in the outer circle are the following:
• India
• Pakistan
• Philippines
• Singapore
• Nigeria
• Gambia
Spread of English in the outer circle
Second diaspora
• The second diaspora spread the language through colonization in Asia and Africa
• Settlements were fewer
• Maintained the indigenous population in subjugation
English diaspora
Second diaspora
• Allowed a section of population to learn English as a second language
• English continued to be used even after the departure of the British
The outer circle
• Became an official language in many former colonies
• This brought about new varieties of English called the ‘second language varieties’
Features of the outer circle
• English is only one of two or more languages in the linguistic repertoire
• English enjoys an important status in the language policies
• It is either the official or a major government language e.g. India, Pakistan, Singapore, Zambia,
Nigeria
Features of the outer circle
• English performs a range of functions in a variety of social, educational, administrative, and
literary domains:
• Medium of higher education
• Literature
• Courts
• Media and broadcast
Topic-063: The Expanding Circle
Expanding circle countries
Includes the following countries:
• China
• Indonesia
• Russia
• Saudi Arabia
• Japan
• Korea
English Diaspora
Third Diaspora
• Distinct manner of dispersal of English from the other two Diasporas
• Has a more recent history
• English was not transplanted through speaker migration
English Diaspora
Third Diaspora
• The political and economic influence of Britain and the USA in East Asia, Middle East and Latin
America and Europe
• Spread by individuals acquiring it as an additional language for international or intranational
communication
Features of expanding circle
• English has limited roles in the public life
• Has very restricted functions in the personal domain
• Dependent on the norms of native English
Features of expanding circle
• Situation is likely to change
• More and more Asians and European countries introducing English at early stages of schooling
• Learning of English to benefit from technological developments
Topic-064: Status and Functions of English in the Outer and Expanding Circles
Range
English performs a wide range of functions:
Formal
• Education at all levels
• Business
• Legal system
• Administration
Social
• Family
• Social networks
Range of varieties
• Use of a range of varieties in or across utterances
• The choice of variety is linked with identity
Depth
Variety of people with access to English:
• Different educational levels
• socioeconomic levels
• Different jobs and professions
Depth
• Differing degrees of proficiency
• A cline of proficiency
• Basilect: Speakers with little contact with the standard variety
• Acrolect: Speaker with higher socioeconomic class
Topic-065: Norm Providing, Norm Developing and Norm Dependent
Inner circle: Norm providing

Outer circle: Norm developing
Expanding
circle: Norm dependent
Norm providing (Inner Circle)
• Provides norms
• Provides teaching models and methods
• Provides textbooks
Norm-Dependent
(Expanding Circle)
• Includes performance varieties
• English has no official status
• Dependent on native speaker standards
Norm-Dependent
(Expanding Circle)
• British and American variety as the prestige models
• Plurality of varieties
Norm-Developing
(Outer Circle)
• Ambivalence towards English
• Concerns about political and cultural identities
Norm-Developing
(Outer Circle)
Varied attitudes:
• Suggestions for banishing English
• Adoption of one of the inner circle varieties as the model
• Adoption of a local or regional variety as model
Lesson-12
Kachru’s Three Circle-Model of World English
Topic-066: Institutionalization of English

Institutionalization
• The official recognition and acceptance of English
• The status is explicitly recognized
Africa
• In Kenya, English is the second national language after Swahili
• In Nigeria and Zambia English is one of the state languages
Caribbean
• English is the official by law
• Used in addition to the English-based creole and immigrant languages
Asia
• It is the official language in Pakistan used in several domains
• In India, English is an associate official language with Hindi
• It is one of the four official languages in Singapore along with Malay, Mandarin and Tamil and
the most common home language
Europe
• Emergence of Euro-English variety
• English is working language of the European Union along with French
• English is used for communication in meetings
• Fluency in English is a prerequisite for EU employees
Europe
• English has a very high profile in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian
countries
• Ninety percent of all EU students learn English as their first foreign language
Topic-067: Limitations of Kachru’s Three Circle Model-I

Limitations
• Based on geography and history
• Actual use of English by speakers in these regions overlooked
Limitations
• Based on the basic distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers
• Native speakers being considered superior regardless of the quality of their language
• Pidgins and creoles do not fit into the categorisation
Changing use of English
• Use as a first language in the outer circle
• Increase in uses in the expanding circle:
• Social purposes
• Medium of instruction in schools and universities
Grey areas in the classification
Inner and Outer Circles
• Learnt as the first language
• Used as the home language
Expanding and Outer Circle
A number of countries in transition from EFL to ESL status
Topic-068: Limitations of Kachru’s Three Circle Model-II

Status of a language in a multilingual situation
Inner and Outer Circles
• Bilinguals and multilinguals use different languages for different purposes
Expanding and Outer Circle
A number of countries in transition from EFL to ESL status
Does not define users’ proficiency
• Native Speakers may demonstrate poor proficiency
• An EFL or ESL user my be more competent in grammar and vocabulary
Ignores variations within a circle
• Language situation is not uniform within a circle
• Varying degrees of linguistic diversity
• Sociolinguistic variations
• Use by different L1 groups within a country
Likely to be misinterpreted
• Misinterpretation of the term ‘inner circle’
• Native speakers appearing to be more important
Topic-069: The Nativeness Paradigm
Nativeness Paradigm
• The nativeness principle was the dominant paradigm in second language teaching before the
1960s
• A binary classification of speakers: native and non-native
Nativeness Paradigm
• Exerts a powerful impact on society:
• Native speakers are ‘the best’ teachers of English
Nativeness Paradigm
• Serves important practical functions:
• It serves as a model and an inspiration for English language learning
Criticism
• Determination of identity as native or non-native speaker depends on social factors rather than
linguistic
• Restrictive social and professional identities
Criticism
• Proficiency is determined by the order of acquisition of languages
• Overlooks the fact that English is used as the home and official language in many outer circle
countries
• Promotes the English of the ethnic Anglo speaker
Criticism
• Implies a unidirectional power relationship: the innovations of the outer and expanding circle are
not readily accepted
Criticism
• Native speakers are considered fit to design teaching methodologies and strategies
• Causes deficiencies in the testing of English
• Causes negative perceptions of non-native speakers, teachers and researchers
Topic-070: The Nativeness Paradigm II
Problems in defining native speakers
• Which accent?
• Which social group?
• Which age group?
Alternatives to native non-native distinction
• Use of the term ‘expert’ to describe accomplished users of English
Advantages of the term ‘expert’
• Expertise is not identity
• Expertise is learned not innate
• Expertise is relative
• Expertise is partial
• Expertise goes through testing and evaluation
Disadvantage of the term ‘expert’
• Implies value judgement when contrasted with non-expert
Reconceptualization of the concept
• Monolingual English speakers (MES)
• Bilingual English speakers (BES)
• Non-bilingual English speakers (NBES)
Advantages and disadvantages of reconceptualization
• MES is less favourable than BES
• BES removes the distinction between L1 and L2 speakers of English
Advantages and disadvantages of reconceptualization
• Determining the difference between bilingual and non-bilingual competence
Topic-071: Redrawing the Three Circle Model-I
David Graddol’s Modifications (1997)
Change in terminology
Inadequacy of Kachru’s model in the 21st century
Change in terminology
Inner Circle = L1 speakers
Outer Circle = L2 speakers
Expanding Circle = L3 speakers
Language shift
Shift from L2 to L1:
• In L2 countries English is used for intranational communication
• The trend of using English as the home language
Language shift
Shift from L3 to L2:
• English traditionally used for international communication
• An increasing use of English for intranational communication
Problems
No explanation of the level of abstraction of the overlap:
• Countries
• Speakers
• varieties
Problems
No explanation of the level of abstraction of the overlap:
• Countries
• Speakers
• varieties
Problems
Ignores the possibility of a shift in the opposite direction:
outer circle inner circle
Topic-072: Redrawing the Three Circle Model-II
Yanu Yasukata’s Modification (2001)
Change in the context of use
• Many varieties of English in the outer circle have become established varieties
• Outer circle speakers may consider themselves native speakers
Changes in the context of use
Increase in immigrants to inner circle countries will result in increase in the number of people for whom
English is an L2
Redefining the circles
Inner circle = genetic ENL
Outer circle = functional ENL
Problems
• The term ‘genetic’ may be misunderstood as an indication of race
• Wide gap in the proficiency levels in outer circle countries
Lesson-13
Variations Across Cultures
Topic-073: ‘new’ Englishes and ‘New’ Englishes: Definitions and Differences
‘new’ Englishes
• Resulting from the first diaspora
• Comprising North America (USA and Canada), Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
• Developing independently of the British English
‘New’ Englishes
• Resulting from the second diaspora
• Being used as second languages by bilingual or multilingual people
• Comprising Pakistani English, Indian English, Nigerian English, Singapore English
Independent status of ‘new’ and‘New’ Englishes
• Should be considered in their own right
• Should not be compared with other varieties of Englishes
Independent status of ‘new’ and‘New’ Englishes
• Acceptance of American English
• Reluctance to accept other varieties
Topic-074: ‘‘new’ Englishes and ‘New’ Englishes
‘New’ Englishes
• Includes a large number of varieties
• Dissimilar in characteristics and use
Characteristics of ‘New’ Englishes
Learning
• Learned in schools
• Used as a medium of instruction
• Additional to some other first language
Contact with native variety
• Developed in regions where a native variety was not the main language of the population
Functions and speakers
• Used for a range of functions
• Used among the speakers of the region where it developed
Nativization/Localization
• Have adopted some language features (sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, words and
expressions)
‘New’ Englishes’ norms and innovations
Factors determining the status of an innovation
i. Demographic factor
ii. Geographical factor
iii. Authoritative factor
iv. Codification
v. Acceptability factor
Bamgbose, cited in Jenkins, 2000
Topic-075: Nativization-I
Nativization
• A process in which a language gains native speakers
• This happens when a second language used by adult parents becomes the native language of their
children
Nativization
• Acculturization
• Indigenization
• Hybridization
Nativization of English
Changes English has undergone as a result of contact with other languages in diverse cultural and
geographical settings in the outer circle
Nativization
Is triggered when users in a second language environment inevitably mould the language to express facts,
ideas and concepts relevant to their own particular context
Nativization
The process of nativization is due to the:
• Transfer from local languages to English
• Transfer of English to the new cultural environment and communicative needs
Factors prompting nativization
• English’s assuming of functions in the outer circle that relate to the expression of typically local
ideas
• English needs to adapt itself to its new environment to be able to express local concepts
Factors prompting nativization
• Absence of native speakers
• Inadequate teaching
• Acquisitional limitations
Topic-076: Nativization-II
Functional nativization
• Functional nativeness is determined by the range and depth of a language in a society
• Range: domains of function
• Depth: the degree of social penetration of the language
• Deep social penetration
• Extended range of functions of English in diverse sociolinguistic contexts
• Emergence of several varieties, localized registers and genres for expressing local social, cultural
and religious identities
• English is nativized in South Asia as Indian English and Pakistani English
• Range of functional domains:
• Corporate trade
• Media
• Development
• Government
• Higher education
• Science and technology
• Creative writing
• Social depth of English use:
• an estimated 333 milion users of English in India
• the highest number of (non-creole) English speakers in the world after the US and UK
Topic-077: Nativization-III
Recognition of nativized varieties

• English has acquired new identities in new socio-cultural contexts
• Autonomous local varieties
• Their own set of rules
• Cannot be treated as mistakes of deficient Englishes
• The acceptance of nativized varieties is openly debated in the outer circle
• The ideal pronunciation remains RP
• Indiginized forms of English are stigmatized
• Indiginized forms of English are stigmatized
• Prevailing perception in inner circle does not recognize nativized varieties as standard English
language varieties
Nativized English social lectal continuum ranges between:
Acro- Meso- Basi-
lect lect lect
Characteristics of nativized varieties
• English in the outer circle has evolved characteristic features at the:
• phonological
• lexical
• syntactic and
• discourse level
• Initially, these innovations were rejected by purists
• Now being increasingly accepted
The nativization of
English has enriched English and the indigenous languages through:
• Processes of borrowing
• Coinage of new words and expressions
• Semantic shifts
Topic-078: Nativization of English in Pakistan
Native lexicalizatin (functional shift)

Noun to verb
• The PPP had informed him that Election Commission’s affairs were handed over to a Secretary
against whom the Anti-Corruption Committee conducted an enquiry and who was to be charge- sheeted
Bilingual functional shift
Noun to verb
• As Pakistanis waited on a cold December night for 1991 to be firecrackered…
• Multan traders to gherao MunicipalCorporation
Adjective to verb
Allahyar lived in Multan right into the 1950s. His wife cooked in my aunt’s house, the daughter washed
and served and the son was the general factotum who fetched and carried and “hallaled” the chickens
Colonial lag
• dickey or diggie
• stepney
Word formation
Compound words
Flying coach
Marriage party
Cent percent
Derivations
• Affectee
• Pointation
• meuseumize
Word formation
Urdu-English hybrid derivations
• Goondaism
• Dacoit
• Dacoitee
Semantic shift
• a monthly: a bribe paid every month
• a gunman: a bank guard
Grammar
Variation in preposition
• Fill up a form
• Cope up with a situation
Lack of subject – verb inversion in questions
Why you are laughing?
What you are looking at?
Grammar
Pluralization of uncountables
• Equipments
• Informations
• Researches
• Hairs
Lesson-14
Variations Across Cultures
Topic-079: Contact Literature-I

Contact Literature
Contact with non-Western cultures and languages enables English to express new linguistic and cultural
functions
Contact Literature
• Nativized varieties of English are produced through contact of English with new cultures and
surrounding languages
• The literature written in distinctive varieties of English is often called contact literature
Contact Literature
• As English becomes institutionalized in nations that do not share its Western cultural traditions,
the language is broadening
Beliefs of contact literature writers
• Some aspects of non-English culture is inexpressible in English
• Cultural material in contact literature stretches or reshapes the expressive qualities of English
Beliefs of contact literature writers
• Provides an exposure to the the literary effort of international writers
• Provides an opportunity to observe the process of language change
Topic-080: Contact Literature-II
Implicitly or explicitly, native English has been the criteria for description of language varieties and for
literatures written in them
Choice of variety
• The spread and the institutionalization of English has resulted in the pluricentricity of English
• The users of English more or less consciously choose which model of English to follow and
develop
Choice of variety
Many successful writers do not follow Inner-Circle models
Choice of variety
Depending on the cultural and social context, varieties differ in:
• Formal characteristics
• Thought patterns
• Discoursal features
Choice of variety
• Most creative writers from Africa and Asia show a preference for a local variety of English to be
able to present the true spirit, traditions and values of their own cultures
• English should be decolonized to be made in other images
• Rushdie cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006
Topic-081: Concerns about Contact Literature
Concerns about contact literature

Credibility of contact literature
Literature in any language consists of two dimensions:
• Linguistic (conventions of language including syntax, lexicon, and so forth)
• Cultural (the personal or cultural content of a text including philosophies, attitudes aesthetics)
• The challenge of depicting a life, culture, values etc. through language conventions that are alien
to that culture
• Contact literature might be ineffective since so much of the non-English culture will be
inexpressible in English
• To express the experiences of an alien culture, English language has to be altered to suit its new
surroundings
Doubts about varieties of English
• Mistrust shown toward language variation
• Standard English is above the reach of variation
• The standard dialect has changed markedly over time
• loan words from other languages enter the lexicon regularly
• Variations in usage, lexicon and accent among American, Canadian, Australian and Irish English
• A wide range of variation is tolerable among native "inner circle" speakers of English
“We cannot write like the English.... We cannot write only as Indians.... Our method of expression
therefore has to be a dialect which will some day prove to be as distinctive and colorful as the Irish and
the American”.
• Raja Rao cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006
This perspective reveals two major points:
1. American written English is also a product of language contact
2. The newer varieties of written English can be studied with the same interest and respect as the
established varieties, such as Irish and American English
Topic-082: Features of Contact Literature
Foreign influences on English

• Foreign influences on English before its spread into Asia and Africa
• Most of these influences were European
• Contact with African and Asian languages and cultures through colonization exhibit features of
local languages and cultures
• A number of varieties of English emerged in postcolonial scenario
• These varieties undergo a process of localization
• The impact of local languages and culture has been the main cause of the language variation
Creativity in contact literature
In contact literature, English offers a network of connections with the:
• new cultural features
• types of discourse
• linguistic features
Creativity in contact literature
• In literary creativity, English language is adapted to represent the reality of new situations
• English should represent the fervor and zeal of the life of the region
Features of contact literature
• A blend of two linguistic features
• Literary traditions
• Extension of linguistic categories
Features of contact literature
• Contact literatures exhibit national identity and a linguistic distinctiveness
• Contact with African and Asian languages and cultures exhibit features of local languages and
cultures
Examples
Your behavior tantamounts to insubordination.
It doesn’t worth the price.
They insisted to go in spite of my advice.
Examples
He was looking very smart in his specially made kurta.
The sehan would have been spacious and may be even pleasant
Examples
These examples show that when a language reaches a new social and cultural contexts, the change is
inevitable
Topic-083: Language Use by Multilinguals
Multilingual’s repertoire
• Multilinguals possess a range of languages with distinct grammars and functions in their
linguistic repertoire
• They can choose resources from this repertoire of languages to present the complexity of the local
situational contexts
Mixing of discoursal and stylistic strategies
• Texts are nativised by using multiple styles and strategies
Limiting nature of nativization of texts
• The readers from a different cultural context must actively participate to understand the text
• If they cannot do this, the text becomes limiting
Extending nature of nativization of texts
• Attention to the reading is rewarded with improved understanding of:
• context
• characterizations
• innovations
• The acceptance of such a use of English strengthens the concept of world Englishes
“….Coomar took Raman in and seated him on the carpet and offered him five hundred rupees tucked
amidst green betel leaves, two coconuts and a bunch of bananas on a tray.”
“…. Goddess Lakshmi has been kind,’ was all that Coomar was to say.”
Discourse markers
• Items that have no independent meaning but that signal solidarity with interlocutors and are
considered polite
Examples
• eh particle in Australian and New Zealand English
• la(h) particle Malaysian-Singapore English
• ji particle in Pakistani English
Topic-084: Strategies for Text Nativization
Rhetorical strategies
• Ways used by writers to effectively, efficiently and coherently present their points of view on a
topic.
• Methods that allow writers to convey their thoughts most convincingly
Figures of speech
• A rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in a distinctive way.
• A word or phrase that has a meaning other than the literal meaning.
Figures of speech
• Evoke the local concepts traditions
Examples:
‘Pythons as big as coconut trunks’
Authentication by cultural history and tradition
Supporting the text by cultural history and tradition through such phrases:
‘our people have a saying’
‘the elders have said’
Transcreating proverbs and idioms
Transcreation: The process of adapting a message from one language to another, while maintaining its
intent, style, tone and context
Transcreating proverbs and idioms
Indigenization of English proverbs:
English: to spread like wild fire
African: Okonkwo’s fame “had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan.”
‘the palm oil with which words are eaten.’
Culturally dependent speech style
These include:
• Sentence initial conjunctions
• Asking direct questions
• Asking rhetorical questions
Lesson-15
Variations in World Englishes: Linguistic Features
Topic-085: Phonology-I
Topic 85: What is an accent?

