I Physics

--
WN

DAVID HALLIDAY
ROBERT RESNICK

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL rUBLIHL1

 SELECTED PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
(See Appe"x A foe. own css$. ISu8

Speed of light c 3.00 X 100 metere/aec - 1.86 X lO

miles/aft
Ma..-energy relation c'( — R/m) 931 Mev/axnu - 8.99 x 10" joules/kg
Gravitational constant C 6.67 X 10 nt-m2/kg2
Universal gee constant R 8.31 joules/mole K - 1.99 cal/mole K
- 0.0823 li-atm/mole K
Tril ls point of water Ttr 273.16K
Permeability conetknt 1.26 X 10- 8 henry/meter
Permittivity constant as 8.85X icr" farad/meter
k o;ndro'i constant N. 6.02 X 10" molecule/mole
Boltrivann'. constant A 1.38 X 10" joule/molecule OK
Plai,k. constant A 6.63 X icr" joule-sec
Elementary charge • 1.60x10-4'coul
Electron rest ms 9.11 x iO"kg
El.ctron charge-to-mass ratio elm. 1.76 X 10" coul/kg
Protonr,rt mass Mil 1.67 X icr" kg
Et.etron magnetic moment 9.27 X IO joule/taste
SELECTED PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Der.eity of air (STP) 1.29 kg/meter'

Density of water (20 C) 1.00 X 10' kg/meter'
Density of mercury (20 C) 13.5 X 10' kg/meter'
Speed of sound in dry au (Si?) 331 meters/see — 1090 3/see
Acceleration of gravity (standard) 9.81 meters/sec' — 32.2 ft/sec'
Standard atmosphere 1.01 )< 101 nt/meter' - 14.7 lb/in.'
— 760 mm-Hg
Mean radius of the earth 6.37 X 10' meter, - 3960 miles
Mean earth-sun distance 1.49)( 10' km — 92.9 X 10' miles
Mean earth-moon distance 3.80 X 10' km — 2.39 X 10' miles
Man of earth 598 x 10" kg
Heat of fusion of water (0° C, 1 atm) 79.7 cal/gm
Heat of vaporization of water (100° C, 1 atm) 539 cal/gm
Melting point of ice 0.00°C 273.15° K
Ratio of specific. heats () for air (20° C) I49
Wavelength of the sodium yellow doublet 5892 A
Index of refraction of water (Q 5892 A) 1.33
Index of refraction of crown glass (@ 5892 A) 1.52
Physics PART I
 M

I)

9.,
Physics
PART I

ROBERT RESNICK DAVID HALLIDAY
Professor of Physics Professor of Physics
Rensselaer Polytechnic In,.it.ute University of Pittsburgh

YEARS Of
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PUBLISHING
• FOR
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W ONE WORLD

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMTrED, PUBLISHERS

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 Book by Hallida y sO.)
lnlroduclorr Nuclear Physic s . Second Edition *
Books by HalIida (D.) and Rcsnjck (R.)
Phscs for Students of Science and E uginecring
Paris I. FirsrEdion and II. Second Edition Combined
Ph ysics. Part II
Ph ysics. Part I and 11 Cotithined
Fundamentals of Physics
[looks by Resnick R)
Introduction o Special RcIauii
Rooks h' Rs.sniek R ) and Hallida' (D.)
Ph ysics. Part I

Fosl Edition.
Second Edition. l9o2
Resised Printing. I966
F11t-Fifth Nc Age Intersi.iitssnal Reprint. September 1996
Fully Revised Edition— 2005
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 Preface