• The way you sound when you speak
• Results from how, where, and when a person learned the language he/she speaks
• Is determined by where they live and what social groups they belong to
What is an accent?
• People who live in close contact share a way of speaking (accent) different from the way other
groups in other places speak
• The differences are in stress and rhythm and in segmental features
Stress and rhythm
• Stress assignment in nativised varieties does not follow the same rules as the inner circle varieties
• It is distinctive and may appear peculiar to native speakers
Stress and rhythm
Examples
• ‘success for suc'cess
• recog'nize for 'recognize
• photo'graphy for pho'tography
Stress and rhythm
Syllable-timed
• The stress assignment is based on the values attachedto the morae (weight of syllables in terms of
duration)
• The primary stress goes with the weightier syllable
Stress and rhythm
Syllable-timed languages
• The stress assignment is based on the values attached to the morae (weight of syllables in terms
of duration)
• The primary stress goes with the weightier syllable
Stress and rhythm
Stress-timed languages
• stresses occur at regular intervals
• The unstressed syllables are squeezed in between the stresses to accommodate the regular rhythm
of the stress
Topic-086: Phonology-II
Distinctive stress and rhythm

Conventions of L1
Nativized varieties of English follow the conventions of their first languages in stress assignment
Examples
biology : ba-yo-lo-ji
'bi-o-lo-gy and bi-o-'lo-gy are possible for
bi'ology
Examples
Development
de-ve-lop-ment
de'velopment
No distinction between noun and verb
Do not use stress to make a distinction between nouns and verbs
Examples:
Verb: im'port con'tent
Noun: ‘import 'content
No use of contrastive stress
Do not use stress to focussing
Examples:
Jamil only did it
for
JAMIL did it
Spelling pronunciation
There’s a practice of spelling pronunciation
Examples:
plumber for ˈplʌmə(r)
bomb for bɒm
ghost for ɡəʊst
Topic-087: Phonology-III
Sound
Simplification of final consonant clusters
It may lead to the lossof past tense endings of plural markers on nouns
Examples
lef for left
Pick for picked
Climb for climbed
bag for bags
Sound
Consequences
• Some of these differences may not be noticeable e.g. lef
• Loss of inflections may affect comprehension
Voiced and unvoiced sounds in English
• All vowels are voiced
• Consonants can be voiced or unvoiced
• Voiced consonants are caused by vocal chords moving
Voiced and unvoiced sounds in English
• Unvoiced consonants are made just with air
p t s k f th
• Voiced conants are caused by vocal chords moving
b d g z v th
Clear and dark l sound
• The light l comes at the beginning, near the beginning or before a consonant sound in a word.
like love please English
Clear and dark l sound
• The dark l comes at the end of the word or before a vowel sound
feel peel pull full sail
No distinction between r and l sound
rate = late
feeling = fearing
Cutter = cuddle
No distinction between r and l sound

rate = late
feeling = fearing
Cutter = cuddle
Insertion of vowel in s clusters

• Simplified by inserting a neutral vowel between the two consonants
• Pronounced with an initial vowel so that the cluster is no longer initial
Sport = səport
School = ischool
Slow = silow
Topic-088: Lexis-I
Locally coined words and expressions

• Considered the creativity of New English speakers by many world Englishes scholars
• Coinage
• Addition of a prefix or suffix to an existing English word
• Compounding local concepts with English items
Adding a prefix or suffix
Examples:
Stingko: Smelly (Singaporian English) Spacy: Spacious (Indian
English
Heaty: Foods which make the body hot (Singaporian, Malaysian
English)
Examples:
Teacheress: A female teacher (Indian English)
Jeepey: A small bus (Phillipines English)
Enstool: To install a chief (Ghanian English)
Destool: to depose a chief (Ghanian English)
Examples from Pakistani English:
Affectee: the one who is affected
Museumize: To preserve in a museum
Botheration: Inconvenience
Upliftment: Improving the plight of the downtrodden
Compounding
Examples:
Peelhead : A bald headed person (Jmaican English)n
Key-bunch: A bunch of keys (Indina English)
High hat: A snob (Philippine English)
Compounding
Examples from Pakistani English:
Gunman : An armed guard
Flying coach: A fast bus
Mouse-hearted: Coward
Lathi charge: Baton charge
Topic-089: Lexis-II
Borrowing from indigenous languages

Examples:
Chai: tea (East African,
Pakistani, Indian
English)
Crore: Ten million
Goondaism: Behaving in a noisy violent way
Idioms
• Unsuccessful attempts to use idioms from the native English
• Stabilise New English idioms
Idioms
Unsuccessful attempts (variations caused by pronunciation differences)
- Gift of the gap
Gift of the gab
- By lips and bounds
By leaps and bounds
Idioms
Direct translations from indigenous idioms
- To shake legs
To be idle (Malaysian English, goyang kaki)
- To eat someone’s salt
To be loyal to someone (Indian English)
Idioms
Combining elements from English with indigenous forms
To put sand in someone’s gari
To threaten someone’s livelihood (Nigerian English)
Idioms
Variations on native English idioms
- To eat your cake and have
it (Singapore English)
To have your cake and eat
it
- To be in hot soup
To be in hot water + To be
in the soup
Topic-090: Lexis-III
Lexical repetition and redundancy

• An extra element in a sentence or phrase
• Regarded as a universal feature of spoken varieities
Repetition
• A repeated occurrence of a linguistic item that may or may not be justified.
‘There were – some very
good houses – rather old
fashioned but good
houses.’
Repetition
• He sells different different things
• She cut it into small small pieces
• She drove slowly slowly
• I don’t like this type of dress – all frill frill, gather gather
Reduplication
The use of double words for one:
• Flower bouquet
• Young kid
• Cost price
• Proceed to go on
Reduplication
The use of two words for expressing one idea:
‘….for repairing or laying some sort of underground cables or lines’
‘….ever-growing and ever-increasing speeding traffic’
‘….without any obstruction and difficulty’
Reduplication
Phatic reduplication
• No semantic value
• Only adds rhyme
- music viewsic
- rhythm whythm
- mod squad (lady)
South Asian lexis in native English
Examples:
Chit: A note
Tiffin: Snack or small box
Buggy: A carriage
Chutney: A cold thick sauce made from fruit, sugar, spices and
vinegar
Lesson-16
Variations in World Englishes: Linguistic Features
Topic-091: Grammar-I
Nouns
• Specific or non-specific
• Countable or uncountable
• Singular or plural
Nouns
Specific and non-specific
• Use of articles (a, an, the) and determiners (this, that, any, some) to show whether a noun is
specific or non-specific.
Nouns
Functions and rules for the use of articles
• A singular countable noun must be preceded by an article
• a/an: with a singular countable noun indicates the generic nature of the noun
• A horse runs very fast.
Nouns
Functions and rules for the use of articles
• The: with both singular and plural countable nouns indicate the specific nature of the noun
• The boys are naughty.
• They boys is tall.
• With mass nouns to indicate the specific nature of the noun
Nouns
• Many languages do not have a grammatical element comparable with the English article
• A singular countable noun never occurs without an article or determiner preceding it
Nouns
• The choice of articles may vary depending on the context
• He owns a car.
• He owns the car.
• The: with a singular word indicates generic nature of an item when the word refers to a whole
group
• We must be kind to the poor.
Nouns
variation examples
• Everyone owns car.
• Girls look very pretty today.
• I’m staying in one house with black gate.
Topic-092: Grammar-II
Nouns
Quantifiers
• We use quantifiers (much, little, few, a lot, little etc.) to talk about quanitities, amounts and
degrees.
• It generally comes before a noun or noun phrase
Nouns
Countability and quantifiers
• The conventions of marking countability differ across languages.
• In English, countability has to do with a noun’s potential for combining with various types of
determiners
Nouns
• Knowledge (uncountable)
A knowledge of
• People (collective noun) also has a plural form
The native peoples of Siberia
Nouns
• In English, the combining of different types of nouns with various determiners causes confusion
to language learners
Nouns
• In English, uncountable nouns (equipment, sugar) are singular
• In the native languages of the outer circle countries, they are treated as plural.
Nouns
Countable or uncountable
• Use of uncountable nouns as countables
• Perceptually countable items such as furniture, equipment, luggage are regularly used with a
plural marker to denote more than one piece
Nouns
Countable or uncountable
• Advices
• Informations
• Moneys
Nouns
Quantifiers and countability in outer circle varieties
• Uncountable quantifiers are used with countable nouns
Do not eat so much burgers.
• Use of some as a determiner
After some few days.
Nouns
Conflation of pronoun gender
- When I first met my
husband, she was a
student.
- My mother, he lives in
Kampog
Topic-093: Grammar-III
Verbs
Stative verbs
• Verbs that express a state rather than an action
• Relate to thoughts, opinions, feelings and emotions
• These verbs are usually not used in the progressive tenses
Verbs
Stative verbs
Examples
• Understand
• Doubt
• Like
• Want
• Hate
Verbs
Stative verbs
The Outer and Expanding Circle varieties of English most often do not make a distinction between stative
and dynamic verbs
Verbs
Stative verbs
- He is having two cars.
- I was not knowing him
then.
- She is not recognizing
you.
- What are you wanting
now?
Verbs
Inflections
• In many Asian languages, verbs are not inflected for tense.
• The distinction in time reference is expressed by adverbs or some other linguistic element
• The multilingual users of English base their systems on their fsirst language
Verbs
Limited past tense marking
- Mandarin, I learn it
privately.
- My wife, she pass her
Cambridge.
- I talk to her yesterday.
Verbs
Inflections
There is a great deal of variation in the use of the tense-aspect markers of English across its varieties.
Verbs
Use of aspect instead of tense
I eat = I’m eating
I’ve worked there in 1960.
Limited marking for the third person singular
She drink milk.
He read a book at bed time.
Verbs
Formation of prepositional verb construction
- I can’t cope up with this
situation
- His name cropped in the
conversation
- I’m going to voice out my
opinion
Topic-094: Grammar-IV
Question-answering system
Types of questioning-answering systems:
• Positive-negative system
• Agreement-disagreement
system
Examples:
• Positive-negative system
Q: Isn’t he coming?
A: No, he isn’t.
• Agreement-disagreement
system
Q: Isn’t he coming?
A: Yes, he is.
• Outer and expanding circle Englishes follows the agreement-disagreement system.
• Causes difficulty in interpreting the answer
Q: Didn’t you complete your
work?
A: Yes, that’s right.
Use of general question tags
Question tag:
Tags are used
with question intonation following statements
He is coming to the party,
isn’t he?
Sara has arrived, hasn’t she?
Use of general question tags
In the Outer- and Expanding-Circle varieties, a general tag, isn’t, is it, no is used universally:
Hira will come next month, isn’t it?
He didn’t pass the test, isn’t it?
He likes music, isn’t it?
You are not going home,is it?
Topic-095: Discourse Style-I
Topic 95:
Variations in aspects of discourse
• More formal character than the Inner Circle English
• More complex vocabulary and grammar
• Lengthy constructions
Variations in aspects of discourse
Redundancy of expression
• Expressions of thanks
• Lengthy constructions
• Deferential vocabulary
• Use of blessings
Redundancy of expressions
Examples
• I’m bubbling with zeal and enthusiasm to serve as a research assistant
• I offer myself as a candidate for the post of Research Assistant
• With due respect I beg to state
• Your obedient servant
Greetings and leave taking
Direct translations from indigenous languages:
- So how? (Sri Lankan
English)
- You’re enjoying? (Nigerian
English)
- Have you eaten already?
(Malaysian/Singaporean
English)
Greetings and leave taking
Direct translations from indigenous languages:
- How? How now? (West
African English)
- Are you alright? (East
African English)
Topic-096: Discourse Style-II
textual organization
structure of information
grammatical structure
Thematic information
• Difference in the organization of information
• Different devices used for expressing focus and theme
Focus and theme in Inner Circle English
• The initial element in the sentence usually signals the theme
• The element that follows the main verb is in focus
Example
Where did Sara go?
She went to the beach
Focus and theme in Outer Circle English
i. Certain medicine we don’(t)
stock in our dispensary
ii. One subject they pay for
seven dollars
iii. And weekend you can
spend with your brother.
iv. My daughter she is
attending the University of
Nairobi.
Lesson-17
World Englishes and Intelligibility
Topic-097: Intelligibility
A frequently discussed topic today is whether various english varieties will be intelligible outside their
locality or not.
What is intelligibility?
• Understanding
• Making sense
Variation and intelligibility

• Differences across varieties may lead to difficulties in intelligibility
• Variations may be caused by these factors:
• Geography
• Ethnicity
• Age (differences between old and younger generation)
Variation and intelligibility

Varieties may differ from each other in:
• Grammar
• Lexis/vocab is differenet- eg in pak english gunman for armed guarad
• Sentence structure / paki or Ind speaker wants to say why are you late? He would say wh y you
are late?
• Accent
Intelligibility is not an abstract idea. it can be considered only in a particular context that may include:
• The speaker
• The listener
• Situation
• Time
• Purpose
For example, if a person is speaking english and you understand it but you do not understand intention of
speaker.
Listener may not understand speaker, due to rate or volume, voice difference or speaker is telling how
some computer equipment works and listener does not know jargon of computer they do not understand
each other.
Intelligibility
• Lack of intelligibility is a natural phenomenon when a language becomes widespread
• Intelligibility is considered in both productive and receptive skills-you show concern abt intell in
spg lg rg wg etc.
• Mostly causes concerns in listening speaking
Intelligibility
• Variations may cause issues of intelligibility and frustration to speakers of different varieties
• Two reactions:
• Change the situation
• Accept the situation and learn to deal with it-world englishes supporters say that variations in
English will be there . It should not be changed rather we should devise ways to deal with this situation.
Topic-098: Components of Intelligibility
Components of intelligibility
The holistic notion of intelligibility is divided into three components:
• Intelligibility
• Comprehensibility
• Interpretability
(Smith as cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006)

Intelligibility
Intelligibility refers to:
• Level of sound- when you hear an utterance you are able to distinguish between different sounds-
recognize sounds according to different categories assigned to them-you hear a sound and you’re able to
identify them as different words.
Intelligibility
If you don’t understand someobdy and you try to assign different categories to different sounds that you
hear you can always ask the speaker to clarify their words. Difficulties can be overcome by:
• A clarification request e.g. could you repeat yourself?
• Repair device
• Stored in memory for checking later
• Ignored because of the redundancy in the message
Evidence of intelligibility
Being able to:
• Recognize a spoken word/words
• Reproduce it in writing
Topic-099: Comprehensibility
Comprehensibility
• The next level in Smith’s complexity continuum of intelligibility
• Involves:
• assigning meaning to utterances
• Recognizing an utterance’s referents
Comprehensibility
Example:
Table
- Please put the package
on the table.
- Invite guests of the
committee to the table.
- Table a motion.
- Insert data into cells in a
table.
Difficulty in comprehensibility
• Unfamiliar vocabulary
• Unfamiliar expressions
• Borrowed lexical items
• Nativized vocabulary
Difficulty in comprehensibility
Example:
‘Correspondence invited, preferably for mutual alliance … . ’
• Kachru cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006
• ‘Mutual alliance’ is a culturally significant collocation with respect to marriage arrangements
Topic-100: Interpretability
• To understand the purpose and intent of an utterance

• Most complex and most important
Interpretability
Example:
Masterji must have heard…. He biked all the way … his white beard rolled spiffily tight and his long hair
tucked under a crisp chartreuse turban.… He was even carrying a kirpan…. Masterji was a Sikh… but
very few went around with their ceremonial daggers strapped to their chests all day long.
Interpretability
Example:
‘Matrimonial correspondence invited from
respected Punjabi families for my son … clean shaven.’
Interpretability
Research findings on intelligibility
• Need to remove the native accent as the target
• Need for students of English to have greater exposure to nonnative varieties of English
Research findings on intelligibility
• Exposure ensures less inhibition and bias and more tolerance toward different varieties of English
• Wider exposure to more varieties increases users’ ability to comprehend international educated
English
Topic-101: Intercultural competence
• Focusing on only one culture leads students (or some teachers) to see only a unified and
monolithic culture
Differences caused by cultural contexts
People use different strategies for interaction depending on their:
Gender
Age
Ethnicity
Intercultural competence
Research on different varieties of English show that there are differences in the following aspects:
• Use of standard and non-standard English with respect to age and gender
• Performance of different speech acts
Use of ‘yes’ in different cultures
• In Burundi: the addressee may say: ‘Yes, I definitely agree’, and then proceed to state their
opinion which is contradictory to what the first speaker had said.
Use of ‘yes’ in different cultures
Example:
In American English (women): ‘yeah’ to mean they are following what the speaker is saying
In American English (men): ‘yeah’ to mean they agree with the speaker
In Japanese: ‘I am paying attention to what you are saying’.
Findings of research
Language teaching needs to take into account:
• Properties of extended discourse in context
• Teacher education to consider the conventions of culture that determine context-dependent
language use
• awareness raising about shared and non-shared features of world Englishes
• Teacher awareness about their own attitudes
• Recognition of the status and depth of world Englishes
• Projection of ethnic, gender, national and other identities through world Englishes
Topic-102: Sociocultural Context in World Englishes
Lesson-18
Standard Language Ideology

Topic-103: What is Standard language I?
What is Standard Language?

• The term ‘standard’ began to be applied to language and literature in the 18th century.
• Historically was used for the battle/war flag of England in a battle in the 12th century
• Used in the armies to refer to the flag of a unit or regiment
Standard language
• The variety of a language which is considered the norm
• Used for educational purposes
• A yard stick for measuring the other varieties
Standard language
• Is a prestige variety
• Spoken by a minority of people with power and position in a society
Standardization of a language
Language standardization is the process by which conventional forms of a language are established and
maintained
Codification
• The methods used to complete the process of standardization
Standard English
Codification
• These methods include the creation and use of:
• dictionaries
• style and usage guides
• traditional grammar textbooks
Standard English
Codification
• The term was popularized in the early 1970s by linguist Einar Haugen
• He defined it as a process that leads to "minimal variation in form"
Standard language
• Language varieties do not have prestige in themselves
• They acquire prestige when their speakers have high prestige
• This explains the prestige and power attached to standard English.
Topic-104: What is Standard language II?
Bases of standard English

Grammar
• Grammar more than pronunciation
• Grammar is fixed and uniform
Grammar
Educated speakers may differ in:
• Pronunciation
• Vocabulary
• Idiom
First, …it really ought to be called ‘the grammar and core vocabulary of educated usage in English’…. it
is not the whole of English, and above all it is not pronunciation that can be in any way labeled
‘Standard’, but only ... its grammar and vocabulary.
(Strevens cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006)
Writing
• Associated more closely with writing than spoken forms
• Easily recognizable in written forms
Writing
Associated more closely with writing because:
• A blend of vocabulary and grammar
• Established more clearly through spelling than pronunciation
Writing
• Written English is more rule-governed than spoken English
• Role of publishers
• More uniformity and fewer divergences in writing
Language ideology
• Social, cultural and economic factors
• Undue importance given to the variety selected as the standard
Topic-105: Standard language

Grammar
• Grammar more than pronunciation
• Grammar is fixed and uniform
Grammar
Educated speakers may differ in:
• Pronunciation
• Vocabulary
• Idiom
First, …it really ought to be called ‘the grammar and core vocabulary of educated usage in English’…. it
is not the whole of English, and above all it is not pronunciation that can be in any way labeled
‘Standard’, but only ... its grammar and vocabulary.
(Strevens cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006)
Writing
• Associated more closely with writing than spoken forms
• Easily recognizable in written forms
Writing
Associated more closely with writing because:
• A blend of vocabulary and grammar
• Established more clearly through spelling than pronunciation
Writing
• Written English is more rule-governed than spoken English
• Role of publishers
• More uniformity and fewer divergences in writing
Language ideology
• Social, cultural and economic factors
• Undue importance given to the variety selected as the standard
Topic-106: Language Standards
Language standards
• Prescriptive language rules which together constitute the standard
• Formally taught and conformed to
• These rules may change over time
Criticism of language standards
• Create discrimination
• Work against the poor, women and minorities
• Need to be broadened
Process of standardization
Comprises four stages
• Selection
• Codification
• Elaboration of functions
• Acceptance
Selection
• The most critical stage
• Involves selection of one variety as the standard
• Led by the politically and socially powerful
• Protects and promotes the interests of the same
Selection
Involves the selection of:
• An existing variety with a high degree of political and social acceptance
• Different features from several varieties
Codification
• Involves the writing and development of:
• grammar textbooks
• style and use guides
• Dictionaries
• Allows people access to the standard forms
Elaboration of functions
• Capability of performing a wide range of functions in government and education domains
• New vocabulary and conventions are added
Acceptance
• The selected variety has to be accepted by the relevant population
Paradox of standardization
• A symbol of a state’s independence
• A strong unifying force
• A symbol of inferior status of the poor who use a regional, social or ethnic dialect
Paradox of standardization
• Standardization of a language may be challenged or questioned e.g. the standard English
Topic-107: Non-Standard Englishes
Non-British variety controversy

• Recognition of American English as a variety different from British English
• Reservations in recognizing institutionalized varieties in the outer circle
Varieties considered non-standard
• All the regional native speaker dialects of English
• All the ‘New English’ varieties
• Until 1970s educated Australian English
Non-Standard Englishes
Lack of acceptance of non-standard varieties may be due to:
• Attitude towards race in the US
• Attitude towards class in the UK
Non-Standard Englishes
Standardization and codification of outer circle Englishes:
• Singaporean Standard English
• Indian Standard English
Attitudes within the outer circle
• Often considered second-best compared to the standard English of the inner circle
Attitudes in the inner circle
• Unlikely to attract the same degree of prestige as native standard Englishes in UK, North America
and Australia
• Considered a result of fossilization
Attitudes in the inner circle
• Learners of a second language stop short of target-like attainment (the native speaker's
competence) in some or all linguistic domains
Lesson-19
Standard English and World Englishes
Topic 108: Language Standardization and Codification