This revision of Part I of Physics for Students of Science and Engineering

(1960) is based on classroom experience at many institutions d'iring the
past six years. Although the changes are extensive, the basic outline of
the book and its underlying philosophy remain unchanged. .t great
more has been done to help prepare the way smoothly for the treatment
of relativistic and quantum physics that will follow Part II, while at the
same time an ever stronger foundation than before is laid in the class. ca
areas.
Some of the pyincipal changes that reflect this approach are: grei.ter
emphasis throughout on the role of reference frames in physical meas re-
meat and theory; an improved treatment of Newtou's laws and the fc rc
laws, stressing the current views; a clearer analysis of the concepts of
inertial and noninertial frames with specific applications to help fix the
ideas; greater attention to microscopic models of macroscopic phenomena,
Zrom friction and collision phenomena to specific heats, thermal expansion
and fluctuations; a much clearer presentation of the potential energy
concept, whenever it occurs in various physical systems; a more ceitral
role for angular momentum in rotational systems and a generalization to
unsymmetrical bodies and moving-axes; a somewhat more general tret.-
ment of oscillations, including two-body oscillations and the reductd
mass concept and anharmonje oscillations; a correct treatment of systems
of variable mass in classical physics; inclusion of quantum ideas where they
naturally emerge in the "classical" domain; and more attention to .taUs-
tical interp retntinn5
and modern views of thermodyniarni piuCeses.
 I'RIFAC
A
Unit vectors are Introauel'u in Chapter 2 and used thereafter where they
simplify defvtiöns or permit a clearer, more geometric, or improved
analytic treatment of physical phenomena. More tables are used than
previously to summarize and display ideas, equations, and physical dta
and to draw analogies. We continue to employ optional sections, indicated
by smaller print, for specialized or advanced topics, but have included in
new topical supplements solale o the more specialized or advanced material.
Naturally, wherever appropriate, we have systematically updated and
modernized many features and topics—such as standards and units,
nomenclature and symbols, references and appendices. And the figircs
have been carefully reworked to heighten their teaching value, to inure
consiste!I('y, and to illustrate the greatr number of applieatioiS to con-
temporary physics.
Most of the original illustrative worked-out examples have been retained
with suitable chan.e
from Physics for Students of Science and Engineering,
and improvements. However, a significant number of new ones have
ben added to heighten interest and understanding at key places where
teaching experience has shown the need. About 85 per cent of the ciginal,
problems and thought questions remain, but more than one-half again as
ninny new questions and problems have been added Apart from pro' ding
what is probably the largest selection of questions and problems of any
comparable text, this insures a wide choice of level of difficulty and area of
interest and application. The increase in the length of the book can be
fully attributed to such ancillary material--question s , problems, worked
out examples, tables, appendices, and figures—all accruing, we believe,
to the benefit of teacher and student.
We are indebted to the ma nv tea ci ern no stud cuts who ha ve se nt U
ears and particularly
constructive i'riticisms of the I)t() edit ion over the y
to Kenneth lsruwnstcin, Benjannii (ili. lIen Josephoni. Jr.. James U. Kemp.
ii. J': . fl.rsclmai'h. Jr.. and luhett Weinstock, VJIO have njcii'd and si.tcd
of us flU wishes to thank l'rofessor Gerald
u in man y wa y . ()mme
}[oltoni fir time man y courtesies extended it HarvardUniver s it y while nine
Nye hope that our efforts hiav
preparion at of thi' honk was inn 1irogrn's 1)()tll
made it more useful and j ut ere hug In students and instructors.

ItOn'ERT RESNIC
J)viu 1I.tI.Lmt) \•.•
Ja, 1966
Tro,


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- . .

Preface to 1960 "Edition

The time lag between developments in basic science and their appIi.c
to eng.neering practice hasshrunk enormousl y in the past few decades.
The base of engineering, once largel y empirical, is now largely scientife.
Today the need is to stress principles rather than specific procedures, to
select areas of contemporary interest rather than of past interest, .d to
condition the student to the atmosphere of change he will eli:ounter during
his ca'eer. These developments require a revision of the ti- ditional
course in general physics for engineers and scientists.
Tne n-ios frequent criticisms made in varying degrees of textbooks usci
in such a cour:e are these: (a) the content is encyclopedic in t'at topics are
not treated with sufficient depth, the discussions are largely descriptive
rather than explanatory and analytical. and too man y topics are surveyed;
(b) the content is not sufficiently 'modern," and applications are drs'rn
mostly from past engineering practice rather than from contemporary
physics: (c) the organization of the material is too compartmentalized to
reveal the essential unit y of ph ysics and its principles; (d) the approach is
highly deductive and does not stress sufficiently the connection between
theory and experiment. Of course, it is unlikely that a textbook will ever
he written that is not criticized on one ground or another.
In writing this textbook we have been cognizant of these criticisms and
h.ve given much thought to wa ys of meeting them. We h,.--e considered
the possibility of reorganizing the subject matter. The adoption of an
atomic approach from the beginning or a structure built around enegy Jin
its varinu asp ect s suggest them selves. We have concluded that our goals
vfli PREFACa

can best be achieved by modifying the selection and treatment of topics

within the traditional organization. To shuffle freely the cards of subject
matter content or to abandon entirely a sequence which represents the
growth of physical thought invites both a failure to appreciate the New-
tonian and Maxwellian synthesis of classical physics and a superficial
understanding of modern physics. A solid underpinning of classical
physics is essential to build the superstructure of contemporary physics
in our opinion.
To illustrate how we hope to achieve our goals within this framework,
we present here the principal features of our book.

1. Many topics are treated in greater depth than has been customary
heretofore, and much contemporary material has been woven into the body
of the text. For example, gravitation, kinetic theory, electromagnetic
waves, and physical optics, among others, are treated in greater depth.
Contemporary topics, such as atomic standards, collision cross section,
intermolecular forces, mass-energy conversion, isotope separation, the Hail
effect, the free-electron model of conductivity, nuclear stability, nuclear
resonance, and neutron diffraction, are discussed where they are pertinent.
To permit this greater depth and inclusion of contemporary material, we
have omitted entirely or treated only indirectly much traditional material,
such as simple machines, surface tension, viscosity, calorimetry, change of
state, humidity, pumps, practical engines, musical scales, architectural
acoustics, electrochemistry, thermoelectricity. motors, alternating-current
circuits, electronics, lens aberrations, color, photometry, and others.
2. We have tried to reveal the unity of physics in many ways. Through-
out the book we stress the general nature of key ideas common to all area's of
physics. For example, the conservation laws of energy, linear momentum,
angular momentum, and charge are used repeatedly. Wave concepts and
properties of vibrating systems, such as resonance, are used in mechanics,
sound, electromagnetism, optics, atomic physics, and nuclear physics.
The field concept is applied to gravitation, fluid flow, electromagnetism,
and nuclear physics.
The interrelation of the various disciplines of physics is emphasized by
the use of physical and mathematical analogies and by similarity of method.
For example, the correspondences between the mass-spring system and the
LC circuit or between the acoustic tube and the electromagnetic cavity
are emphasized, and the interweaving of microscopic and macroscopic
approaches is noted in heat phenomena and electrical and magnetic
phenomena. We have tried to make a smooth transition between particle
mechanics and kinetic theory, stressing that, in their classical aspects,
both belong to the Newtonian synthesis. We have also sought a smooth
tr ansition between electromagnetism and wave optics, j'ointing frequently
to the Maxwellian synthesis.
We discussed the limitationi of classical ideas and the domain of their
validity, and we emphasize the gen.r'lising nature of contemporary idess
 ?REFACE lx
applicabie in a broader domain. Throughout we aim to show the relation
of theory to experiment and to develop an awareness of the nature and
uses of theory.
3. Our approach to quantum physics is not the traditional descriptive
one. Rather we seek to develop the contemporary concepts fairly rigor-
ously, at a length and depth appropriate to an introductory course. In the
early chapters we pave the way by pointing to the limitations of classical
theory, by stressing the aspects of classical physics that bear on contem-
porary ph y sics, and by choosing illustrative examples that have a modern
flavor. Thus we stress fields rather than circuits, particles rather than
extended bodies, and wave optics rather than geometrical optics. Among
the illustrative examples are molecular potential energy curves, binding
energy of a deuteron, nuclear collisions, the nuclear model of the atom, the
Thomson atom model, molecular dipoles, drift speed of electrons, stability
of betatron orbits, nuclear magnetic resonance, the red shift, and others
too numerous to mention.
The point of view is that of developing the fundamental ideas of quantum
physics. The customary descriptive chapter on nuclear physics is, for
example, not present. Instead, the wave-particle duality, the uncertainty
principle, the complementarity principle, and the correspondence principle
are stressed.
4. The mathematical level of our book assumes a concurrent course in
calculus. The derivative is introduced in Chapter 3 and the integral in
Chapter 7. The related physical concepts of slope and area under a curve
are developed steadily. Calculus is used freely in the latter half of the
book. Simple differential equations are not avoided, although. no formal
procedures are needed or given for solving them. Vector notation and
vector algebra, including scalar and vector products, are used throughout.
Displacement is taken as the prototype vector, and the idea of invariance
of vector relations is developed.
5. The number of problems is unusually large, but few are "plug-in"
problems. Many involve extensions of the text material, contemporary
applications, or derivations. The questions at the end of each chapter are
intended to be thought-orovokjng; they may serve as the basis for class
discussion, for essay papers, or for self-study. Only rarely can the
questions be answered by direct quotation from the text.
6. The book contains an unusually large number of worked-out examples,
with the "plug-in" variety used only to emphasize a numerical magnitude.
Algebraic, rather than numerical, solutions are stressed. Examples some-
times extend the text treatment or discuss the fine points, but usually they
are applications of the principles, often of contemporary physics.
7. The textbook has been designed to fit physics courses of various
len g ths. In small print there is a great deal of supplementary material