Standardization
• The process by which conventional forms of a language are established and maintained.
• It may occur as an effort by members of a community to impose one dialect or variety as a
standard.
Codification
• The methods by which a language is standardized
• 18th century was the most important period of codification for English
• The term codification was popularized in the early 1970s by the linguist Einar Haugen
Codification
Codification involves the following:
• Developing a writing system
• Setting up official rules for grammar, orthography, pronunciation
• Publishing grammar books, dictionaries and usage guidelines
Selection of the standard variety
• English and financial opportunities
• Market share of different varieties:
• American
• British
• Australian
Standardization vs codification
Standardization
Concerns raised by standardization:
• Language status
• Language variability
• Language ideology
Standardization vs codification
Codification
Codification involves concrete and limited concerns:
• Recognition of creativity and innovation
• Purpose and domain of use
• Perceived superiority of the native speaker
Topic 109: Codification and Teacher Education
Topic 110: Issues in Codification
Issues in codification
• Outer circle Englishes exist in multicultural and multilingual environments
• Generally governments have maintained traditionally accepted British or American English
standards
Issues of codification
• The attitude is inappropriate in the current context of the exsitence of English
• Codification in the outer circle involves five challanges
1. Prescription or
description?
Prescriptivism is the belief that one variety of a language is superior to others and should be promoted as
such.
Descriptivism is a nonjudgmental approach to language that focuses on how it is actually spoken and
written.
Prescription or description?
Codification in the outer circle involves two kinds of decision:
i. Selecting models and
pedagogical norms
ii. Focusing on the cultural
context of uses and users
2. Selection
• Outer-Circle English users communicate within their region and with speakers from other circles
• Selection of an exclusively internal or external model as the standard is difficult
3. Functions
Participatory function codification for purposes of mutual collaboration
Separatist function
Marking boundaries of distinct identity
4. Content of standards
Two possibilities:
• Stay with the British or American model: easy and economical
• Select an internal model: involves a large amount of work
Content of standards (contd…)
Advantages of an internal model
• Awareness of identity
• More opportunities for creativity
• Acceptance and recognition of creativity
5. Acceptance
Locally defined standards need the approval and support of:
• Experts and professionals
• General population
• Institutions
Topic 111: Constructs of Standards and Codification-I
Randolph Quirk’s approach
• Three models of spread of English:
1. Demographic model
2. Econocultural model
3. Imperial model
Quirk’s view
Spread of English nowadays
• Can be compared with the econocultural model
• English being spread nowadays as the medium of science, technology and business
• Issues of standards
• General
• Restricted
Quirk’s view
• General issues of standards: educational concerns
• Restricted issues of standards: special uses of English
Quirk’s view
General issues of standards
• Unwillingness to adopt American or British English as models
• False assumptions about the varieties of English by linguists
Quirk’s view
Restricted issues of standards
• International standards for global use of English:
• English for transnational corporation
• Maritime English
Quirk’s view
• Varieties are deficient in this context
• Standard English is required to ensure better communication by using the same language
Quirk’s view
• Varieties exemplify an incomplete command of English
• Standard English is required to ensure better communication by using the same language
Quirk’s view
Need for a local standard
• Required only in the imperial model
• The local norms should be based on acrolectal variety which is as close as possible to the
externally established norm of Standard English
Topic 112: Two Constructs of Standards and Codification-II
Kachru’s view
Sociolinguistic reality of English in global context
• Multicultural varieties of English at various societal levels (penetration)
• Extraordinary wide domains of functions (range)
Kachru’s view
Sociolinguistic reality of English in global context
• Emphasizes the user
• Users make adjustments in their use of English that reflect the realities of their own
sociolinguistic contexts
Kachru’s view
• Rejects the traditional view of native speakers being the norm providers for all varieties of
English
• Acknowledges the influence of native languages on the English of multilingual users
Kachru’s view
• Rejects the view that varieties are deficient or incompletely learned
• The differences reflect the diverse cultural contexts of the use of English
Kachru’s view
New norm-providers
• Various norm-providing and modelling centres have resulted in new linguistic and literary rules
and principles
• Learning English along with retaining one’s own identity
Kachru’s view
Adaptation of English to multilingual contexts
• Norm-providing
• Indigenized-variety use
• Asserting regional national or local identity as distinct from inner circle variety users
Kachru’s view
Diversification in inner circle and outer circle varieties
• Diversification in outer circle varieties is comparable to inner circle varieties
• considerable diversification at the base (colloquial level)
• and less diversity at the apex or educated level
Kachru’s view
Dealing with diversity
• Creativity and innovation reflect the diversity of cultural circumstances in which English is used
• Concerns raised by diversification need to be managed by exposure of teachers and researchers to
varieties of English
Topic 113: External Models in Expanding and Outer Circles
External models
• British
• American
Arguments for external models
Need for a uniform standard world-wide
• Uniform standard needed for global English
• Multiple norms can cause the language to break up in mutually unintelligible varieties
• Political leadership favours external models
Sufficiency of external models
• Existence of research based codified varieties
• Availability of abundant instructional and reference material in British and American English
Sufficiency of external models
• Similarity between educated varieties in outer and expanding circle and standard British or
American English
• Adequacy of available models for restricted purposes
Inseparability of English and American/British culture
• Creativity of the inner circle speakers is considered more valid
• Outer and expanding circle literature is considered secondary to inner circle
• British and American literatures determine the literary standards
Topic 114: Internal Models in Expanding and Outer Circles
Arguments for internal models
Unavoidability of acculturation of English
• Sociocultural context of outer and expanding circle countries
Research on internal models
• Features of different varieties have been recorded by researchers
• Dictionaries and grammar reference books are being compiled
• International Corpus of English (ICE) is being developed
Breaking away from British and American culture
• Increase in range and depth of English
• Acculturation and emergence of new varieties
• Need to contextualize English
Language standard and ideology
• Social identity
• Sociolinguistic reality
Lesson-20
Acculturation
Topic 115: Standard VS. Global Language

Standard language
• A language which has changed from a regional into a national language
• Used as a second language by the speakers of other dialects, retaining some features of their
regional languages.
Standard language
• Discovers new functions
• Develops new registers
• Expands its meaning potential
Global language
• A language which has changed from a national into an ‘international’ language
• Used as a second language by the speakers of other languages, retaining some features of their
national languages
• Called global as its range covers the whole world
Global language
• A language takes on new meanings when it is used to describe settings originally construed in a
different language
• It does so by:
• Borrowing
• Reconstruing old words
Global language
• Creates new functions
• Produces new meanings
• Increases its meaning potential.
Topic 116: Speaking and Writing in World Englishes
Conventions of language use across cultures
The need to understand the following:
• Interactions
• Sociocultural values
• Conventions of language use
• Linguistic structure
Speech Act
An act that a speaker performs making an utterance, such as:
• Requesting
• Promising
• Asking
• Demanding
• Apologizing
Conventions of politeness
• People oriented to negative politeness may be perceived as aloof or cold
• People oriented to positive politeness may be perceived as unsophisticated
Negative politeness
The strategies that avoid offence by showing deference.
Examples
• Use of honorific terms: "Dr.", "Mr.“
• Indirect requests: Would not you mind if we shut the door?
Positive politeness
The strategies that avoid offence by highlighting friendliness.
Examples:
Use of nicknames
Exaggerated approvals: You look terrific
Request: You look cold, Sam. Should we shut the window?’
Show of negative politeness: where interactions between strangers are conventionally oriented more to
deference
Show of positive politeness: where interactions between strangers are expected to be more personable and
friendly
Sociocultural conventions of language use across cultures
Politeness
Asian languages
• Grammatical devices at the phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels
• Discourse strategies, to signal respectful and polite verbal behavior
Politeness
Asian languages
Indicating respect for specific
addressees or referents:
• honorific pronouns
• verbal endings
• lexical sets
Politeness
Asian languages
Indicating respect for specific
addressees or referents:
• Sets of honorific pronouns
• Verbal endings
• lexical sets
Choice from one set is constrained by the choice from another set
Politeness
Asian languages
Grammatical choices: Hindi
Lexical choices: Korean (Hwang, 1990)
Honorific Plain Gloss
Cinci pap ‘meal’
Sengham ilum ‘name’
Expression of politeness in English
English language does not
have systemic choices but only strategies based on politeness considerations
Assimilation and change of conventions
• Assimilation of cultural conventions of language use in new varieties of English
• Under the influence of English in some section of societies these systems are undergoing change
Conventions of use in world Englishes
Expression of partial agreement-disagreement
Yes, but…
In Hindi: No . . . but yeah
Example
A: Do you think it [wife abuse] is common?
B: In India? In rural families this is common.
C: No, it’s common. Very much common even in very literate families
Strategies used to produce appropriate and effective language in any situation
• Different varieties of English show a considerable difference in the use of rhetorical strategies in
writing
• Selection of a rhetorical strategy is motivated by considerations of sociocultural appropriateness
Features of outer and expanding circle writing
• High sounding style
• Indirectness
• Presenting all sides of an argument
• Extensive quotation from
previous work
Features of outer and expanding circle English
Politeness strategies
• Prefacing the request by some general observations
Now coming to the crux of the matter . . . I request you
Features of outer and expanding circle writing
Politeness strategies
• Use of affective elements
- I request you very humbly to enlighten me of the following points.
- So, with folded hands I request you to
Literature
Creative literature from Africa and Asia successfully uses a synthesis of:
• Oral and literate traditions
• Strategies of drawing in the audience
Features of inner circle Writing
• Direct imperatives
• Heavy emphasis on explicit, decontextualized, impersonal language
Features of inner circle English
• Need to acknowledge the literary value of outer circle writings
• Publishers need to shed off their prejudices
Topic 119: Genre and Style in World Englishes
Genre
A genre is a type or category of literature or other form of artistic composition (as in painting, music or
film), marked by a distinctive style, form, or content.
Genre
• Language use in a conventionalized social setting
• Responds to specific communicative needs of a discipline or in a social setting
• Practices constraints on use of grammar vocabulary and discourse features
Genre
Is identified on factors external to the text:
• Rhetorical context
• Communicative purpose
• Sociocultural and other institutional constraints
Genre
Factors internal to the text:
• Lexicon
• Grammar
• Text organization patterns
Genre
Contradictory features of genre:
• Conventions: rhetorically stable textual activity
• Tendency for innovation: exploited by experienced writers to create new forms in order to
respond to novel rhetorical contexts
Genre
Creativity in the use of linguistic resources represents subtle changes in style to convey private,
organizational or/and personal identities, attitudes, intentions and perceptions.
Style
• Generally defined in terms of text-internal factors.
• Style can demonstrate:
• a typically individual use of language
• a typically functional use of language
Difference between Style and Genre
• Genre focuses more on the communicative values
• Style pays more attention to linguistic form
Topic 120: Genre and Style in World Englishes
Genre in the context of world Englishes
• Variations in world Englishes are comparable to variations in styles
• Both reflect individual uses of language
• Individual variations can be seen in the use of language in different contexts
• These variations are caused by differences in the experiences, goals, attitudes, and values of
speakers of world Englishes
• Change in the use of vocabulary and grammar will change the construction and interpretation of
genre
• Variations due to world Englishes can create noticeable differences in genres and styles
Conservative genres
Little room for variations in the use of:
• text-internal features of language use (lexico-grammar, discourse structuring)
• text-external features
Conservative genres
• Generic integrity is maintained in professional and academic discourse
• Editor control by publishing houses
Conservative genres
• These constraints can be compared with conformity to largely Western and native English norms
• Limit variation, creativity, and innovation in language motivated by variations in world
Englishes.
Liberal genres
Creativity and innovation in the use of linguistic form is considered a great quality (literary genres)
In a dramatic day’s play, India, after taking charge of the match, let the advantage slip a bit. First, after
the Indian bowlers had reduced Pakistan to 137 for 8, a gutsy 49 by Mohammad Sami helped them to a
respectable 224. Then, Virender Sehwag was out off the first ball of the Indian innings, though the
Indians avoided further loss, ending the day on 23 for 1. (The Wisden Bulletin by Amit Varma cited in
Kachru, B., Kachru Y &Nelson, 2006)
After being roasted in the Caribbean sun for two-and-a-half days, England’s batsmen suffered a
prolonged dizzy spell on the third eveningin Antigua, slumping to 98 for 5 before Andrew Flintoff and
the debutant Geraint Jones applied the cold towels with a soothing 73-run partnership
(The Wisden Bulletin by Andrew Miller cited in Kachru, B., Kachru, Y. & Nelson, 2006)
Lesson-21
World Englishes and Language Acquisition
Topic 121:Second Language Acquisition and World Englishes

Second Language Acquisition
The study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as
young children, and to the process of learning that language.
Distinctions in second language in SLA
• Second language
• Foreign language
• Auxiliary language
• Additional language
SLA and world Englishes
• Growing recognition of the plurality of English underlying the World Englishes (WE) paradigm
• Problematizing of the conventional SLA views of second language learning
World Englishes claims
According to Kachru, WE makes three basic claims:
• There is a repertoire of models for English, not just the native English
• Localized innovations in English deserve recognition
• The ownership of English lies with all those who use it.
Challenge to traditional SLA paradigm
• Rejects the attainment of native-like competence as the English learning goal for all learners
• Native speakers not responsible for the standardization of English
SLA and World Englishes
• Gloabal spread of English
• Socio-cultural and pragmatic needs of new speech communities of English
• Generation of multiple norms at the local, national and regional levels
View of deviations from the standard English:
• In SLA: errors
• In WE: variations
• Non-native speaker (NNS) norms treated as equal to native speaker norms
• Use of NNS norms for evaluating the appropriateness of English use in outer circle contexts
Topic 122: Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in Multilingual Context
SLA and multilingualism
The world Englishes orientation recognizes that additional languages are learned/acquired in multilingual
contexts
Functions of an additional language
• The uses and functions of the additional language are determined by the role and status the
additional language enjoys in a community
• WE performs various functions in different settings
Benefits of world Englishes to the study of SLA
• Provides fertile ground for SLA research
• Offers research potential in Applied Linguistics and Sociolinguistics
World Englishes and SLA concepts
Lack of relevance between world Englishes and SLA concepts of:
• Fossilization
• Interlanguage
• Input
• Monitor
Focus of world Englishes research
• The impact of uses and functions of a language on its acquisition
Topic 123: SLA and Formal Instructions
Orthodox view of SLA
• Native-like competence as L2 learning goal
• Deviations from NS norms are believed to result from limited linguistic competence
World Englishes view of SLA
• L2 learning goal may not necessarily correspond to NS norms
• Deviations from standard English norms may not necessarily be errors in WE particularly when
an idiosyncratic form appears systematic and is shared by a speech community
Language instruction in World Englishes context
• English language instruction is carried out by non-native English speaking teachers
• No exposure to native speakers
• No or limited exposure to materials from the inner circle
Topic 124: Issues of Proficiency and Communicative Competence-I
Foreign language instruction in NNS countries
• Native language as the model for a foreign language learning
• Native speaker not a requirement as teacher or instructor
English language instruction in NNS countries
• Preference for native English speaking teachers
• NNS teachers not being proficient enough, spoilt the language
English language instruction in NNS countries
• Which pedagogical model
• Which English – US, UK or native?
English language use in NNS countries
There are ‘millions of L2 users who learn and use second languages in their own countries, from their
own (nonnative) teachers, for use primarily with other nonnative speakers, and who may never come
across a native speaker face to face’
Sridhar cited in B. Kachru, Y. Kachru & Nelson, 2006)
Ideal definition of a native speaker
• Someone who acquired a given language as her/his home language at mother’s knee, without
benefit of formal instruction.
• She/he has useful intuitions about grammatical correctness, and does not have to think about how
to say what she/he wants to say
Proficiency of non-native speakers
• Non-native speakers as proficient speakers
• Show better proficiency than the native speakers in some cases
• Do we need a native speaker or a proficient speaker?
SLA and native speaker
• Primary criteria: monolingual notion
• Secondary criteria: social factors
SLA and native speaker
• Need to acknowledge outer and expanding circle varieties of English in SLA
Topic 125: Issues of Proficiency and Communicative Competence
Genetic and functional nativeness
Genetic nativeness
Refers to the historical relationships of contact and convergence between languages
Genetic and functional nativeness
Functional nativeness
• Sociolinguistic status in range and depth of use in a society
• Users recognize standard English
• Users’ exhibit proficiency comparable to native speakers’ proficiency
Communicative competence
The ability to use a community’s language in appropriate ways to achieve goals and to operate in the
society in an intended manner
• Refers to both the tacit knowledge of a language and the ability to use it effectively
• The socially appropriate use of language
• Knowing and acting in accordance with the sociocultural knowledge
• Conventions of language use
Communicative competence and native speaker
A native speaker does not make for a more competent communicator in different contexts
Communicative competence and world Englishes
• Wide exposure to varieties of English allows for being flexible in one’s use of the language
• Inclusion of the notion of world Englishes in teacher education programmes
Topic 126: Nativization and Englishization
Nativization
Effective communication in world Englishes context depends on:
• An awareness of nativization of English
• Englishization of the local languages in contact with English
Nativization
• Adaptation of English to local socio-cultural environments
• Leads to qualifying descriptors such as:
• US English
• Indian English
• Singaporean English
Englishization
The transformation which takes place in non-English cultures and languages as a result of exposure to the
English language
Englishization
• Obvious influences of English on other languages
• Levels of languages from pronunciation to literary genres are affected
Code mixing and code switching
Code mixing
Changing from one language
to another within sentences
Code switching
Changing from one language to another across sentences and larger language domains
Code mixing and code switching
• Amajor characteristic of the users of world Englishes
• Readily observable
• Not fully approved by monolingual researchers
• Need to understand what prompts code mixing and switching
Lesson-22
World Englishes and Language Acquisition
Topic 127: World Englishes and Interlanguage

Interlanguage
Refers to the intermediate states of a learner’s language as it moves from L1 toward the target L2
Interlanguage
L1 ___ | .................... | ___L2
Interlanguage
Interlanguage is metaphorically a halfway house between the first language (L1) and second language
(L2)
Interlanguage
L1 ___ | .................... | ___L2
Interlanguage
Learning L2 is a gradual process from L1 towards L2. At every stage of learning learners have rules of
grammar which are not perfect yet
Interlanguage
• Reflects the learner's evolving system of rules
• Is influenced both by L1 and by input from the target language
Interlanguage
The monolingual SLA stance considers all non-native varieties of language as failed attempts at learning
Topic 128: World Englishes and Interlanguage
Interlanguage
Interlanguage as a concept has no relevance to stable bilingual and multilingual contexts across the world
Interlanguage hypotheses
The concept of Interlanguage is based on following hypotheses:
1. Varieties of English are fossilized forms of standard English
2. Results of imperfect learning
Fossilization and world Englishes
• Fossilization is inapt to the context of world Englishes
• In multilingual contexts different languages have definite roles
• English has definite roles in many societies
• The roles and contexts of use are constantly evolving
Fossilization and world Englishes

• In a multilingual context, each language has its use
• One language many not be appropriate for use in all domains
SLA in outer and expanding circles

• SLA models are the teachers and materials
• English has various uses outside the classroom
• Receives reinforcement and expansion opportunities of classroom learning
Topic 129: Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theories and World Englishes
SLA Theory Construction
• Immigrants or foreign students in universities are used as sources of data
• Learners of English in the outer and expanding circles are overlooked
SLA Theory Construction
• Little awareness of the factors relevant to English language learning in these contexts
• Lack of relevance between SLA theories and world Englishes
Assumptions of SLA
1. Learning goal is to attain native-like competence to communicate with native speakers
2. Input comprises the entire range and depth of British and American English
3. Learners ought to have integrative motivation for language learning
Assumptions of SLA
4. Primary languages considered sources of negative and positive transfer
5. Difference from standard British or American English amount to failure – fossilization or pragmatic
failure
Success in SLA
• Five percent of learners are expected to achieve native competence in L2
• The others are consigned to the category of interlanguage users
Topic 130: Realities of Second Language Learning in World Englishes Context
Realities of outer and expanding circle context
• Non-native interlocutors
• Native English norms may be viewed unfavourably
Realities of outer and circle context
• Input available in indigenized variety of English:
• Teachers
• Peers
• Materials
• Several languages in the linguistic repertoire
• Each language with a distinct function
• Irrelevance of ideal bilingualism
• Functions of English unique to the context
• Serves as a high variety in a diglossic situation
• Used in administration, higher courts of law, tertiary education
• Overlaps with other languages in informal situations
Topic 131: Acquisition of English in Outer and Expanding Circles
Inapplicability of SLA to world Englishes
• Gap between classical SLA paradigm and learning of English in outer and expanding circle
• Inapplicability of SLA concepts and methods to the world Englishes context
Outer and expanding circle contexts
Multilingual users
• Include different domains of use and require different levels of proficiency
• Multilinguals are not deficient but proficient users of English and other languages
• Employ code mixing
Local input
• Bilingual teaching methods
• Teachers proficient in local variety of English
• Indigenized versions of American popular culture
Local input
• Creativity in the use of internet
• Indigenized varieties rather than an international or universal English
Irrelevance of SLA concepts
• The target is not acquisition of native-like competence
• Inappropriacy of fossilization and interlanguage for researching world Englishes
Irrelevance of SLA concepts
• Indigenized varieties rather than an international or universal English
• Cannot be compared to creolization
Role of first or primary languages
• Positive role of the first language
• Innovations help in two ways:
• Increase communicative competence in the target language
• Help in acculturation of the target language to local context
Topic 132: Acquisition of English in Outer and Expanding Circles
Integrating world Englishes into SLA paradigm
Theory construction to consider:
• Multilingualism
• Functions of language(s)
• Creative potential of human linguistic behaviour
Changing SLA scenario
Some scholars and linguists suggest the following:
• Inclusion of ‘indigenized language’ as a type of acquisition in SLA typology
• New perspectives on SLA
• Acceptability of stable variations rather than treating them as errors
• Native speakers to be more tolerant and accepting
• Need to increase familiarity with international English
• SLA theories to consider research on the acquisition and use of IVEs
• SLA’s limitations with regards to offering explanations with regard to learning English in outer
and expanding circles
Topic 133:
Bilingualism , Code Mixing and Code Switching
Code switching
Code switching is a well-recognized phenomenon in the speech of bilingual or multilingual

people
Multilingualism
The use of two or more languages by a single individual or a community of speakers
Multilingualism
• More than half of world’s population is multilingual
• Engages in code swithcing
Code switching
• The alternation between languages or varieties in the utterances of individuals
• The practice of moving back and forth between two languages or between two dialects
Code switching
• Alternation between varieties or codes, across sentences or clause boundaries
Code mixing
• Alternations between languages or varieties within a clause or phrase
Code mixing
Examples
- Kio ke six seven hours te school de vich spend karde ne, they are speaking English all the
time.
(Punjabi/English)
- Have aqua please (Have water please). (Spanish/English)
Code switching
Examples
- Why don’t we all go together to New Delhi? N1 ki shaddi ki shopping bhi ho jaye
- Very soon, I will be a big star in Bollywood; main naumeed nahin hougni.
Topic 134:
Phenomenon of Code Mixing
Code switching
Code mixing may be intentional or unintentional
What prompts code switching
• Speakers may engage in code-mixing as a natural and unconscious language act
• No apparent reason
Example:
They are planning to go to Hardwar on Monday. I will tell you pucca tomorrow.
What necessitates code switching
• Representation of cultural elements of a situation
She was absolutely free of any obligation from
anyone — no one had the time to do sewa for her
What prompts code switching
• Participant relationships
• Situational factors
• Language attitudes
• Message intrinsic factors
• Interjections
• quotations
Code switching and borrowing
• Borrowing functions to provide necessary elements that do not exist in the primary
language being used
• A bilingual speaker lacks the exact word for the concept he or she wants express
Code switching and borrowing
Phonological and morphological assimilation of borrowed items
Examples:
Frappé = frapp
Time = tam
Borrowing
Examples:
• Meray paas time nahin hai
• Can I have some chutney please?
• I ate a samosa with tea.
Topic 135:
Pragmatics of Code Switching 1
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint
Equivalence constraint
Free morpheme
A morpheme (or word element) that can stand alone as a word. Also called an unbound
morpheme or a free-standing morpheme
Free morpheme
Examples:
I need to go now.
• Are
• This
• Eat
• Let
• Want
Bound morpheme
A word element that cannot stand alone as a word, including both prefixes and suffixes.
Bound morpheme
Attaching a bound morpheme to a free morpheme creates a new word or new form of a word.
Example:
re + start = restart
re + join = rejoin
dis + content = discontent
An intrasentential switch may be made by any bilingual speaker only if a constituent is not a
bound morpheme
Example:
- Idher hum shop main jaty
hain tou …
- Dil o dimagh nature ki
khamosh dil awezyon say
halky halky lutf andoz hon
gey