PREFACE
X
of an advanced, historical, or philosophical character, to be omitted or
included to varying degrees depending on interest and course length. In
addition, many chapters may be regarded as optional. Each teacher will
make his own choice. At our institutions Chapter 14 (statics of rigid
bodies) and Chapters 41 and 42 (geometrical optics) are omitted. Other
possibilities suggested, depending on emphasis or depth desired, or the
nature of succeeding courses, are Chapter 12 (rotational dynamics), Chap-
ters 17 and 18 (fluids), Chapter 24 (kinetic theory—I!), Chapter 32 (emf
and circuits), Chapter 46 (polarization) and Chapters 47 and 48 (quantum
physics).
S. We have adopted the mks system of units throughout, although the
British engineering system is also used in mechanics. Having observed the
gradual exclusion, year by year, of the cgs system from advanced textbooks.
we have seen fit to limit ourselves to the bare definition of the basic cgs
quantities; An extensive list of conversion factors appears in Appendix H.
- We wish to thank the engineering and science students at both Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute and the University of Pittsburgh who have borne
with us through two successive preliminary editions. Constructive
criticisms from our colleagues at each institution and from some eight
reviewers have resulted in many changes. Benjamin Chi of R.P.I. has
been of major service in all aspects of the preparation of the manuscript.
Finally, we express our deep appreciation to our wives, not only for aid in
typing and proofreading but for the patience and encouragement wiiout
which this book might never have been written.
ROBERT RESICK
DAVID HALLIDAY

January .1960
i'iusburgh, Pennsylvania ...
Troy, New York
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Contents

1 MEASUREMENT I
'1--i Measurement I
1-2 Physical Quantities, Standards, and Unite 2
1-3 Reference barnes 3
1-4 Standard of Length 5
1-5 Standard of Time 7
1-6 Systems of Units ii

2 VECTORS 15

2-I Vectors and Scalars 15

2-7 Addition of Vectors, Geometrical Method 16
2-3 Resolution and Addition of Vectors, Analytical Method IS
2-4 Multiplication of Vectors 21
2-5 Vectors and the Laws of Physics 26

3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION 32

3-1 Mechanics 32
3-2 Particle Kinematics 32
3-3 Average Velocity 33
3-4 Instantaneous Velocity 3.5
.3-5 One-Dimensional Motion—Variable VeloeiLy 36
3-6 Acceleration 39
3-7 One-Dimensional Motion—Variable Aced-ration 41
3-8 One-Dimensional Motion—Constant Acceleration 41
41
xli CONTESTS
3-9 Consistency of Units and Dimensions 45
3-10 Freely Falling Bodies 48
3-11 Equations of Motion in Free Fall 40

4 MOTION IN A PLANE 57
4-1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 57
4-2 Motion in a Plane with Constant Acceleration 58
4-3 Projectile Motion 59
4-4 Uniform Circular Motion 64
4--5 Tangential Acceleration in Circular Motiop 69
4-6 Relative Velocity and Acceleration 71

5 PARTICLE DYNAMICS-1 79
5-I Classical Mechanics 79
5-2 Newton's First Law 81
5-3 Force 83
5-4 Mass; Newton's Second Law 85
5-5 Newton's Third Law of Motion 87
5-6 S ystems of Mechanical Units 90
5-7 The Force Laws 92
5-8 Weight and Mass 93
5-9 -'Static Procedure for Measuring Forces 95
5-10 Some Applications of Newton's Laws of Motion 96

6 PARTICLE DYNAMICS-41 109

6-1 Introduction 109
6-2 Frictional Forces 109
6-3 The Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion 116
6-4 Forces and Pseudo-Forces 120
6-5 Classical Mechanics, Relativistic Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics 122

7 WORK AND ENERGY 131

7-1 Introduction 131
7-2 Work Done by a Constant Force 132
7-3 Work Done by a Variable Force—One-Dimensional Case 136
7-4 Work Done by a Variable Force Two-Dimensiona l Case 139
7-5 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem 141
7-6 Significance of the Work-Energy Theorem 144
7-7 Power 145

8 THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 150

8-I Introduction 150
8-2 Conservative Forces 151)
 CONTENTS
8-3 Potential Energy 154
8-4 One-Dimensional Conservative Systems 158
8-5 The Complete Solution of the Problem for One Dimensional Forces
Depending on Position Only 162
8-6 Two and Three-Dimensional Conservation Systems 166
8-7 Nonconservative Forces 167
8-8 The Conservation of Energy 170
8-9 Mass and Energy 171

9 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM 183

9-1 Center of Mass 183
9-2 Motion of the Center of Mass 189
9-3 Linear Momentum of a Particle 191
9-4 Linear Momentum of a System of Particles 192
9-5 Conservation of Linear Momentum 193
9-6 Some Applications of the Momentum Principle 195
9-7 Systems of Variable Mass 198

10 COLLISIONS 210
10-1 What is a Collision? 210
10-2 Impulse and Momentum 212
10-3 Conservation of Momentum during Collisions 213
10-4 Collisions in One Dimension 215
10-5 The "True" Measure of a Force 222
10-6 Collisions in Two and Three Dimensions 223
10-7 Cross Section 227 -
10-8 Reactions and Decay Processes 231

11 ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS 241

11-1 Rotational Motion 241
11-2 Rotational Kinematics—the Variables 243
11-3 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration 245
11-4 Rotational Quantities as Vectors 247
11-5 Relation between Linear and Angular Kinematics for a
Particle in Circular Motion—Scaler Form 251
11-6 Relation between Linear and Angular Kinematics for a Particle in
Circular Motion—Vector Form 253

12 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS I 260

12-I Introduction 260
122 Torque Acting on a Particle 260
12-3 Angular Momentum of a Particle 263
12-. Systems of Particles 266
—2
 CONTENTS
xiv
12-5 Kinetic Energy of Rotation and Rotational Inertia 268
12-6 Rotational Dynamics of a Rigid Body 274
12-7 The Combined Translational and Rotational Motion of a Rigid Body 282

13 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS U AND THE CONSERVATION OF

ANGULAR MOMENTUM 295
13-1 Introduction 295
13-2 The Top 296
13-3 Angular Momentum and Angular Velocity 299
13-4 Conservation of Angular Momentum 305
13-5 Some Other Aspects of the Conservation of Angular Momentum 310
13-6 Rotational Dynamics—A Review 312

14 EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 320

14-1 Rigid Bodies 320
14-2 The Equilibrium of a Rigid Body 320
14-3 Center of Gravity 323
14-4 Examples of Equilibrium 326
14-5Stable Unstable, and Neutral Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in a
Gravitational Field 333

15 OSCILLATIONS 342
15-1 Oscillation s 342
15-2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator .345
15-3 Simple Harmonic Motion 348
15-4 Energy Considerations in Simple Harmonic Motion 353
15-5 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion 357
15-6 Relation between Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform
Circular Motion 363
15-7 Combinations of Harmonic Motions 366
15-8 Two-Body oscillations 368
15-9 Damped Harmonic Motion 370
15-10 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 372

16 GRAVITATION 382
16-1 Historical Introduction 382
16-2 The Law of Universal Gravitatio n 387
16-3 The Constant of Universal Gravitation, 7 388
16-4 Inertial and Gravitational Mass 391
16-5 Variations in Acceleration Due to Gravity 393
16-6 Gravitational Effect of a Spherical Distribution of Mass 397
16-7 The Motions of Planets and Satellites 401
 CONTENTS xv
16-8 The Gravitational Field 404
16-9 Gravitational Potential Energy 406
16-10 Potential Energy for Many-Particle Systems 410
16-11 Energy Considerations in the Motions of Planets and Satellites 412
16-12 The Earth as an Inertial Reference Frame 413
16-13 The Principle of Equivalence 414