Counter example:
- Hamaray ball- roomoon aur clubon ka kya ho ga?
- Boxon ki ziyadti bta rahe thi keh safr ki aadat nahin
- Singaporean kuning
Hokkein: kun + ing
kunning
Topic 136:
Pragmatics of Code Switching 2
Code switching occurs at a point where the surface structures or grammars of two languages
coincide because they have the same word order or constituents.
Code switches are allowed within constituents as long as the word order requirements of both
languages are met in the sentence structure.
Switches occur only:
• At points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or
• Between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual
grammar
Example:
Casa blanca = Spanish
N A
White house = English
A N
Blanca house X
Casa white X
Example:
I like you porque eres simpático
I like you because you are nice
Counter Example:
Jamil gave a pen ek larakii ko
John gave a book to a girl
Topic 137:
Code Switching as a Communicative Strategy 1
Communicative functions
Quotations tend to occur in the language that the original speaker used
Addressee specification directs the message to one of several possible addressees
Interjections the numerous and frequently used particles which occur no matter which language
is dominant
• Reiteration clarifies amplifies or emphasizes a part of a message

• Personalization versus Objectivization indicates the degree of speaker involvement or
distance from a message
• Textualization cue gives hints to the listeners about the interpretation of the upcoming
discourse
Topic 138:
Code Switching as a Communicative Strategy 2
Pragmatic functions
Speakers make choices from different codes that will serve the following needs:
• Politeness
• Face-saving
• Increasing or decreasing distance from interlocutors
Considerations in code selection
• Colourfulness
• Expressiveness
• Economy
Expressiveness
Two languages exploited in popular media such as newspapers, songs and films
Expressiveness
- Pepsi: ‘Yeh dil mange more’
- doctors kee number one choice
- Shampoo: Three months mein long, no waiting saal a saal
Colourfulness
- What is mobile number,
Kerunkya dial number
- Lovely ho gaiyan naam
tera
- Pretty woman dekho dkho
na pretty woman
Economy
Replacing a longer English phrase with its equivalent in the local language
Topic 139:
Language Planning and Policy and Spread of English
Language Planning
“Deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure,
or functional allocation of their language codes”
Cooper cited in Brutt-Griffler, 2002
Top down language policy
• Formulated by authorities (governments, commissions etc.) and imposed on speech

communities
Top down language policy
• Language policy is conceived as a unidirectional process
• Instruments of social control
• Tools for the achievement of ideological objectives
Theory of linguistic imperialism
Takes for granted that the colonizing nation possesses the power to impose its will on the
subjugated population.
Bottom up language policy

• Speech communities as active contributors to the shaping of the language policy
• Codetermine the context
• Seize the initiative from the institutional planners
Bottom up language policy
• Not a unilateral process
• Policy is an outcome of interplay between conflicting aims
Global spread of English and language policy
• Conventional notions of language policy and planning lack any critical perspective
• Global spread of English is attributed to the West and its imperialistic policies
Topic 140:
Colonial Language Policy 1
Lasting effects of colonization
• Subjugation of the colonized people to the ideological control of the colonizers even after
freedom
• Power rests with those exercising imperial power
Colonial language policy
• Role of speech communities in language planning during the height of modern

colonialism
• Exclusion of the aspect of indigenous self determination by top down models of language
policy
Colonial language policy
• Role of the indigenous population in the development of world Englishes
English and anticolonialism
• Imperial language policy was not unidirectional
• Was a response to the actions of the local populations who made demands on the
colonial administration

• English as part of the anticolonial struggle
• Spread of English as a result of struggle against imperialism
• Containment policy - a response to the inclusion of English to the anticolonial struggle
Topic 141:
Colonial Language Policy 2
Aim of colonial language policy
• To maintain British rule
• Fulfill the economic purpose of the colonies
• Avoidance of disruption to the empire
Anticolonial movements
• Emergence of large-scale anticolonial movements
• Well organized, popular and aggressive
Anticolonial movements
• Educational language policy as a means of stopping the anticolonial movement
• Language policy and the maintenance of empire became linked
English: a language of anticolonial movements
• English from a means of exploitation to a means of resistance
• Empowerment of indigenous populations by learning English to oppose the empire
English: a language of anticolonial movements
• English as an instrument of liberation
• Societal acquisition of English
Imperial language policy
• A language policy to safeguard the British political and economic agenda

• A safety measure to prevent liberation movements from using the language as a weapon
in the anticolonial struggle
• Not initiative but reactive
• Result of the appropriation of English by the indigenous populations
Topic 142:
Colonial Language Policy in Africa
Language policy and economic structure
The history of British colonization in Africa and Asian colonies demonstrates how language
policy served the economic ends of empire
Language policy and economic structure
• The connection between language policy and economic and class structure of the British
empire
• Promotion of the socioeconomic stratification of the population
Language policy and economic concerns
• South African mines provided the economic mainstay of British Southern Africa
• It determined colonial policy throughout Africa
Language policy and economic concerns
• Economic concerns controlled the educational philosophy of the colonial administrators

of Southern Africa
• The goal of the imperial functionaries was to ensure secure labor for the mines
• Education was kept highly restricted
• Aim of the education policy was to confine the subjects to their current environments
• Keeping the rural population on the land in Asian colonies and in ‘local reserves’ in
Africa

Colonial administrators have been quoted as saying:
• “book learning . . . Lowered [Africans’] usefulness for work,” and made them “uppish”
and “conceited.”
• The education of all Africans in South Africa “would mean ruin to South Africa”
Two fold purpose of education:
1. To make them more useful to their white masters
2. To limit their chances of leaving their environment
elementary industrial education served the purpose:
To limit their chances of leaving their environment
Topic 143:
Colonial Language Policy in Asia
• Agriculture constituted the dominant factor in the economy in Asian colonies
• The principal goal of the education policy of British Asia was the maintenance of the
agricultural basis of production.
Imperial language policy in Asia
• Primary education included the instruction of the masses through the vernacular in
• Instruction not to include any opportunities of leading up to the university level
“Nothing is taught which will tend to drive Malays from their agricultural pursuits”
• CO, Brunei cited in Brutt-Griffler, 2002

In India, Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic were taught to Indians as well as the British civil servants
who were supposed to rule them.
In 1835, English was given the status of the language of higher administration, judiciary and
education. This was the new Anglicist policy.
Language policy in India
• In 1835, English was given the status of the language of higher administration, judiciary
and education.
• English, being a vehicle of Western ideas, would Anglicise the Indian elite which would
be loyal to the British
The socioeconomic purposes assigned to education dictated educational language policy:
• The colonial service and commercial enterprise required officials and clerks well-versed
in English
• The plantation in British Asia had no need for English-speaking workers
• English education served entirely different ends and entailed a vastly different cost to the
colonial administration.
• Education in English constituted so much money and effort wasted on a class that would
never be allowed to make use of it
• English education served as a means to better-paying government employment
• A strong demand for English
• Asians and Africans knew the economic value of learning the language
• Made efforts to learn it despite the restrictions
Topic 144:
Learning of English and Anticolonial Struggle
Language policy and exploitation of the natives

• Role of language policy in the creation of exploitative socioeconomic structure
• Attempts to resist colonial rule through obtaining access to education and language of the
colonizers
Language policy and resistance to colonial power
• Learning English as a conscious strategy to resist colonial rule rather than Western
ideological hegemony
• Resistance to the colonial rule shaping the language policy environment
• Emergence of English as the language of the anticolonial struggle
• English education resulted in African and Asian’s refusal to manual labour serving purely
imperial economic interests
• Resistance to prescribed socioeconomic roles threatened the foundations of colonial rule
• Connection between the demand for and spread of English and the emergent liberation
movements in Africa and Asia
• Active role played by the English educated segment of the population in the anticolonial
movement
• Availability of English education considered a big threat to colonial powers
• The English educated unemployed natives became discontented and turned to opposition
movements
Topic 145:
English in Language Policy Discourse
Language policy
The place of a language in language policy is determined by:
• Population
• Prestige
• Status
• Functionality
• nationalism
Language policy in inner circle countries
• English is the language of the majority
• The issues is the role to be given to minority languages
• Status planning involves different dialects of English
Language policy in outer circle countries
• Only a minority of population is proficient in English
• Despite being a minority language, English is powerful
Language policy in outer circle countries
• Used by the elite
• Language policy revolves around the role of English
• The functionality of English is recognized and
accepted
Language policy in expanding-circle countries
• English lacks a strong population base
• No official status
• Enjoys a great deal of prestige
• Has instrumental value
Language policy in expanding-circle countries
• Used and learned as a foreign language
• Acceleration in use due to globalization
• Features prominently in language policy discourse

Topic 146
Choice and Hegemony of English
Dominance of English in language policy
Reasons for the dominance of English in the language policy:
• Useful and functional
• Access to knowledge and technological advancement
• The language of globalization
Question of Choice of English
Factors that make English inevitable:
• A long history of contact with English
• Being the only link language in a multilingual country
• Being the language of trade, industry, and higher education
Individual’s choice of English
A want or a need?
• For several jobs English is a requirement not an advantage
• Better job prospects
• Upward social mobility
Constraints on choice of English
Struggle between change and continuity
• Several post-colonial countries perpetuate the colonial language policy
• In many countries colonized by Britain, English remains an official or co-official

language
Struggle between change and continuity
• Attempts to promote other languages have ended in failure

• In many countries colonized by Britain, English remains an official or co-official
language
Economic power of language
• Prospect of a good job or social advancement
• Usefulness for international business relations and communication
• The hope of expected economic prospects and rewards
Role of bureaucracy in language policy
• Policy decisions are taken by government bodies
• Implementation regulations are framed by bureaucrats
• Decision-makers are from the elite with vested interest in maintaining the role and status
of English
Role of bureaucracy in language policy
• The elite make policies oriented toward English
• These policies further the hegemony of English
Topic 147:
Effects of hegemony of English
Beneficial
• Communicative and instrumental function
• Role as lingua franca
• Global reach
• The use of education and language policy to create and maintain a
• socioeconomic structure of the colonies conducive to imperial exploitation
• contextualizes the struggle of peoples throughout Africa and Asia
• to resist colonial rule through the attempt to obtain access to non-industrial
• education and the language of the colonizer.

Topic 147:
Effects of hegemony of English
Detrimental
• Social stratification
• Exclusion
• Problems associated with education and literacy
• Status of languages other than English
English causing exclusion
• Effect on the viability and stability of other languages
• Inability to use the official language
• Lack of proficiency in English
• In a situation in which English
• is an official language, lack of familiarity with it “constitutes one of the greatest
• impediments in a country, affecting as it does, access to education, public
• services, jobs, political positions, and effective functioning in a society.” English
• thus becomes “a bar between those who can participate using the official
• language and those who cannot” (Bamgboje, 2000: 2, 11). Consequently, those
• likely to benefit from the policy are “[c]ertainly not the poor” or economically
• disadvantaged (Brock-Utne, 2001: 115). Also in the category of the excluded
• are those who have imperfect mastery of English. Although they pretend to be
• able to participate, they are, in fact, functionally excluded since they do not
• function adequately, but admitting their inadequacy would involve loss of job
• or loss of face (Bamgboje, 2000: 11).
• Lack of opportunity for formal education

• Lack of opportunity for attending an English medium school
• Inability to use the official language
• Lack of proficiency in English
• In multilingual contexts, students lagging behind due to English as medium of instruction
Topic 148:
Hegemony of English: Implications for Language Policy and Planning
Extending the Scope of English
Need for a policy to make English:
• Inclusive
• equitable
• Vehicle for the promotion of cultural and economic development of a country
• The use of education and language policy to create and maintain a
• socioeconomic structure of the colonies conducive to imperial exploitation
• contextualizes the struggle of peoples throughout Africa and Asia
• to resist colonial rule through the attempt to obtain access to non-industrial
• education and the language of the colonizer.
• A policy without English’s negative effects
• Following measures can eliminate the negative effects of language policy:
• 1. Take into consideration social, economic and political factors while designing the
policy
• 2. Cater to the whole population and not just the elite by designing a multilingual policy
• 3. Minimize exclusion

• 4. Ensure that it contributes to the overall cultural, human, and socio-economic
• development of a country
English should not be taught as a language of wider communication and to facilitate participation
at the global level or for access to communication and technology at the cost of the first
languages. First languages should feature prominently in language policies as it is through first
languages that majority of the population can participate in a country’s development.
Topic 149:
Language Policy and Planning in Pakistan 1
Pre-partition language policies
• Colonial language policies were imperialistic
• Colonists imposed their languages on the nations they ruled
• This created a native elite to serve their needs for low level functionaries
• The British displayed some tolerance to the indigenous languages
• The tolerance was a part of political policies
Appeasement policy
• Warren Hastings, Governor of India from 1774 to 1785, used indigenization as a means
of governance
• Supported the cultivation of Indian classical languages as a strategy to appease the

established indigenous elites
• Warren Hastings, Governor of India from 1774 to 1785, had Orientalist views and
favoured indigenization as a means of governance. The cultivation of the Indian classical
languages, so as to conciliate the established indigenous elites of culture and learning,
was part of this political strategy
Political motives
• Encouraged the learning of Indian vernaculars by the British to control the ‘natives’ more
efficiently
• Madrassas and colleges were established all over India
Introduction of English
• The suggestion to teach English was made in 1792 by one of the directors of the East
India Company
Reservations about English
• Fear that Indians learning English will lead to the learning of British political values
• Desire fo ‘English liberty and the English form of government’
• Hope to make them anglicized as English literature undermined their beliefs
• Warren Hastings, Governor of India from 1774 to 1785, had Orientalist views and
favoured indigenization as a means of governance. The cultivation of the Indian classical
languages, so as to conciliate the established indigenous elites of culture and learning,
was part of this political strategy. Along with this went the idea that the British
themselves should learn the Indian vernaculars, so as to control the ‘natives’ more
efficiently. Both policies were political, their ultimate purpose being to help consolidate
the empire.
Introduction of English
• Demand for instilling ‘the ideas and feelings of civilized Europe’ increased
• In another letter dated 29 September 1830 to the Bengal government, the Directors said
that the natives were to be ‘imbued with the ideas and feelings of civilized Europe’ (in
Basu 1952: 303. See another letter, ibid., 303-6). The pressure was mounting and it was
the pressure of modernity in both England and India, to which utilitarianism contributed
Learning of English by Indians
• Realization among Indians that that traditional ways of exercising power and obtaining
wealth would change
• Power could be obtained by becoming junior partners of the British and for this English
was a great advantage.
• Rahman, 1993

• In 1832 recommendations were made about employing Indians in the civil service and
teaching them English.
• Initially confined only to the Bengali Hindus
• Introduction of modernity and the new forms of power distribution
• The Indian middle class considered English to be directly related to social and economic
prestige
• They demanded an English language education
• English became the language of the elite, press, and administration
• Common people received education in their own language
• The elite preferred an English education
• In another letter dated 29 September 1830 to the Bengal government, the Directors said
that the natives were to be ‘imbued with the ideas and feelings of civilized Europe’ (in
Basu 1952: 303. See another letter, ibid., 303-6). The pressure was mounting and it was
the pressure of modernity in both England and India, to which utilitarianism contributed
Topic 150:
Language Policy and Planning in Pakistan 2
Post-partition language policy
The 1973 constitution includes the following two clauses:
1. The English language may be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its
replacement by Urdu.
Post partition language policy
2. A Provincial Assembly may by law prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and use of
a provincial language in addition to the national language
- Rahman, 2003
Language policy for Urdu
• Urdu, the national language is the mother tongue of only 7.57 per cent of the population
• English is Pakistan’s official language
• Urdu was made the language of instruction for the primary level
Rationale for privileging of Urdu
• Widely spread and is almost like the first language of all Pakistanis
• Most jobs available through Urdu
• A symbol of unity
• Serves the political purpose of resisting ethnicity
The policy for English
• Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP) and Army were two Anglicized bodies
• Continuation of English favoured this elite
• English medium of instruction was also maintained in elite and cadet schools and college
Privileging of the elite
• The armed forces created cadet colleges on the lines of British elitist schools
• The schools were subsidized by the state
• These schools were believed to produce suitable candidates for filling elitist positions in
the military and civil services
Consequences of the privileging policy
Promotes the hegemony of English as it:
• Weakens the local languages and lowers their status
• Eliminates linguistic and cultural diversity
• Increases poverty by favouring English-using elite
Consequences of the privileging policy
• Continuation of two parallel systems in education was a reflection of the British policies
before partition
• Created two media of instruction resulting in two classes: common and the elite
• Discrimination in job opportunities

General Zia’s Urduization policy
• Implementation of Urdu as the medium of instruction in all government schools from

class one.
• Political influence led to the continuation of the elite English medium schools
General Musharraf’s policy
• English language was made compulsory from class one onwards
• Introduction of English as medium of instruction for science, Mathematics, Computer

sciences and other selected subjects
• The policy faced a deadlock due to the unavailability of English teachers
Dichotomies
• The choice of language- in- education in our country is a result of political expediency
rather than of educational effectiveness
Topic 151:
American English
American English and world Englishes
• Inner circle English
• A reference accent
• First colonial variety of British English
• Has undergone a process of linguistic and cultural appropriation
• A result of colonial expansion of the British Empire
• Stable and influential because of longer association with sociopolitical developments
• A history of in-migration
• Shows effects of language contact

Topic 152:
American English: Settlement History
Settlement history
• Unique mixtures of settlers
• First English-speaking permanent settlers came from the South of England
Settlement history
• Maintained strong ties with their mother country
• The accents of New England and the South share prominent linguistic features with
southern British English
Settlement history
Examples
• Dropping of a postvocalic /r/, which is not pronounced in words like car, card, four, and
fourth
• The retention of /j/ in tune or new
Settlement history
• Aristocratic plantation culture in the coastal South and Georgia
• Immigrants in the seventeenth century from northern and western England, Scotland and
Ireland
• Less affluent origins
• A mixture of the working-class speech constituted a type of American English
Settlement history
• Eighteenth-century immigrants selected Appalachian mountains
• Rooted their culture and linguistic features
• In the nineteenth century immigrants from Europe and Britain spread to the west
Settlement history
• Transcontinental movement advanced by the building of transcontinental railway