17 FLUID STATICS 423

17-1 Fluids 423
17-2 Pressure and Density 424
17-3 The Variation of Pressure in a Fluid at Rest 425
17-4 Pascal's Principle and Archimedes' Principle 430
17-5 Measurement of Pressure 432

18 FLUID DYNAMICS 440

18-1 General Concepts of Fluid Flow 440
18-2 Streamlines 442
18-3 The Equation of Continuity 443
18-4 Bernoulli's Equation 445
18-5 Applications of Bernoulli's Equation and the Equation of Continuity 448
18-6 Conservation of Momentum in Fluid Mechanics 452
18-7 Fields of Flow 453

19 WAVES IN ELASTIC MEDIA 463

19-1 Mechanical Waves 463
19-2 Types of Waves 464
19-3 Traveling Waves 467
19-4 The Superposition Principle 470
19-5 Wave Speed 472
19-6 Power and Intensity in Wave Motion 476
19-7 Interference of Waves 478
19-8 Complex Waves 481
19-9 Standing Waves 483
19-10 Resonance 488

20 SOUND WAVES 497

20-1 Audible, Ultrasonic, and infrasonic Waves 497
20-2 Propagation and Speed' of Longitudinal Waves 498
20-3 Traveling LongitudinAl Waves 501
20-4 Standing Longitudinal Waves 504
20-S Vibrating Systems and Sources of Sound 505
20-6 Beats 510
20-7 The Doppler Effect 512
xvi CONTENTS
21 TEMPERATURE 524
21-i Macroscopic and Microscopic Descriptions 524
21-2 Thermal Equilibrium—The Zeroth Law if Thermodynamics 525
21-3 Measuring Temperature 526
21-4 The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer 529
21-5 Ideal Gas Temperature Scale 530
21-6 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 533
21-7 The International Practical Temperature Scale 534
21-8 Temperature Expansion 535

22 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 545

22-1 Heat, a Form of Energy 545
22-2 Quantity of Heat and Specific Heat 547
22-3 Molar Heat Capacities of Solids 550
22-4 Heat Conduction 551
22-5 The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 554
22-6 Heat and Work 555
22-7 The first Law of Thermodynamics 560
22-8 Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics 561

23 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES-4 571

23-i Introduction 571
23-2 Ideal Gas—A Macroscopic Description 572
23-3 An Ideal Gas—Microscopic Definition 574
23-4 Kinetic Calculation of the Pressure 575
23-5 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature 579
23-6 Intermolecular Forces 582
23-7 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas 584
23-8 Equipartition of Energy 589

24 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES-11 599

24-1 Mean Free Path 599
24-2 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 602
24-3 Experimental Confirmation of the Maxwellian Distribution 605
24-4 Brownian Motion 608
24-5 The van der Waals Equation of State 611

25 ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 619

25-1 Introduction 619
25-2 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 619
25-3 The Carnot Cycle 622
25-4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 626
 CONTENTS xvii
25-5 The Efficiency of Engines 629
25-6 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 631
25-7 Entropy—Reversible Processes 633
25-8 Entropy—Irreversible Processes 636
25-9 Entropy and the Second Law 638
25-10 Entropy and Disorder 640

SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS I
I Relation between Linear and Angular Kinematics for a Particle
Moving in a Plane 1
II Polar Vectors and Axial Vectors 5
III The Wave Equation for a Stretched String 8
IV Derivation of Maxwell's Speed Distribution Law 11
APPENDICES 15
A Definition of Standards and Fundamental and Derived Physical
Constants 15
B Miscellaneous Terrestrial Data 18
C The Solar System 20
D Periodic Table of the Elements 22
E The Particles of Physics 23
F Symbols, Dimensions, and Units for Physical Quantities 25
G Conversion Factors 27
H Mathematical Symbols and the Greek Alphabet 35
I Mathematical Formulas 36
J Values of Trigonometric Functions 39
K Nobel Prize Winners in Physics 41
L The Gaussian S ystem of Units 44
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 47
INDEX 55
Physics , -PART I