• The immigration and movement led to a process of mixing and blending of accentspeople
Koineization
• Dialect contact resulted in koinéization
• Koineization: the emergence of a new variety or dialect of a language from the mixing,
leveling, and simplifying of different dialects of mutually intelligible languages
• American English perceived to be fairly homogeneous
Koineization
• Involves continuity
• Speakers do not need to abandon their own linguistic varieties
• American English perceived to be fairly homogeneous
• The term koineization was introduced by linguist William J. Samarin (1971) to describe
the process that leads to the formation of new dialects. is the process by which a
new variety of a languageemerges from the mixing, leveling, and simplifying of
different dialects
Topic 153
Varieties of American English 1
Regional dialects
• Regional dialect differences are based on different pronunciation patterns and lexical
choices
• The inland northern region comes closest to an “unmarked” accent globally perceived as
“typically American”
Regional dialects
• The Midlands are a transition region
• A small number of features of their own and an increasing number of northern or

southern features
Regional dialects
• Regional differences include differences in pronunciation and lexis
Regional dialects
Examples:
• Some dialects are characterized by the lack of a postvocalic /r/
• Lengthening and breaking of vowels:
[Iə] in bit
Regional dialects
Examples:
Lexis
mosquito hawk = dragonfly
granny woman =midwife
jackleg = unprofessional, dishonest
Topic 154:
Varieties of American English 2
Social dialects
• Variations based on location
• Variations based on social status
• Acceptability of the use of regional words and regional accents
• Unacceptability of non-standard grammatical use (like multiple negation, the use of ain’t)
Ethnic varieties
• A result of immigration
• Produced by language contact
• Involves language shift on by a minority group from an ethnic language to English
Ethnic varieties
• Involve modification of the dominant language
• Example: African American English (AAE),
Ethnic varieties
• Perceived as homogeneous
• A strong degree of mixing, mutual accommodation, and koinéization
• Dialect studies show a great deal of phonetic, lexical, and grammatical variability
Ethnic varieties
• No nationally uniform standard accent of American English
• Diversity has replaced homogeneity
Topic 155:
Impact of American English on World Englishes
Impact on other varieties
• Outer circle countries use British English as the norm except the Philippines and Liberia
• Impact of on all varieties particularly on lexical choices and certain pronunciation
• Growing exposure to and prestige of American English
Impact on other varieties
• The dominant role of US in global politics and economics
• Sense of ambivalence about American English
Linguistic levels of impact
Lexis
• Most pronounced in vocabulary
Examples:
• Gas
• Guy(s)
• Hi
• Movie
• Truck
• Santa Claus
Linguistic levels nof impact
Lexis
• Adolescent slang and fashion terms like:
- man as a form of address -- cool meaning ‘very good
- figure them out,
- he’s like (‘he says’)
• Older words and phrases include: commute, fan, star, know-how, break even, or let’s face
it
Pronunciation
For certain words American pronunciations are getting more popular:
• research stressed on the first and primarily on the second syllable
• schedule with /sk-/
• lieutenant with /lu:-/
Spelling
Inclination towards American English in outer circle
• Despite British orientation American people are attracted to American English
• A predominantly British pronunciation basis with American features interspersed
• Use of American pronunciation variants
Inclination towards American English in outer circle
Covert prestige attached to American English despite British English being the “official” target
norm in education
Topic 156:
Canadian English
encompasses not only a rich array of regional forms

and some social variation but also, and increasingly so, ethnic varieties shaped
by effects of language contact and differential degrees of integration of generations
of immigrants into the American mainstream culture
Colonization and immigration
• Large scale colonization started in the second half of the twentieth century
• An influx of British immigrants during and after the American revolution
• Has retained strong cultural and political ties with Britain
Colonization and immigration
• A large proportion of Canada’s settlers has come from the USA
• Canadian English is traditionally described as a mix of British and American features
Influences on Canadian English
• The influence of British or American English varies by:
• Region
• Generation (an ongoing Americanization of the youth)
• Language level
• Pronunciation shows American base
• Vocabulary items and some spellings show a tendency towards British English
• The growth of a distinct Canadian identity after WWII reflected in uniquely Canadian
features
• These include:
• the word chesterfield ‘couch’
• the particle eh (inviting approval)

• The most noticeable feature of Canadian English: Canadian Raising i.e., the
pronunciation of / eɪ / and /aʊ/with a raised, central onset before voiceless consonants, so
that:
• out sounds like cold [əʊ]
• bite sound like bait [eɪ]
Topic 157:
English in Australia and New Zealand: Origin and Development 1
Similarities
• Geographical proximity
• Frequent migration and travel between Australia and New Zealand
• Similar stages of development
Origin and development
• Colonial varieties
• Related to different varieties of English used by settlers from all over England
• Influence of Australian English on New Zealand English
Periods of development
Australian settlement and development (1788-1820)
• Colonized as a penal colony in 1788
• Demonstrated powerful “founder effect”
Periods of development
Australian settlement and development (1788-1820)
• Influence of southeast England variety
• Settlers from the southeast of England in majority
• Relative prestige of southeast variety
Topic 158:
English in Australia and New Zealand: Origin and Development 2

Expansion and establishment of new colonies
• 1820: stabilization of the Sydney colony
• In 1831: founding of the Port Philip (Melbourne) colony
• Movement of settlers from Sydney to Port Philip
• 1840: Establishment of New Zealand colony
Expansion and establishment of new colonies (1820 -1850)
• 1840: Establishment of New Zealand colony
• Influence of southeast variety
• Comprised several multiple settlements including a mix of varieties
• Influence of the Australian English on early NZE
Gold rushes and new migration (1850 -1900)
• Increase in migration caused by:
• Gold rushes
• British policies resulting in increased migration
De facto independence (1900 -1960)
• Establishment of de facto nations
• Development of further changes
• Considering (RP) standard of England as the norm to compare the local Englishes
• Rising of national and linguistic identity
Awareness about national standards (1960-present)
• Awareness about the two Englishes being national varieties
• Need for having their own standards
• Serious scholarly work conducted
Awareness about national standards (1960-present)
• The development of dictionaries (the Macquarie Dictionary in Australia)

• Codification of the local varieties as standards
• Expansion of the linguistic diversity due to migration from all over the world
Topic 159:
English in Australia and New Zealand: Linguistic Features 3
Distinguishing features: pronunciation
The pronunciation of vowels:
The vowel /ɪ/ as in bit
In Australia, / ɪ / has been
raised and fronted
It now appears to the front of /i/
sit = seat
Distinguishing features: Pronunciation
The New Zealand / ɪ / has gone in the opposite direction, centralizing to / ʌ /
sit = sut
The merger of the vowels
/eə / and / ɪə / in NZE
ear = air
Distinguishing features
Use of Hypocoristics in AusE:
• Tendency to use a diminutive form of a name
• Tendency to generally modify names and other terms
Barry = Bazza or Bazz
afternoon = arvo
Distinguishing features: Lexicon in NZE
Thank you = no worries

bach = a holiday home
Egg = mild insult (fool)
Waka = any means of transport
Barbie = shortened version
of barbecue
Distinguishing features: Discourse
• In Australia, the service provider will name the total due followed by thanks:
That’ll be two dollars, thanks
• In most other Englishes thanks is postponed until the customer offers the money and/or
change is given.
Topic 160:
English in Australia and New Zealand: Sociolinguistic Variations
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Social class
• Lower classes tend to use the distinguishing features
• Upper classes tend to use the RP standard
• Younger speakers demonstrate more distinguishing features than older speakers
Age
• Younger speakers demonstrate more distinguishing features than older speakers
Gender
• Women use more new variants in changes from below
• Women will use more of the distinguishing properties than men of similar ages and
classes

Variation in AusE
• Broad
• General
• Cultivated
Variation in AusE
General
• The most common type of English spoken in Australia.
Broad
• Associated with more working-class speech
• Cultivated
Variation in AusE
Cultivated
• Prestige variety s
• Closer to the British Received Pronunciation
Topic 161:
Varieties of Australian English
Varieties based on users’ ethnicity
1. Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia
2. Non-Anglo-Celtic background Australians such as Greeks and Italians
Aboriginal Australian English
• The early contact between the colonists and aborigines resulted in the development of
several pidgins
• Pidgins developed into creoles

Characteristics of aboriginal Australian English (AAusE)
Differences between AusE and AAusE:
• Linguistic structure
• Norms of use
• In phonology many vowel sounds are reduced
• Stress shift to the initial syllabus
• Fricatives are replaced by stops at the same place of articulation e.g.
Father = pata
• Reduction of vowel sounds in phonology
• Stress shift to the initial syllabus
• Replacement of fricatives with stops at the same place of articulation e.g.
father = pata
• Simplified syntax
• deletion of inflections, possessive ‘s’ and copulas
• Difference in discourse conventions
• Lack of eye gaze
• Long inter turn pauses
• A strong preference for agreement
Wogspeak (New AusE)
• The term ‘wog’ was originally a derogatory term for all non-Anglo-Celtic migrants to
Australia
• The term has now been adopted by these groups as a mark of solidarity for them and their
common experiences of migration
Wogspeak (New AusE)
• Arose out of the learning of English by these migrant groups
• Shows an intensification of the features of variations in different varieties
Geographical variations
• Fewer compared to North America and Britain
• Researchers have shown dialectal differences in lexis and pronunciation
Topic 162:
Varieties of New Zealand English
Varieties of New Zealand English
1. Maori English
2. Southland Dialect
Maori English
Use new or vernacular features studied more frequently
Examples:
• Use of HRT
• Merging of ear-air sound
• Use of New Zealand tag eh
Reasons for variations
• Contact with Maori language
• Social factors: gender
The Southland dialect
• Based on the early settlement patterns of settlers of Scottish background
• Has a rhotic /r/
• Variable use of rhoticizing
• Strongly retained in sounds like:

nurse, curse
The Southland dialect
• Non-rhotic pronunciation was not the norm in the past
• The difference may represent a change taking place in Southland dialect
Topic 163:
Southeast Asian English: History and Development
Southeast Asia and ‘new’ Englishes
• Outer Circle: Malaysia, Singapore, Phillipines
• Expanding Circle: Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand
History and Development
• Result of colonization
• Collectively called ‘post-imperial’ Englishes
History and Development
• Strait settlements: Penang, Malacca and Singapore
• Provided the trading centre to the British Empire’s East India Company
History and development
• Singapore fell completely under the British Empire
• Malay kingdoms maintained royal families
• Straits Settlements became independent in 1957 and formed the Federation of Malaya
• Singapore seceded from federation
Language policy after independence
• Primary education in the ethnic language
• State supported ethnic schools for Chinese, Tamils and Malays
• English taught as a second language
• Secondary and higher education in English medium

Topic 164:
Southeast Asian English: Singapore and Malaysia
This chapter describes the current state of new Englishes in countries of Southeast
Asia where English is used as a second language, namely, Singapore,
Malaysia, and the Philippines (Kachru’s Outer Circle) and countries where
English is a foreign language, namely, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia
(Kachru’s Expanding Circle).
Language teaching and use in Singapore
• English is the dominant language in education and business
• Use of Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil limited to the elementary level
• Use of English as the dominant language in education and business
Language teaching and use in Singapore
• Singapore’s efforts to become a centre of academic excellence in research and a

knowledge society.
• English is now acquired as a first language by many Singaporeans
Language policy in Malaysia
Malay declared the national language for national unity and language of instruction at all levels
National Language Act of 1976 declared Malay the official and only language of government
Malaysianization
• Malay made mandatory to qualify for civil servants and university students
• Scholarly works translated and original works and textbooks produced in Malay
• Process completed by 1983 after reaching university level
• English as a subject from Grade 1 to 12
Reintroduction of English
• The need to bring back English for the modernization of Malaysia

• Education Act of 1996 reintroduced English as a medium of instruction for science and
technology subjects
• Continuation of the development of Malay as a language of intellectual work
Status and use of English in Malaysia
• The younger generation is not competent in English
• The remnant of the earlier generation still competent in English
• The Malay elite has continued to study abroad and learn English
• Partnerships with British, American, and Australian universities
• younger generation, for the most part, is not competent in English,
• there is the remnant of the earlier generation that has not given up the use
• of English;
Topic 165:
Southeast Asian English: Philippines
Status and use of English in Philippines
• The Philippines became a colony of the United States in 1898
• Became independent in
• 1946
• Under the colonial government, the medium of instruction was English from grade 1 on
• The monolingual English policy was modified in 1937 with the proclamation of
Tagalog-based national language
• In 1939, it was taught for the first time in schools in Fourth Year high school
• Made a required subject for future teachers.
• It became an official language in 1941
• It is taught as a subject both in schools and colleges

• Introduction of bilingual education scheme in 1974
• Ambivalence towards English as a result of nationalistic sentiments
• 1974-1986 stress on the use of Filipino as a medium of instruction
• Return to English as a language of globalization
• Need for an international language
• Return to English as a language of globalization
• Need for an international language
• English used even for the social sciences - the domain of the national language
Topic 166:
Southeast Asian English: Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia
English in Thailand
• About 99 percent of Thai students study English at school
• Not many succeed in acquiring much English proficiency
English language policy in Thailand
• Has the longest record of English language teaching
• Began the teaching of English from Grade 1 in private schools and Grade 5 in
government schools
English language policy in Thailand
• The policy was changed due to unavailability of teachers
• English was introduced in higher grades
• In 1996, English was reintroduced as a subject
• Taught from Grade 1 to 12
English in Indonesia
• Being a Dutch colony, teaching of Dutch was emphasized
• English became popular after the independence
• Now taught as the main foreign language
• Is taught for eight or nine years from primary school (from Grade 4 or 5) through high
school
English in Vietnam
• First French and then Russian taught as foreign languages
• Switched to English under the policy of economic renovation
English in Vietnam
• Most favoured foreign language because of its economic value
• All schools must offer English in grade 10 – 12
• In cities and towns in lower secondary school as well
Topic 167:
Future of English in Southeast Asia 1
Lasting influence of a language
• Link between the influence of a language and the political hegemony of a conquering or
dominant nation
• Language can continue to be influential and in use even if after an empire has declined
Current status
• Popularity and competence of English is increasing across wider sections of society
• The rich has access to better teaching learning opportunities than the masses
Current status
• Seems to be a privilege of the rich
• Degree and quality of attainment depends on:
• The quality of schooling

• The availability of teaching and learning resources
• Exposure to international community through tourism, foreign investment,

schooling and employment abroad
Current status
• Increase in status and prestige
• Increase in use as a language of education
• Increase in spread as an international language of commerce, trade, and international

relations
Topic 168:
Future of English in Southeast Asia 2
Status of English in Singapore
• Has a secure place in Singapore
• Pro-English official language policy
• Functions as an equalizing and unifying agent
Status of English in Philippines
• Continued demand for English in the Philippines
• Efforts at improving teacher training and testing
Status of English in Malaysia and rest of Southeast Asia
• In a state of revival in Malaysia
• Dominant foreign language even in Southeast Asian socialist countries (Burma,

Cambodia)
Future developments
• Demand for standardization for international communication and intelligibility
• Factors facilitating teaching and learning of English:
• Mass media
• Internet
• Mobile phones
• Educational system
Future developments
• Diglossic situation will result in changes in the language
• High variety may show mutually intelligible with other Asian varieties
• Mesolect and basilect may show more distinctive features of local Englishes
Topic 170:
African English: Origin and Development
Background
• The term refers to English as used only by Black Africans in ex-British colonies and in
Liberia
• The linguistic profile of Africa is an outcome of its colonial history
African English
Countries in Africa where English enjoys a prominent place include:
• Ghana, Nigeria, and Liberia (West Africa)
• Kenya, Tanzania (East Africa)
• Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia (Southern Africa)
• South Africa
Status and use
• The range and depth differs from context to context
• Used by a small number of people despite being the official language (e.g. Namibia) in
some cases
• In others used by a large number of population (Liberia, Zimbabwe, South Africa)
Status and use
• Has made a mark on the language use in Africa, despite relatively shorter period of
colonization
• Enjoys a lot of power and prestige
• Used in the domains of government, education and commerce of several African

countries (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania)
Topic 170:
African English: Innovations 1
Syntactic characteristics
Omission of articles
• African languages lack a comparable syntactic category
• Is observed in the language users from all educational levels
• An African feature and not an educational failure
Omission of articles
Examples
- Let strong … team be
organized.
- He gave me tough time.
- I am going to cinema.
Generic use of nouns and pronouns
- He is a real/whole person (i.e. an adult).
- You are a sociable
somebody (i.e. a sociable
person).
Pluralization of uncountable nouns
- all my furnitures and …
properties’
- noises of laughter and

chats’
- the respects they deserve
Redundant Insertion of pronouns
Also found in informal registers in Inner-Circle varieties:
- My daughter she is
attending …
- Robert he is currently
employed by …
- Me I am going to sleep
Generic use of nouns and pronouns
In African English, the resumptive pronouns occurs in non-subject positions:
- … in a country where you
have never been there
before.
- The guests whom I invited
them have arrived.
- Thank you for the letter
which you wrote it.
Comparative construction Inner circle English:
- It is the youths who are
more skillful than adults
- I am more hard working -
than my siblings
African English:
- It is the youths who are -----skillful … than the adults.

- I am ------ hard working than my siblings
Topic 171:
African English: Innovations 2
certain [shared] properties’ from various
nations, which ‘can be identified as Africanisms, in that they reflect structural
characteristics of African languages’. Bokamba’s treatment and those of Simo
Bobda (1994), Gyasi (1991) and Tripathi (1990) are limited to mostly lexical,
semantic and syntactic features
Semantic characteristics
Semantic extension
Adds meanings to English lexical items:
- Some ‘amount’ means ‘money’ or ‘cash’
- ‘an arrangement man’ is someone who usually gets his way’.
- someone who bluffs may be dressed ‘ornately or fashionably’.
Semantic shifts
Change meanings and functions of the existing words:
- machine may mean specifically sewing machine
- minerals — soft drinks
- serviceable — ‘willing to serve’
- guested ‘to have a guest’
Coinage
Shows the rich derivational morphology that is characteristic of African languages
- facing a lot of hardcap
(‘hardship’).
- … he has given nothing

coinable (‘no money’).
Compounding
- ‘These been-to boys’
(those who have travelled
abroad, specifically to
Britain or America)
- ‘a me and- my-darling’ (a
small sofa )
- chicken-parlour
‘commercial place where
chicken, fish and drinks are
sold’.
Reverse compunding
- knife bread for “bread knife”
- sheet bed for “bed sheet”
Innovations used by African English writers
• Transmit the various
cultures in English
• Render in English the
speech of monolingual
characters
Topic 172:
Black South African English
Use of English
• knowledge of English as a second language has increased twice as rapidly as knowledge
of Afrikaans
• According to 1991 census, approximately 45% of the South African population have a
speaking knowledge of English
• English is one option in a wide-ranging repertoire of languages
Education context
• One of the most important criteria related to knowledge of English
• Learned in school for virtually all black users
Education context
• First four years of elementary education are carried on in a first language
• Inappropriate texts and materials
• Instruction is carried on by non-native teachers
Media
• Code switching black urban slang occur in writing that is meant for local readers and has
local identity
• Standard English is the medium for more serious topics
Hola Magents! I know that all along the male species had to have a lot of njori (money) and a
flashy s’lahla (car)
Ideological issues
• Seen as the language of an oppressor
• Also, the language of liberation and resistance
• Instrument of black unity
• Solution: adopt more open-minded attitudes towards accepting nativized varieties of

English
Topic 173:
African American Vernacular English

AAVE
• Associated with the Americans of African descent
• Not used by all African Americans
• The most noticeable variety of English in the US
• A lot of research work is devoted to it
Brief History of African Americans
• Between 1500 and 1860, at least 12 million Africans were forcibly taken to the Americas
• Originally captured in African wars or raids and transported in the Atlantic slave trade
• They were sent to North America, South America and Caribbean
• The earliest slaves worked on plantations along the southern coast
• They cultivated cash crops like rice and tobacco
• Invention of cotton gin in 1793 increased the demand for the slaves
• In 1790 approximately 650,000 slaves worked with rice, tobacco, and indigo.
• By 1850 the country had 3.2 million slaves, 1.8 million of whom worked in cotton.
Theories of origin
Substratist hypothesis
• Evolved from an unusual forced and multilingual contact situation
• A derivative of West African languages
• Only superficially similar to English
Creolist hypothesis
• Based on similarities of features and processes of development between AAVE and

creoles (e.g. Jamaican Creole and Gullah)
• Slaves from Africa and from the Caribbean brought creoles which they already spoke
into America
Anglicist
• Holds that more usual adaptive processes of dialect formation were involved in Black
slaves’ acquisition of English
• The characteristic patterns similar to other varieties of English
Topic 174:
Features of African American Vernacular English 1
Phonological features
Consonant cluster simplification
• Several varieties of AAVE
• No one variety constitutes the specific each variety of all AAVE users
Consonant cluster simplification
• The third person singular verb morpheme is absent from 80–95 percent of its possible
occurrences
Frequently cited features include those that are:
1. part of GE, but are more frequent in AAVE
2. part of old fashioned Southern White speech
3. unique to AAVE
part of GE but are more frequent in AAVE
• Deletion of the last of a word-final sequence of consonants:
hand → han
• Deletion of an unstressed syllable
about → bout
government → gov’ment
Found GE but more frequent in AAVE
• Deletion of one of two identical syllables Mississippi → Missi’ppi
Found in South White speech and AAVE
• Reversal of word-final s + a stop consonant:
desk → deks
• Glide reduction:
tied → [ta:d]
Features unique to AAVE
Reduction of final nasal to vowel nasality
man → mɑ̃/ ~ loss of final consonants, principally affecting nasals
five → [fa:]
fine → [fa:]
Topic 175:
Features of African American Vernacular English 2
Morphosyntactic features
Non finite ‘be’
• Non-finite be is a social marker for AAVE
• Indicator of habitual state
or activity
- When June come, I be
outta school … .
- When my son was young,

the women be givin’ him
money
Perfect ‘done’
• Used with content verbs to indicate completion (perfectivity)
- You don’t have it ’cause you
done used it.
- They done used all the
good ones by now.
Perfect ‘done’
• With punctual verbs corresponding to ‘already’
- I done told you already.
• With ‘iterative adverbs like twice’
- I done got wet twice goin’
to the store.
Sequential ‘be done’
Used in a sense corresponding to GE ‘will have done’
- My ice cream’s gonna be
done melted by the time
we get there.
- So they can be done ate
their lunch by the time
they get there.

Sequential ‘be done’
• Future resultative
- You be done slapped me by now (‘you would have usually walked away from me by
now’)
- I’ll be done killed [him] if he tries to lay a hand on my kid again.
Non-recent perfective ‘been’
• Precedes a past-tense verb
• Refers to a condition that ‘was true in the past … has been true for a comparatively long
time
- They been called the cops, and they’re still not here.
- I been been knowing Russell … .
Non-recent perfective ‘been’
• Precedes a past-tense verb
• Refers to a condition that ‘was true in the past … has been true for a comparatively long
time
- They been called the cops, and they’re still not here.
- I been been knowing Russell … .
AAVE – a variety of American English
• Developments in the syntax, semantics and pragmatics of AAVE to be recognized as

positive and creative and not as imperfect learning of (Standard) English
• Social factors impede cross-varietal influences
• An unconscious barrier against the … recognition of the AA component
Topic 176:
East Asian Englishes

English in expanding circle
• Comprises countries where English is not an official language of government or a

medium of education
• Is required or strongly encouraged at a certain level of schooling
• Used in restricted social domains
English in the expanding circle
• Social, cultural, economic and political factors determine the degree and kind of English
to be used
• Wide spread and frequent use
• Has had noticeable impacts on the languages and even the writing systems with which it
has come into contact.
Current English language situation in EA
• Increase in the number of students learning English
• 300 million people toiling at English lessons in China
• English-speaking Japanese development project
• Strengthening of primary school ELT programmes in Korea and Taiwan
Current English language situation in EA
• National varieties likely to emerge in regions where English serves as an intranational

language
• Indicators of a national variety emerging in each country
• Increased exposure to English-using environments
Topic 177:
Emerging Englishes: Chinese
History of English in China
• English reached China in 1637 with British traders
• The term Chinese Pidgin English appeared in 1859
• Canton was the centre of world trade

History of English in China
• Opium wars and spread of English
• The role of treaty ports in the spread of English
• Opening up of the country to missionaries, merchants and colonial officials
Development
• Access to an educated variety of English through missionary schools
• Anglo-Chinese culture developed in Shanghai and other centres of English education
Development of English
• Not an institutionalized language
• Not used as an internal link language
Development of English
• Growth in range and depth
• Replaced Russian as the primary foreign language
• One of the test subjects on the National College Entrance Examination
Political and ideological factors
• Access to English was limited to a university-educated elite
• Impact on written Chinese
• Impact on lexical borrowing and on syntax
Functions of English
• Christian proselytization, politicization, modernization, and internationalization
• used intra-nationally in such domains as medical, engineering and media
Topic 178:
Characteristics of Chinese English
Sound system
No distinction is made between tense and lax vowels

heat hit
mood hood
The fricatives θ and ð are replaced by s and z
thin sin
the ze
Vocabulary
Semantic shifts in single and compound lexical items:
intellectual a class rather than
an academic
big pot egalitarianism
running dog a lackey
Colocations with political significance
• Growth of productive forces, strength of the socialist state and rise in living standards
together are the three favourables.
• A situation where there is no capital, no plant and no administrative structure is indicated

by the three-no-enterprises
Grammar
• Deletion of articles, especially the definite article.
• No distinction is made between adjectives and adverbs
• Lack of the third-singular ending with verbs
Discourse
• Greeting:
- Have you eaten already?
• Goodbye:
- Walk slowly slowly ho.
- Slow slow walk aunty.

• Use of uncle and aunt for people of an older generation:
- I fell off my bike and two
kind aunts [ladies] helped
me to the hospital
Discourse
Distinct Chinese idiomatic expressions:
- When you have free time,
come to play (visit)
- Welcome Back to Zhuhai
(sign at the airport
meaning ‘Goodbye and
you are welcome to visit
again’)
Topic 179:
Emerging Englishes: Japanese
History of English in Japan
• Demand from the President of the USA for initiation of trade relations between the two
countries
• Commodore Perry’s entrance into Tokyo Bay in 1853
• The arrival of American missionaries in 1868
History of English in Japan
• Attempts to banish English due to nationalistic sentiments before and during WWII
• Replacing of usual words as anaunsâ ‘announcer’ with ‘the esoteric hôsô-in
• Comeback of English
Status of English in Japan

• No internal reason for its promotion and use
• Japanese is the medium of instruction in all public institutions and
• Language of all government business is Japanese
Status of English in Japan
• A cline of proficiency in English in Japan from people who ‘know a few words’ to a
relatively small segment who are fluent in the language
• The new government policy of ‘cultivating “Japanese with English Abilities” ’
Nativization
• Elements of English have been made an integral part of the Japanese language
• A large number of borrowings from English
• English has become nativized in various respects
Characteristics: Sounds
• Insertion of a vowel to simplify consonant clusters
• Addition of –u as a final syllabic in all other cases;
Stool sutuuru
• Addition of –o and –i as a final
gray zone gureezoon
Characteristics: Sounds
The realization of:
θ as s, z, t or ts,
ð as z or
l as r
Final r as a: and v as b
thought sooto
this zisu
colour karaa
Characteristics: Vocabulary
Compounding
Involves loans and elements from both languages:
- meriken ko American
powder
- denki sutando electric
stand
Characteristics: Semantic shift
furonto hotel reception
desk
-Baikingu Vikig (buffet)
- ek-o (cho) acoustics
- Manshon upscale
(mansion) apartment
Topic 180:
Role of English in Europe
Emerging role of English in Europe
• Three dominant languages of EU: French, German and English
• English: the biggest de facto European lingua franca by the end of the 20 th centry
• Linked with material success
English as a lingua franca in Europe
• All EU members should learn each others’ languages (Phillipson and Cheshire)
• EU should opt officially for English as its language for communication (House)
English and social identity

• Can English express the social identities of its European speakers?
• Code switching and code mixing indication of widening scope of English
Examples:
telefon junkie, Metallfan, drogenfreak
Brexit and status of English
• Possible effects of the Brexit process on the status and functions of English in the Europe
• Role of English in the EU apparatus and in formal education
• Functions of the language among the population at large
Brexit & development of English
• Will clear the sociolinguistic space for the emergence of an authentic European English
• Used by members of the EU as a second language
• Serve the needs of the European Union as the common link language between member
state
Nativization of English
• Three roles of English in Europe: native, foreign and international language
• Adaptations and innovations that show the European influence
European English
• European English:
• Intra-European communication
• Distinctly European uses of English
• Distinguish European English speakers from speakers of other varieties
• Influence on the spread of English
Topic 181:
English of the Sub-Continent: Historical Background
The Sub-Continent
Refers to South Asian countries including:
• Pakistan
• India
• Sri Lanka
• Bangla Desh
• Bhutan
• Maldives
• Nepal
The Sub-Continent
Does not suggest homogeneity in:
• Use of linguistic elements
• Linguistic competence
Historical background
• 1600: Britain’s official expansion policy to India began
• 1689: Establishment of the three administrative districts in Bengal, Mombay and Chennai
• 1715: Establishing of missionary schools began with a school in Chennai
• 1773: Establishment of the Governor Generalship in India
• 1784: Establishment of a department to manage Indian Affairs by the India Act of 1784
• 1858: Assuming of responsibility by British government of governing India by “the Act

for the Better Government of India”
• Attention to English in missionary schools in India and Sri Lanka
• Influential Indians considered English the way out of backwardness

• English and English culture considered superior by the policy makers
• Resistance to the teaching of local languages
Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• Lord Macaulay’s minutes declared English better worth knowing than Sanskrit or Arabic
“….form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class
of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in
intellect”.
Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• The local languages to be refined and enriched with the terms from Western
nomenclature
• Made fit to by degrees conveying knowledge to the masses
Consequences of Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• Absolute primacy given to teaching English
• English-medium universities established in Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai, Allahabad

and Lahore
• A majority of Indian primary schools were English medium
Topic 182:
English of the Sub-Continent: Status
Modern South Asian English
• Educated variety with varieties within
• Comparable to educated British or American variety
Status
• Treated as a foreign language for the next several decades

• Use became more prevalent in the post-independence social and political climate
Status
• Has attained a noticeable place in the languages of the Sub-Continent
• English has the following uses:
• Lingua franca
• Government
• Education
• Literature
• Influence
• Development
Agent of religious neutralization
• Not used in religious domains
• Sanskrit is the language of religion for Hinduism and Arabic for Islam
• Lack of religious identification is a regional advantage
• Neutral affective associations adds to the value of English
Status of English in India
A government Act in 1967 made English co-equal with Hindi for:
• All official purposes of the union
• Parliament
• Communications between the union and the states
Topic 183:
English of the Sub-Continent: Status in Pakistan 1
Language policy
• Pakistan is a multilingual country with six major and 58 minor languages
• At independence, Urdu was declared the national and English the official language
• English to continue as the official language till such time that Urdu replaced it
Dual system of education
• Pakistan inherited a dual system of education from the British
• The British introduced two systems of education in India: English medium and
vernacular medium
• English was for the rich only to Anglicize the youth
• Produced what people call ‘brown Englishmen’ (Vittachi as quoted in Rahman 2005, p.
26)
• Continuation of the dual system of education after independence by bureaucracy and

military
• It provided the military and civilian administrative elite
• Urdu-medium institutions only provide the élite with ‘an underclass of clerks… and
literate servants’
English as a neutral language
• Despite political pressure periodic efforts to replace English with Urdu have been
unsuccessful
• Conflict between government policy and public opinion
• Language riots
• English emerged as a neutral language of unification and administration
Topic 184:
English of the Sub-Continent:Status in Pakistan 2
English as the official language
• Continuation of English as the official language is to the advantage of the elite
• It gives them a competitive edge over those with Urdu-medium education

• Is a cultural capital which has a snob value
• Constitutes a class-identity marker
Uses of English
• Language of higher education in Pakistan
• Language of communication for all office work in the armed forces
• Language of broadcast media along with Urdu and regional languages
• Used together with Urdu in trade and commerce
Status of English
• A prestige language required for:
• A decent job
• Better education
• Any academic or serious discourse
Status of English
• The underprivileged also desire to learn English for upward social mobility
• Means for entering the elite
• Diehard supporters of the national language educate their own children in English-
medium schools,
Status of English
There is no escape for any country in the world from learning English well and thoroughly and it
would be very unwise, in fact, almost suicidal for Pakistan to destroy by neglect all the
advantages we already possess in respect of past knowledge of English
Consequences
• Has marginalized majority of Pakistanis
• No serious efforts to teach quality English to all
• Resulted in an underclass with no role in public policy making
• Limited social, educational and economical development

Topic 185:
Characteristics of Subcontinent English
Acculturation of English in South Asia
• International functions
• Contextual and pragmatic functions
• Adaptation of English to its unique circumstances
Phonology
• Retroflex stop consonants t, d correspond to the alveolar consonants t, d
• Initial voiceless plosives p, t, k are not aspirated
• Fricatives f, θ, ð are pronounced as ph, th, d, respectively
• No distinction between clear and dark l
• No distinction between v and w
Phonology
• The initial vowels are preceded by a glide
• inner = [yinnər]
• open = [wopən]
• The sibilants in same and shame are pronounced with s
• j (as in major), z (as in razor) and (as in measure) are all pronounced as j.
Grammar
• Lack of articles
• Reduplication
• Use of general tag isn’t it? He was angry, isn’t it?
Idioms and metaphors
- In olden times, woman just worked like a bullock
- we eat their salt, and as

long as we eat it, we will
remain loyal
- The Play had gone bad, like pickle in the monsoon
Vocabulary
South Asian lexical items through government language registers from various sources
chit: a note or letter
tiffin: snack
buggi: carriage
Vocabulary
English collocations with local use only
• upliftment: improving the plight of the downtrodden
• botheration: inconvenience
• batch-mate: a fellow student
• cousin brother: male cousin
• cousin sister: female cousin
Vocabulary
Hybrid items
• Lathi charge
• Purdah woman
Topic 186:
Attitudes towards English in South Asia
Questions facing South Asians
• Is English a proper South Asian language?
• Is it mainly an important additional language for the region?
• Is it inimical to the aspirations of the people?

A forceful presence
• Attention paid to English in Constitutions and government policies after independence
• Language controversies
• Failed attempts to phase out English in Pakistan and India
• Increase in depth and range
Linguistic schizophrenia
• Three categories of opinion: Westernization/technological progress view
• The absolute rejection view
• Neutral position
Position of English
• Descriptivists and Contrastivists
• Functionalists Neutral position
Models for SAE
• A wide gap between the perceived norm and the performance of users
• SAE perceived as uneducated and falling short of the norm
• Users of norms perceived as snobs and ‘show offs’
Acceptance of SAE
• Recognition of the variety by the users
• Users identifying with SAE
• Push for exocentric norms
Topic 187:
On the Way to New Standard Englishes
Codification
• Codification and the acceptance of outer and expanding circle varieties
• Need for codification for prestige in inner and outer circles

• Local models as alternatives to British and American models
• The characteristics of local models need to be presented in dictionaries and grammar

reference books
Codification
• Local models as alternatives to British and American models
• The characteristics of local models need to be presented in dictionaries and grammar

reference books
Codification
• De jure and de facto systems
• Distinction to be made between items of local informal use and of international standard
Topic 188:
Codification of Indigenized Variety of Englishes
SLA and IVE
IVEs are rejected because of the following SLA assumptions:
• Goal of SLA is native like competence
• Availability of native speaker input leads to full competence
• SLA processes can be learned independent of the functions of L2 in society
SLA and IVE
IVEs are rejected because of following SLA assumptions:
• L1 interferes rather than facilitates L2 learning
• Motivation for L2 learning is integrative
Contexts of SLA research and IVE
• IVEs have different settings than SLA research setting
• Irrelevance of native speaker norm
• Available input is IVE
• Use of English in a diglossic situation

• Motivation for SLA is instrumental
IVEs and fossilization
• Interlanguage passes through many intermediate systems before stabilization
• Stabilization is reached without native like competence and is called fossilization
• Fossilization implies deficit rather than difference
• Are all of IVEs fossilized?
• Is competence in whole groups of communities of learners fossilized?
• Emergence of new dialects with “fossilized IL competence”
• Unsatisfactory view
• Does not take into account the bi or multi lingual context of the use of English in the
outer circle
• Does not consider similar circumstance of development of American English
• IVEs are comparable to American English
• Comparable attitudes of speakers of American English and outer circle Englishes
• Should the legitimacy of American English be questioned?
• Increasing recognition of IVEs as varieties
Topic 189:
Codification of Indigenized Variety of Englishes 2
SLA and IVE
IVEs are rejected because of the following SLA assumptions:
• Goal of SLA is native like competence
• Availability of native speaker input leads to full competence

• SLA processes can be learned independent of the functions of L2 in society
SLA and IVE
IVEs are rejected because of following SLA assumptions:
• L1 interferes rather than facilitates L2 learning
• Motivation for L2 learning is integrative
Contexts of SLA research and IVE
• IVEs have different settings than SLA research setting
• Irrelevance of native speaker norm
• Available input is IVE
• Use of English in a diglossic situation
• Motivation for SLA is instrumental
• Interlanguage passes through many intermediate systems before stabilization
• Stabilization is reached without native like competence and is called fossilization
• Fossilization implies deficit rather than difference
• Are all of IVEs fossilized?
• Is competence in whole groups of communities of learners fossilized?
• Emergence of new dialects with “fossilized IL competence”
• Unsatisfactory view
• Does not take into account the bi or multi lingual context of the use of English in the
outer circle
• Does not consider similar circumstance of development of American English
• IVEs are comparable to American English

• Comparable attitudes of speakers of American English and outer circle Englishes
• Should the legitimacy of American English be questioned?
• Increasing recognition of IVEs as varieties
Topic 190:
Codification of Indigenized Variety of Englishes 3
Issues of selection
• What to include in the standard version of a variety
• Difference in the codification of outer circle and inner circle
• Develop a set of criteria for selection of standardized version of IVEs
Issues of selection
• Focus on local educated varieties
• Existence of several educated varieties likely to cause controversies
• Continued preference for native speaker norms
• Need for realization of irrelevance of the native speaker interlocutor
Issues of selection
• Conflict between local needs and international intelligibility and acceptability
• Need to combine local features performing functions needed by intranational community

with modifications for acceptance for international communication
Conflict between local and international needs
A codified English will need to combine the following:
• Local features performing functions required by intranational community
• Modifications introduced for intelligibility and acceptance for international

communication
Conflict between local and international needs
• Need for the acceptance of local innovations

• Standardizing in the English lexicon of non-English words
• Inclusion of code-mixing and code-switching in grammars and dictionaries of Asian

Englishes
Attempts at codifying IVEs
• Macquarie Regional Asian English Dictionary co-published as the Grolier International

Dictionary: World English in an Asian Context
• Documents the English of South Asia and Southeast Asia
Attempts at codifying IVEs
• Aims to meet the needs of the English speakers in the region
• Includes items of international currency along with local words which have never
appeared in a dictionary before
• Recognizes inter and intra national needs of IVE speakers
Topic 191:
External vs. Internal Models
Primacy of internal models
• Non-inner circle Englishes considered deficient
• Historical primacy and precedence of native speaker norms
World-wide standard English
• The assumption that US or UK English will be selected as the one world-wide standard
English
• Faulty belief that learning and using any English in any context involves users from
inner-circle
Case for selecting internal models
• Pragmatic
• Not enough native English teachers
• Regional variations in grammar, pronunciation and lexis within inner-circle varieties

• All are considered speakers of the standard inner-circle variety
• Englishes from regions in the outer circle should be considered as using a form of the
standard English with regional variations
• Acceptance of IVE justifies selecting an internal model for codification
Topic 192:
Future Scenarios
English Language Complex
• The term introduced by Mc Arthur
• Comprises all sub-types based on their history, status form and function
Sub-types in English Language Complex
• Metropolitan standards: formal models provided by radio and TV networks
• Colonial standards: exterritorial Englishes developed in Australia, New Zealand, Canada,

South Africa Zimbabwe
• Regional dialects: based on regional variations within the previous types
• Social dialects: based on social class and ethnicity
• Pidgin and creole English
• English as a Second Language: varieties that arose in countries colonised by British
• English as a Foreign Language: varieties used in expanding-circle countries
• Immigrant Englishes: varieties used in the context of migration to a native English

speaking country
• Hybrid Englishes: emerge as a result of code mixing
Convergence or divergence?
• Inevitability of increased diversifications

• Immigrant diversity
• 300 languages spoken in London alone
• New varieties likely to emerge as a result of interaction between English and other
languages
Convergence or divergence?
• Global expansion
• Increasing variation leading to unintelligibility
Topic 193:
Linguistic Imperialism
English as a Language of power
• Global spread of English with varying degrees of range and penetration privileges its
users
• Language of political and economic power
Effects of English
• Cause of marginalization or exclusion for a large number of people
• Major cause of the ‘deaths’ of hundreds of minority languages.
Linguistic imperialism
• Spread of English is equated with linguistic imperialism
• The imposition of one language on speakers of other languages
• Assumes the active promotion of the language by the dominant class as an active
expression of power of the powerful over the powerless (Phillipson, 1992)
“The dominance asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of
structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages.”
Phillipson cited in Kachru and Nelson, 2006
dominance of English is considered as letting or facilitating cultural, economic, and
sociopolitical hegemony of Anglo- and Eurocentric views over the rest of the world
Paradox of linguistic imperialism
• Linguistic imperialism as an outdated concept
• English as a tool empowerment and emancipation
• Widespread demand for more access to English
Topic 194:
Awareness of Linguistic Imperialism
Resistance to the dominance of English
• Spread of English at the expense of other languages
• Resistance to the dominance of English e.g. in Canada bilingualism with French is

mandatory
Phillipson’s division of English speakers
Divides English into two groups:
• Core
• Periphery
Core
• Comprises the same countries as the inner circle
Periphery
Subdivided into:
• Countries that use English as an international link language, such as Japan and Korea
• Countries that use English for various intranational purposes in several domains, such as
India, Pakistan

Periphery
• English considered a desirable commodity
• Linked with social advantage
• English replaces and ‘displaces’ other languages, in both core and periphery countries by
taking over serious domains as education or government
Factors responsible for suppressing other languages
• Education forces foreign languages and cultural values onto people
• Replacing of vernacular languages alters the structure of social and cultural life
• Role of media in privileging English
Support for multilingualism
• Support from United Nations Resolutions on linguistic human rights and preservation of
cultural and linguistic diversity
• Threat to minority languages equated with disturbing the bio-diversity of the planet
Topic 195:
Colonial Education Policy and Colonial Economy
Colonial education policy
• Power and prestige of EIL a result of codifying by colonizers
• They defined what true knowledge was and who could impart it
• Controlled the access to English
Anglicism and orientalism
Orientalism
• Scholarly knowledge of the language and culture of the east
• Recognition and deep respect for ancient cultures both of east and west
• A policy or policies to encourage indigenous languages in India

Anglicism
• Recognition of the developments in western science and technology
• Recognition of knowledge which is useful and practical
• A policy to substitute English as the medium of acquiring knowledge at the cost of other
languages.
• Anglicism displaced Orientalism is a misconception
• The two co-existed
• Manipulated by the colonial powers
• Produced an English-educated elite and vernacular-educated masses to serve a colonial

economy’
Use of English to promote policy
• Ethical imperative to teach English
• Limited resources
• English made available to a small minority
• Served as interpreters and clerks
Use of English to promote policy
• Difficulties inherent in teaching English widely
• Unavailability of people to do manual labour
• Creation of a discontented class
• Source of anxiety
Topic 196:
Consequence of Imperialist Language Policy
Language as a dividing force
• The language was treated as a commodity
• Wide availability would reduce its value

• Division of the local peoples into English haves and have-nots
• Further deepened the existing social divisions
Language as a dividing force
• Cultural and economic disconnection of the English educated elite from their own
background
Expansion of English
• The expansion of the discourse of English as an international language
• English was regulated by its colonial owners by using linguistics for description and
standardization of the language
Linguistics and language politics
• Dichotomy between finer language and common language
• Standardization served to make it easy identify one’s place in social hierarchies
• National language and the notion of a homogeneous speech community
• Meaning has a relationship with an objective world
• An assumed connection between language and the best representation of the world
• Meaning is dependent on internal structural relationships in language
• An assumed linguistic system from within which meanings are defined
• Linguistics distances itself from questions concerning society, culture and politics
• Prescribes a particular view and form of language
• The spread of English as natural, neutral and beneficial
• Concentration only on a notion of abstract system at the expense of social, cultural or

political understandings of language
‘….language is a simple
representation of reality, that the world as described by English is the world as it really is and
thus to learn English is essential if anyone wants to understand the modern world’.
• Pennycook as cited in Kachru and Nelson, 2006, p. 310
Topic 197:
Linguistic Imperialism Revisited 1
English as a language with trans-national presences in various configurations of

institutionalization,
ranges of functions, and depths of penetration in societies lends obvious advantages to its users.
• Link between World English and imperialist domination of the world by the US and UK
• Emergence of a linguistic form of imperialism or political, economical and cultural

subjugation of some people
• A separate type of imperialism that includes a conscious language policy by the imperial
power to impose its language
• The spread of English represents a culturally imperialistic policy of enforcing English

language culture on its second language learners
"The fact that… no uniform British empire-wide language policy developed tends to disconfirm
the hypothesis of linguistic imperialism as responsible for the spread of English…"
(Brutt-Griffler, 2002, p. 7)
• No evidence of a distinctive ideology concerned with spreading English in the colonial

dependencies for cultural or linguistic reasons
• There is evidence of the existence of advocacy of a linguistic imperialist policy
A linguistic imperialist policy should display to at least some extent the following features:
i. Universal and exclusive education in English
ii. Replacement of the indigenous languages with English
Topic 198:
Linguistic Imperialism Revisited 2
ELT as a source of linguistic imperialism
• The teaching of English is not sufficient grounds to identify the policy of the British
empire with linguistic imperialism
• Linguistic imperialism implies that the mother language is replaced and not
supplemented by the imperial language
ELT as a source of linguistic imperialism
• Considered a post-World War II phenomenon
• This phenomenon began in the eighteenth century
• Effect cannot postdate cause
• Cannot be attributed to the conscious ELT policies made World War II
An anachronistic concept
• The power asymmetry between the former colonial nations and the nations of the 'third
world,' is inadequate as an explanation of linguistic realities
• First world' countries with strong languages show willingness to adopt English
• Some of the harshest attacks on English have come from countries which have no such
colonial legacy
• It gives learners access to a very important linguistic tool that helps individuals and
economies to develop and compete globally
Topic 199:
World Englishes, Gender and Power 1
Manifestations of power
• Ideology
• Politics
• Imperial
• Language
• Economy
• Knowledge
• Nature
Power of English
• Ideological
• Cultural
• Elitist
Power and globalization of English
A result of:
• The political, economic, and cultural power of people associated with English
• Use of English in a number of important domains
• Roles and functions English performs
Power of English and linguistic imperialism
• The promotion of English through covert means
• Responsible for unequal distribution of power and resources
Exercising control through language
• Displacing native languages
• Planting the language of empire in a new place
• Rejecting other varieties of English as impurities
• Installing the language of the imperial powers as the standard
Exercising control through language

• Gendering language as a way of:
• Perpetuating power hierarchies
• Contributing to certain types of inequality
Topic 200:
Role of language in social life
“Language provides the terms by which reality is constituted”
- Ashcroft cited in Kachru, ---
Gender and language
• Language shapes the understanding of the world
• Language raises awareness about women’s place in the world
Developments in gender studies
1970s
• Efforts made to expose gender bias
• Male domination in the form and function of language
Gender and language
1980s-1990s
• The notion of gender inequity replaced by the power based view
• Women’s language was a result of the existing power relationship between women and
men
Gender and language
1980s-1990s
• Power as a commodity shared between genders

• Women’s language was a result of the existing power relationship between women and
men
Gender and language
Contemporary developments
The scope of gender studies broadened to include:
• Multilingual communities
• Postcolonial contexts
• Diglossic linguistic situations
Gender and language
• Femaleness and maleness as social constructions
• Language helping to constitute gender in global and local multilinguistic contexts
Topic 201:
Gender and world Englishes
The equal exercise of power is explored by examining bilingual women’s relationships to

English in the world contexts
Women’s access to the dominant languages is affected by various pressures:
• economic
• gender
• familial
• Women’s role in in the marginalization and displacement of the mother tongue
• Women, in their social roles reshape the linguistic face of various communities
• Act more favorably toward prestigious languages and varieties

• Women understand the importance and advantages of being multilingual in English and
local languages
• Increase the economic opportunities for their children
• Enhance their self image
• Gain social status through linguistic means
• Increase power
• Construct a new more powerful identity through use of the language
• Influence the choice of language by increasing the formal and functional ranges of
English for wider communication
Topic 202:
Bilingual Women’s Creativity
Bilingual’s creativity
“those creative linguistic processes which are the result of competence in two or more
languages”.
Kachru cited in Kachru, B. , Kachru, Y. & Nelson, 2006, p. 572
Sociolinguistic dimension
• Views the process of creativity as acculturation and nativization of the use of English
inthe Outer Circle
• Recognizes different types of discourse strategies, stylistic innovations, speech acts, code
mixing and code switching
Sociolinguistic dimension
• Multilingual English users manipulating their linguistic resources in language use
• Generate new meanings to capture the bilingual and bicultural competences
• Develop new linguistic forms and functions in both spoken and written discourse
Politeness and gender identities
• Politeness lays a role in constructing gender identities

• English is viewed as being more polite and respectful
• Females use English more than males do
• Women seek to be more polite by using English
Women and English
• Bilingual women make language choices to:
• meet the needs of their speech community
• Ensure better future for themselves and their familites
• Strengthen the status of English in world communities
Women and English
• English-speaking bilingual women are considered as innovators of language change
• Advancing the progress of English
• Help it to gain acceptance and importance along with regional dialects
Women and English
• Play a key role in the transmission of English in world contexts and in constructing new
identities
Topic 203:
Gender and Bilingual’s Writing
Gender differences in world Englishes
• Gender functioning as a means of shaping linguistic pluralism and diversity
• Gender specific discourse studies illustrate the expanding sociocultural dimensions of

English use
• Gender emerges as a factor impacting the spread of English
Gender differences in world Englishes
• Differences in the use of speech acts by women and men are observable among varieties
of world Englishes
• Bilinguals’ creativity includes gender as an essential exponent of world Englishes

Nativization of gender in bilingual’s writing
Aspects of English language use most demonstrating nativizing of gender:
• Forms of address and reference
• Abuses and insults
• Indirectness
• Politeness patterns
• The authors of outer circle varieties of English transfer the social context of gender
• The local sociocultural patterns, notions, and ideas are reflected in an indigenized variety
of English
• The outer circle writers adapt the English language to local needs
• Language variation produces culturally distinctive writing in multilinguistic societies
Marginalization of bilingual female writers
• Women writers are marginalized by gender and by their choice of writing in English
• Choice of English and cultural oppressiveness
Topic 204:
Gender and Language Use
Difference in language use across genders
• Women are believed to be more sensitive to prestige forms of speech.
• Women show more stylistic variation than men in more formal speech situations
• An increase in the use of non-standard forms among the adolescent boys and a decrease
among adolescent girls
• Difference in the perception of prestige forms

• Men and women live in quite different social spaces
• They are treated differently even in those social slots that are identical
• Men and women are accustomed to different sets of contextually defined norms of
interaction
• These norms form the basis of their own speech and their judgement of others’ speech
Girls, as they grow older show:
• A realization of the responsibilities of adulthood
• An awareness of the need to fit in and conform to social norms
Boys, as they grow older show:
• A desire for self assertion
• A need to express their toughness
• An unwillingness to be dictated
Gender and use of English
• Decline in the use of non-standard forms with age among female adolescents
• Among male adolescents, either the decline is slight or there is an increase in the use of
non-standard forms of English
Topic 205:
Teaching World Englishes
In this unit we will talk about English language teaching from a world Englishes perspective,
which means teaching of English using the local varieties of English as standards rather than a
variety of native English.
The recognition of the concept of World Englishes i.e. poses several challenges to the field of
English Language Teaching.

Many native and non-native speakers of English regard the language used by educated class as
examples of standard English
Concerns about teaching world Englishes
• Conflict between prescriptivism and creativity
• Issues of intelligibility
Misconceptions about the realities of ELT
• English is a means of becoming involved in the cultures of Inner-Circle
• Inner circle users have a large amount of contribution in ELT in the Outer and
Expanding Circles
• Global users of English desire to speak or write like native speakers
• Knowledge of World Englishes allows for accommodation with the speakers of different
varieties
• ELT professionals to accept and encourage the use of different varieties of English
• have a
responsibility not to limit their students’ creativity, but to help to shape it, through
increased awareness of others and ever less complacency about ‘my English
• Encourage students to use English creatively according to their own context
• ELT professionals to accept and encourage the use of different varieties of English
• Need to be aware of others’ varieities of Engliiiish
• Not to consider their variety satisfactory
Topic 206:
Implications of English language varieties for language pedagogy 1

Varieties of English in bilingual contexts
• British English (other than the standard British English) along with Celtic languages
• American English
• Outer circle Englishes in multilingual contexts
Varieties of English in bilingual contexts
• Influence of a substrate language or languages on the new varieties of English
• The influence is observed at the indigenously functional level
Dilemma faced by outer circle varieties
• Exonormative model of English vs. Endonomative model of English
Selection of a standard variety for teaching
• Classroom – a testing ground for the selection of a variety as standard
• Teachers provide an endomormative model by default
• Shift of standard from exonormative to endonormative
• Conflict between standards and non-native speakers creativity
Topic 207:
Implications of English language varieties for language pedagogy 2
In this unit we will talk about English language teaching from a world Englishes perspective,
which means teaching of English using the local varieties of English as standards rather than a
variety of native English.
The recognition of the concept of World Englishes i.e. poses several challenges to the field of
English Language Teaching.
Monomodel vs. polymodel
• Distinct local, national and international uses of English
• Link between the model of a language and its functions
• Need for a dynamic approach
• Monomodel vs. polymodel

Monomodel vs. polymodel
• Distinct local, national and international uses of English
• Link between the model of a language and its functions
• Need for a dynamic approach
• Monomodel vs. polymodel
World Englishes in the Classroom
Inner circle:
• Making students aware and tolerant of different varieties
• Local dialects to be part of English language classrooms
World Englishes in the Classroom
Outer and expanding circle classrooms:
• Textbooks focus on inner circle varieties
• Research studies to raise awareness of students about the differences in local and
international standards
• Local dialects to be part of English language classrooms
Outcomes of awareness of world Englishes
• Promotion of world Englishes approach
• Viewing the varieties as legitimate expressions and varieties
• Removal of confusions when confronted with different types of English language users
Topic 208:
Native Vs. Non-Native Teachers
Native speakers as teachers
• Confusion between ENL and the teaching of English as a second language
• A native speaker assumed to have the expertise to teach English
Native speakers as teachers

• Lack the experience of having learned a language
• Lack pedagogical training
Non-native teachers
• Non-native speakers share the language learning experience with their students
• Awareness about appropriating and adapting a foreign language
Non-native teachers
• The learning experience is a useful resource for non-native teacher
• Having learned the English language is considered a weakness of non-native teachers
Misconceptions about native speakers as teachers
The perpetuating image of native speaker as:
• The authority in language ability
• Expertise in teaching
The native speaker status assumes credibility and authenticity of an individual as a:
• Teacher
• Language expert
• Teacher education
Nativeness assumes:
• Primacy over pedagogic expertise
• Competence in the language

Topic 209:
World Englishes implications for Teacher Education 1
Case for including WE in TE
1. Exposure to WE models and theories
• Irrationality of teaching an alien variety of English
• TE students should be exposed to theories and models of world Englishes
2. Awareness of ELT practices and practitioners around the world
• The misconception about the West demonstrating the true ELT situation
• Emphasis on the need from input in TE from outer and expanding circles
3. The need to adopt a pragmatic view of ELT
• Considering the needs of the learners in planning research and curriculum
• Irrelevance of teaching standards without their application in real situations
4. Resisting imposition of inner circle model
• Countering linguistic imperialism
• Removing the notion of inner circle variety being superior to other varieties
Topic 210:
World Englishes Implications for Teacher Education 2:
Native English language teacher education
• Need for an understanding of the global perspective
• Need for an exposure to different varieties of English
• Availability of resources for TE

Native English language teacher education
• Need for training in methodologies and grammatical descriptions
• Need for an awareness of issues related to WE
The current state of TE
• In-depth research in different areas of WE began in the late 1970s
• The field of ELT still undergoing a period of ‘absorption’
The current state of TE
• Few MA TESL programs include theoretical material on WE
• Advantages of maintaining a hierarchal view of English
• Limited time to cover the curriculum
Effects of world Englishes paradigm
• Increase in the acceptance of local and regional norms and models
• Standardized tests using regional norms in selecting correct answers
Effects of world Englishes paradigm
Use of classroom teaching materials representing speakers from different cultures
Topic 211:
Culture in the Classroom 1
Disconnect between the learners and textbooks
• Detachment of textbooks from the learners’ world
• Textbooks containing unknown settings and unfamiliar characters
Disconnect between the learners and textbooks
• Need for a ‘glocal’ textbook
• Need for an awareness of issues related to WE
Current status and role of English
• A lingua franca
• Used in diverse settings
• Used between non-native speakers
• Multicultural identities
Multicultural identities of English
• Have caused sociolinguistic shifts
• Instrumentally motivated learners
• Need to infuse local culture in English language classrooms
Appropriating English for different cultures
• Cultural gaps cause difficulties for learners
• Selection of local cultural content by textbook and material writers
• Difficult for teachers to present an alien culture
Topic 212:
Culture in the Classroom 2
Differences in rhetorical conventions
• Goal oriented vs. indirect
• Utilitarian vs. digressive
Differences in rhetorical conventions
• Likely to create misunderstandings and misinterpretations
• Sensitivity to different conventions to be created through teaching materials and practices
Discourse strategies
• WE show traces of the cultural influence of the communities that use them
• Use of local discourse strategies while using English
Classroom: A site for cultural suppression or supremacy?
• English language classrooms imparting knowledge of Anglo-American culture
• Submerging of local cultures and conventions

Classroom: A site for cultural suppression or supremacy?
• Classrooms to embrace innovations based on different cultural conventions
• Recognition of world Englishes likely to sensitivize people to different cultures
Topic 213:
Use of World Englishes in the Classroom 1
Representation of world Englishes in classroom
• Lack of awareness about different varieties of English among expanding circle learners
• Only inner circle English finds representation in textbooks
Contrastive analysis
• Awareness of differences between local or national varieties of English and international

English
• Contrastive analysis of indigenized varieties and inner circle varieties of English
Contrastive analysis
• Baumgardner’s (1987) study of Pakistani English
• Differences in complementation
• He went to China for learning Chinese vs. He went to China to learn
• Friedrick (2002) and Matsuda (2002)
• Learners in expanding circle are only aware of British or American English
Need for world Englishes approach
• WE approach facilitates learning
• Different varieties of English to be viewed as “legitimate expressions of a language in

constant change and spread”
Topic 214:
Use of World Englishes in the Classroom 2
World Englishes approach
• Presentation of English is incomplete without an awareness of different varieties

• Confusion or resistance when students are confronted with different types of English
users or uses
Lack of awareness of World Englishes
• Students likely to be shocked and confused when facing different varieties of English
• Students may find them deficient
• Students may show disrespect to different varieties and their users
• Rejection of deviations from inner circle English
• Likely to be counter-productive to efforts being made for international understanding of

English
• Sensitizing students to the presence of different varieties of English should be the goal of
all English language teachers around the world
Topic 215:
L2 in the Classroom and Non-Native Educators 1
Use of L2 in classroom
• Earlier language teaching methods discouraged the use of mother tongue in classroom
• Audiolingual method, Direct method, Communicative Language Teaching
• English to be taught best through English
• Second language acquisition considered similar to first language acquisition in SLA
• Second language acquisition is similar as well as different from first language acquisition
• A second-language learner is already equipped with the knowledge of his/her mother

tongue
• Monolingual fallacy
• Several language teaching methods favour the use of mother tongue for second language
learning
• Mother tongue considered a useful tool in the English language classroom
Topic 216:
L2 in the Classroom and Non-Native Educators 2
Bilingualism as the goal
• Usefulness of a bilingual approach for learning English as a second language in outer and
expanding circles
• Bilingualism as the goal
Use of mother tongue in classroom
• Appeals from the inner circle English language teaching establishment for more use of
the mother tongue in the classroom
• The use of the mother tongue in the classroom considered one dimension of linguistic
human rights
Native vs. non-native educators
• Native speaker fallacy
• Native speakers of English inevitably considered the best teachers of English.
• Non-native teachers are only second-best for teaching English
Advantages of a non-native English language teacher
• Knowledge of the mother tongue advantageous for teachers
• Experience of having learned a second language
• More effective English language teachers
Doubts about the effectiveness of native teacher
• Need to realize the goal of second language acquisition in world Englishes classrooms
• Need to re-define the concept of the native speaker
Topic 217:
Historical Context of English Language Teaching 1

Spread of English
• Transformation of English
• Multiplicity of varieties
• Resistance to the acceptance of varieties
Spread of English
• Ideological dominance of native English speakers
• Influence of native speakers on ELT
• Linguistic imperialism caused by teaching of English or teaching of a particular variety

of English?
ELT Methodology and Colonialism
• Link between ELT methodology and British colonialism
• ELT a product of spread and macro-acquisition of English
Macro-acquisition
• Acquisition of a common second language by speakers of different mother tongues
• ELT a product of spread and macro-acquisition of English
• Primary input doesn’t come from native speakers
• Defined by its own lexicon, idioms and transformed meanings
Development of ELT
Not a result of:
• Migration of English speaking population to North America and Australia
• Immigration into the UK or USA
Development of ELT
• Theories and practices not developed in the UK or USA
• Colonies were the central testing ground for the development of ELT
Topic 218:
ELT development during colonialism
• Acquisition of English language was controlled by the political and economical needs of
the empire
• ELT methodology was subservient to imperial purposes
ELT development during colonialism
Curriculum based on language examinations used as qualification standards for civil service
Development of varieties
• Emphasis on mother tongue literacy
• English taught through bilingual education
• The empire lacking the capacity to hire native English speaking teachers
Development of varieties
• The process of language spread dependent on non-native English speaking teachers
• Played a significant role in the creation of different varieties
Topic 219:
ELT methodology and linguistic imperialism
• Non-native context of ELT development contradicts with linguistic imperialism
• Linguistic imperialism neglects the contribution and agency of the nonnative speaking
teachers
ELT methodology and linguistic imperialism
• Need to reclaim the contributions of the nonnative teacher of English within the
international history of English
Misconceptions about non-native teachers
• Non-native teachers readily accept the methodology produced in the UK and US
• Critical attitude found among students studying ELT in the USA

• Misconception based on the ideological notions of intellectual dependence
Misconceptions about non-native teachers
• The western methods dated from the post World War II period
• They had not come into existence at the time when English began to spread to Africa,
Asia and elsewhere
• ELT methodology relied on the creativity and resources of local teachers
Influence of native speakers on ELT
• Constructs of “authenticity,” “native” and “near native” proficiency
• Determining the proper goals of SLA
• Development of the notion of native speaker as the ideal teacher
Influence of native speakers on ELT
• Challenges the authority of the non-mother tongue English-speaking teacher
• Undermines the role of non-native teachers in the spread of English
Topic 220:
Centrality of Inner Circle in ELT
Centrality of inner circle and SLA
• Inner circle centrality based on certain SLA assumptions:
• The target language is learnt in a mother tongue environment
• Proficiency of the mother-tongue English speaker as the target
• The necessity of native English speaking teachers
Centrality of inner circle and SLA
• This model of SLA needs a corresponding ELT methodology
• Developed and transported to the outer circle contexts
• In most of the contexts, the assumptions are inappropriate
Assumed vs. real conditions of SLA

• Non-native context
• The target language is not a native but a new variety of English
• No need for the learners to assimilate with the native context
The myth of a native speaker as the ideal teacher
• Research findings do not support the necessity of a native teacher
• The assumption has been questioned by many scholars
• A policy to grant native English speaking teacher and the mother tongue English speaker
with authority in ELT
The myth of a native speaker as the ideal teacher
• Grants authority to native English speaking teacher and the mother tongue English
speaker in ELT
• Gives native speakers control over the spread of English spread in the twenty-first
century
Topic 221:
World Englishes and ELT Methods 1
Approach, method and technique
• Models and methods of language teaching imply the existence of “one best method”
• Approaches
• The broadest level
• Theoretical view of what language is and of how it can be learnt
• Methods
• Consistent with approaches
• Plans for linking theory with practice
• Choices about skills, contents and sequencing

• Techniques
• Most concrete level
• Comprise the activities used to implement methods
Traditional ELT practices
• Native speaker as the provider of the model
• Native speaker as the ideal speaker-hearer
Traditional ELT practices
• Defined by Kachru as a “monomodel”
• Implies a universally agreed-upon definition of the best way to teach
• Do not use context as a variable
Methods vs. post-methods
• Kumaravadivelu (2003) suggests the existence of a post-method era
• Ineffectiveness of ‘one size fits’ all approach
• Importance given to the context and local needs
Topic 222:
World Englishes and ELT Methods 2
World Englishes theoretic perspective
• Existence of a range of models for English rather than one best model
• The local innovations in English are based on the needs of the users
• English belongs to all those who use it
World Englishes theoretic perspective
• Lack of awareness of this perspective among practitioners and teacher educators
• Rarely given prominence in English language teacher training programmes
English as an international language
• Need for intelligibility

• Focus on the domains for which the language is needed
• Need for cross-cultural pragmatic competence to ensure friendly relations among users
English as an international language
• Need for respect for local culture
• Need for teacher flexibility in choice of methods
• Need for attention to local cultures of learning
Topic 223:
The Issue of Language Testing and World Englishes
World Englishes and language tests
• Disconnect between language tests and insights into English in the world context
• Language tests do not represent English varieties spoken and used in contact situations
• Inappropriacy of target norms in local contexts
• Language tests do not represent English varieties spoken and used in contact situations
• Tests developed in one setting may be invalid for another setting
• The ‘correctness’ of language test items may vary from context to context
• What is wrong in one setting may be considered right in another
Example:
Choose the correct sentence from the following list:
1. Our company is buying some new equipment.
2. Our company is buying a new equipment.
3. Our company is buying some new equipments.
4. Our company is buying three new equipments

Topic 224:
English Language Testing and Non-Native Speaker Variation 1
Testing and local context
• Contextualized teaching and testing
• Use of native speaker norms in testing
• Washback effect of testing is likely to impact the teaching of English
Native speaker as the norm in language testing
• English language testing does not include non-native speaker norms and innovations yet
• The set of norms accepted and used by educated native speakers assumed to be the
universal target for proficiency
Differences between norms (examples)
• Prepositional collocations: I live in an apartment at Mall Road
• Use of uncountable nouns as countables:
It is a hard work
• Redundant prepositions:
We’re discussing about
out new plan
• Differences in native and non-native speaker norms
• Language testing reflects the ‘deficit linguistics’ view
Deficit Linguistics
• Variations are caused by errors
• Evidence of the substandard nature of outer and expanding circle varieties
• Considered ‘Interlanguage’ or ‘Fossilized’ language

Topic 225
English Language Testing and Non-Native Speaker Variation 2
Norms for language testing
• Testing is based on how close the language use is to the native speaker norms
• Difficulty of differentiating between errors and developing varietal norms
Validity of language tests
• Language tests do not reflect the differences between native and non-native speaker
norms
• Doubts about the validity of tests based on native speaker norms
Validity of language tests
Validity
• validity refers to how well a test measures what it claims to measure.
Solution to testing world Englishes
• Paradigm shift
• Distinctions made between the use of English in monolingual and multilingual contexts
• Mutual exposure to the major native and non-native varieties
• Re-thinking of English language teaching goals
Solution to testing world Englishes
• Re-thinking of English language teaching goals
• Overhauling of English language testing
• Reluctance to accept curricular changes not reflected in the targets of examination boards
Topic 226:
Critique of Existing English Language Tests
Issues in testing world Englishes
• A broadly applied test has little use in world Englishes context

• Any English language test must use a set of norms to evaluate the test takers’
performance in the test
Biases in ELT testing
• Biases in favour of inner circle variety of English in standardized testing
• Test-takers have no or little contact with the native varieties of English
Biases in ELT testing
• Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) – a supposedly neutral test

shows bias towards standard English
Adaptations of English
• Inevitability of adaptations of English
• Unavailability of native-speaker models
• Other uses of English (media, literature, education) reflect local contexts
Divergence between regional and native norms
• Conflation of count/mass noun
• code switchings
• threats and intimidations
Divergence between regional and native norms
• Fixed collocations of verbs with particles and prepositions
• fill up a printed form
• cope up with the situation
Innovation or mistake?
• Individual uses are difficult to classify as mistake or innovations
• Broad observation can identify items that are well established in some varieties
Topic 227
Critique of Existing English Language Tests 2
ELT professionals’ dilemma

• Language tests adhere to some set of norms
• Certain language test items consider a linguistic form because of its misfit to a given
norm
ELT professionals’ dilemma
Which norm to teach?
What is the norm?
Who decides what the norm is?
Teaching vs. testing norms
• Unwise to use tests which adhere linguistic norms different from those of the test takers
• The need to teach learners the norm to which they are tested
Adaptations of English and testing
• Test designers need to have awareness about the:
• Variety of legitimate standards developing in English across the world
• Norms of the countries and regions they aim to serve
Situated use of a test
• The use of tests to be considered carefully
• A well designed test may not be applicable to a given situation
Topic 228:
English Language Tests and Linguistic Imperialism
Need for a global view of assessment
• Increasing numbers of English language users
• Inevitability of varieties of English
• Need for a global view of assessment
Need for a global view of assessment
• An international language to promote inter and intra cultural communication in

linguistically diverse situations
• Irrelevance of native speaker criterion in measuring second/foreign language
Testing and hegemony of the inner circle
• Majority of the English language users come from the expanding circle
• Hegemony of inner circle over English language educational management
Testing and hegemony of the inner circle
Hegemony
“Power and control exerted by a dominant class in society is sustainable if it gains support
through ‘consent’ of the masses.”
Gramsci cited in Khan, 2008, p. 191)
Linguistic imperialism and testing
• Expanding and outer circle countries seeking the professional expertise of countries
located in the inner circle
• Prevalent imperialism of major international tests of English (TOEFL, IELTS)
• International tests support and serve the variety of English prevalent in their source
countries
• Use of international language tests in making high-stakes decisions
• Increasing demand for TOEFL preparation material and courses
• High profits yielded to publishers of test preparation material
• The purpose of EIL is to facilitate communication amongst native and non-native English
speaking countries
• Irrelevance of tests based on one or two varieties of English
• International tests should be based on evidence from EIL interaction
Topic 229:
English Language in Higher Education (HE)
Mutual effect of globalization of English and HE
• The role of English language in the globalization of education:
• High rating of universities in English speaking countries
• English facilitating international students and faculty
Mutual effect of globalization of English and of HE
• Role of higher education in globalization of English
• Traditional universities
• Contemporary universities
• Domination of universities by native English speaking countries
• High ranking universities located in English speaking countries
• Increasing use of English as medium of instruction in HE
Universities’ need to:
• attract teachers and researchers from around the world
• encourage international students to enrol on their courses enriching
• This is one reason why English is used increasingly as the medium of edu cation in
universities across the world. If an institution wishes to become a centre of international
excellence, it needs both to attract teachers and researchers from around the world, and to
encourage international students to enrol on its courses, enriching the university’s
prestige, revenue, and intellectual climate.
Topic 230:
The Globalization of Universities
Globalization of universities and use of English
• Need of English to operate in an international market place
• English facilitates the international mobility of researchers, faculty and students

Bologna Process
• Signed in 1999
• Aimed at standardizing higher education by:
• harmonizing university education in Europe along the lines of the British model
• using a common approach to levels and length of courses
Bologna Process
The standardisation of higher education is likely to:
• Facilitate greater movement of students within Europe
• Make European higher education more attractive to students from other
Bologna Process
• The use of English not a requirement
• Use of English is encouraged to facilitate the students and faculty from other countries
Globalization of HE in Asian countries
• Students attracted to the higher education in Asian countries
Graduates with English language proficiency
• Suitability of graduates for employment
• Weak spoken-English skills considered the biggest barrier to good jobs
Topic 231:
English in International Higher Education
International student mobility
• Millions of students each year travel to another country to study
• English speaking countries among the top preferences
HE in English speaking countries
• Universities in English speaking countries rank the highest on league tables
• Commercial universities in English speaking countries

• Marketing of programmes to overseas students to generate income
English as a medium of instruction
• English seen as a key educational investment
• Medium of instruction for over half of the world’s international students is English
New competitors in international HE
• Improved quality of education in source countries
• Rapid expansion of universities
• Education reforms
New competitors in international HE
• Countries with improved education systems attracting international students e.g. China
• Countries in Europe and Asia offering courses taught through English
• China
• Malaysia
• Singapore
• Germany
Topic 232:
Transnational Education 1
Education scenario in 1990s
• Expectations from technology
• Globalization of higher education
• Domination of English-speaking universities
Education scenario in 1990s
• Popularity of virtual universities
• Online degree programmes
Failure of
e-learning
• High expectations of the learners
• Skepticism about e-learning programmes
• Huge investment requirements
• High expenses of online distance education
Adaptation of
e-learning ventures
• Improvement in broadband infrastructure
• Blending of e-learning with face to face learning
• E-learning as a significant strand in world education
Adaptation of
e-learning ventures
• ELearning and the management of human interaction
• Adaptation of traditional pedagogical values
Topic 233:
Transnational Education 2
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
• International joint ventures and overseas branch campuses to attract students
• Student’s home countries as the target market for universities in English speaking
countries
US universities with offshore campuses:
• New York University (Shanghai, Abu Dhabi)
• University of Northern Virginia (Cyprus)
• Webster University (Thailand)

Universities from non-English speaking countries with offshore campuses:
• Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology(Dubai)
• Manipal University of India (Dubai)
• Islamic Azad University of Iran (Dubai)
Australian universities with offshore campuses:
• University of Southern Queensland (Dubai)
• University of Wollongong (Dubai)
UK universities with offshore campuses:
• University of Nottingham (Malaysia and Ningbo in China)
• Middlesex university (Dubai)
• University College, London (Qatar)
Joint ventures with US universities
• University of Michigan – Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute
• New York Institute of Technology-Nanjing Campus
• Likely to attract students from countries other than the host country in the region
• Promoting the globalization of HE
• Building an international intellectual environment
Topic 234:
Higher Education Trends
Consequences of globalization of HE
• Creation of a divide between global elite institutions and those serving local students
• Slowing down of international student mobility
• Declining market share of international students in English speaking countries
• Availability of more economical local and regional options
• Cultural appropriateness of locally available programmes
• Use of English medium courses to attract international students by global institutions

located in non-English-speaking countries
• Major sources of international students sending fewer student to the UK universities (e.g.
Malaysia and China)
• Receivers of international HE now becoming providers of international education
Topic 235:
Lexicography and World Englishes
Lexicography
• The process of writing, editing and compiling a dictionary
• An author or editor of a dictionary is called a lexicographer
Lexicography vs. linguists
• The subject field of linguistics is language, whereas the subject field of lexicography is
dictionaries
Dictionaries of world Englishes: Issues
• Ideological underpinnings
• Hierarchies of English varieties
• Linguistic, literary, cultural, and even political considerations
Role of a dictionary in legitimizing a variety

• Standardization of Englishes depends on the presence or absence of dictionaries in that
variety
Role of a dictionary in legitimizing a variety
Traditional role of dictionaries in standardizing varieties of English:
• British English by Samuel Johnson
• American English by Noah Webster, and more recently
• the Macquarie Dictionary of Australian English
Topic 236:
Language Legitimacy and the Dictionary
Legitimacy
“Legitimacy can be understood as a shorthand for identifying and establishing the varieties of
Englishes that are used in various locations around the world”
• Kachru, Kahru & Nelson, 2006, p. 695
Acceptability of a variety
• Role of dictionaries in granting acceptability to a language variety
Functions of a dictionary
• A reference book/source
• Authority on almost all aspects of a language
• Source of confidence for the users of the language
Functions of a dictionary
• Source of reassurance about the legitimacy of a variety
• Does not provide recognition to the people as users of English
• Acknowledges the variety of English used by these people
Topic 237:
Dictionary and the Notion of Standard
Standards and the dictionary

• Multilingual situations involve choice of languages and standards
• The influence of contact languages on the emerging variety of English
Standards and the dictionary
• Competing standards and dictionary entries:
• A well-documented, prestigious, outside standard
• A poorly documented internal standard
Criterion for a dictionary entry
• Dictionary as a recording of the language usage of a community
• The dictionary a recorder and not a controller of the common usage
• Range and depth of the use of a word as a criterion
Dictionary and the acceptability of a variety
• The users of standard varieties allowed more leeway
• A ready acknowledgement by the publishers and editors
• Affects the public perception of the validity of a variety than many words spent
Power of the dictionary
• Publishing of a language's dictionary allows the users to develop the notion of a standard
• The idea of correctness linked with the dictionary
• Affects the public perception of the validity of a variety than many words spent
Topic 238:
The Concept of Englishes 1
Challenges of compiling a world Englishes dictionary
• Some questions to be answered to systematically undertake the task:
• Standard
• Variety
• Regional
Challenges of compiling a world Englishes dictioary
The sources of data for a lexicographer include the following aspects of language users:
• Linguistic
• Cultural
• Political
Varieties and linguistic change
• Varieties and linguistic change
• Linguists’ view of change
• Linguistic change and speaker identities
Two kinds of responses to linguistic change
• A cool scientific calm
• A cause for alarm
Topic 239:
The Concept of Englishes 2
Influence of dictionaries on language use
• The case of newly codified Englishes
• The dictionary compiler determines the amount of “guidance” a user requires
Methods used by lexicographers
• Notes and labels for usage
• Decisions depend on:
• Acceptable usages
• Needs of the user
• Selection of the number and type of usage labels
• Need to balance the linguist’s purity with the sociolinguistic reality of the dictionary user
• Guidance on usage
• Users’ identity
• Need to communicate depends on mutual intelligibility and codification
Topic 240:
Compiling a Regional Dictionary
Aims
• To serve the average educated speaker of English
• To present all the material (both old and new entries) from a regional point of view
Pronunciation
Phonemic pronunciation system may be used to enable users to read entry words as their
varieties lead them to
Vowel keywords and their symbols in The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary (NZOD)
Sources of items to be included
Published materials including:
• Fiction
• Non-fiction
• Newspaper writing
Criterion for selection of entries
• Must be genuinely representative of the varieties from which they are drawn
• Should not be modifications made for broader international use
• Frequency of occurrence of an item
• Use of published material
• Confirmation of familiarity by native speakers

Occurrence of a word in a specific text is not evidene enough for inclusion in the dictionary
Validity of the dictionary
• The authority of the English language communities in the region
• Users should acknowledge and have confidence in their language
• Users should accept the dictionary as representative of their region’s English
Validity of the dictionary
The dictionary has the power to reveal to people something that they already know but do not
acknowledge that they have an English of their own
• Butler cited in Kacru & Nelson, 2006, p. 245
Topic 241:
English and the Press
The press – early developments
• English being used in the press for the last 400 years
• Simple newspapers brought out by many European countries
• Little growth due to censorship, taxation and wars
• Britain showed progress
• Simple newspapers brought out by many European countries
• Little growth due to censorship, taxation and wars
Seventeenth century
Some early newspapers provided general news and information about shipping:
• The Weekley Newes (1622)
• The London Gazette (1666)

• Lloyd’s News (1696)
Eighteenth century
Americandevelopments:
• the Boston News-Letter (1704)
• The New-York Gazette (1725)
• the New York City Daily Advertiser (1785)
Eighteenth century
British developments:
• the Boston News-Letter (1704)
• The New-York Gazette (1725)
• the New York City Daily Advertiser (1785)
Nineteenth century
Some widely circulated newspapers included:
• The New York Herald (1833)
• The New York Tribune (1841)
• The Times in Britain continued to grow
• The Daily Mail (1896)
High profile of English press
• Enhancement of the profile of English press
• Growth of major news agencies as a result of the invention of telegraph
• Emergence of Reuters and New York Associated Press (Associated Press)
Popularity of English in the press

• Role of English in the identity of a community
• About 57 per cent of the world’s newspapers in 2002 were being published in the
countries where English language has special status
Popularity of English newspapers
• Top five newspapers in English
• Many English newspapers intended for an international audience
Popularity of English in other genres
• Fashion magazines
• Periodicals
• Literary reviews
• Scholarly journals
• Many English newspapers intended for an international audience
Topic 242:
English in Advertising
Increase in advertising
• Competition due to mass production of goods
• Increase in consumer purchasing power
• Better display possibilities
Effect of advertising on circulation
• Income from advertising allows publishers to lower the selling price of their magazines
and increase circulation
Effect of advertising on circulation
• Many magazines have trebled their sale using this strategy
• Two-thirds of a modern newspaper are devoted to advertising
English in advertising
• English in advertising began very early on

• Weekly newspapers began to publish advertisement for books, medicines, tea, and other
domestic products.
• Advertising supplement began to appear in newspapers
Outdoor media
• The brevity and ease of conveying the message to the audience
• Posters, billboards, electric displays, shop signs and other techniques
Outdoor media
• Global spread of the outdoor media
• One of the most noticeable global manifestations of English language use
• The English advertisements are more numerous and most noticeable
End ….
Prepared By …..
M. Yaseen MA ELT

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World Englishes

English as a Global Language

Topic-001: Introduction to the Course Learning Theories

The course aims to:

Topic-002: What is a Global Language?

Topic-003: The Need for a Global Language

Choice of a language as the lingua franca

The extent of the use of a lingua franca depends on these factors.

Here are few misunderstandings about the success of a language.

A language does not become a global language because of its:

Topic-005: Emergence of English as a Global Language

Economic empowerment and communication technologies

Dangers of a Global Language

Topic-007: Dangers of a Global Language

Topic-008: Undue Empowerment of Mother Tongue Users of Global Language

Difficulty in achieving bilingualism

Topic 9: Linguistic Complacency

Topic 10: Loss of Linguistic Diversity

The following natural catastrophes often cause death of a language.

Topic 11: Loss of Linguistic Diversity II

Topic 12: Issues of National and Cultural Identity

Historical, Political and Social Contexts

Topic 13: Introducing World Englishes

World Englishes as a field of study has been recently established.

Kachru classified English into three concentric circles:

Topic 14: Origins-I

Topic 15: Origins-II

Topic 16: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: America

Topic 17: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: America II

Historical, Political and Social Contexts

Topic 19: Spread of English: Caribbean

Black slave trade

Topic 20: Spread of English: South East Asia

Southeast Asian Englishes: Hong Kong

Topic 21: Spread of English: South Africa I

Topic 22: Spread of English: South Africa II

History of English language in South Africa

History of English language in South Africa

Topic 23: Spread of English: Africa

Spread of English in Africa

Topic 24: Spread of English: South Asia

South Asian countries

Historical, Political and Social Contexts

Topic 25: Political Developments

Role of English during the Empire

Topic 26: Technological and Industrial Development-I

Topic 27: Technological and Industrial Development-II

Access to new knowledge

Topic 28: Social and Cultural Trends

Consolidation of English after WWI

Topic 29: International Travel

Role of English in international travel

Role of English in international travel

Topic 30: English as a Lingua Franca

Reasons for the emergence of English as a lingua franca

Contact Induced Varieties of English

Topic-031: Pidgins and Creoles

Topic-032: Process of Pidginization-I

Topic-033: Process of Pidginization-II

"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?“