Environmental Hydrology (GeES 2024)

1.1. Definition and Scope of Hydrology

Hydrology is the science of water. It is the study of the occurrence, character and movement of
water within and between the physical and biological components of the environment.
The science of hydrology focuses on the global hydrological cycle and the processes involved in
the land phase of that cycle.

 Hydrology is the science dealing with the waters of the earth, their occurrence,
distribution and circulation, their chemical and physical properties and their interaction
with the environment.
 Hydrology is the scientific study of water.

The science of hydrology focuses on the global hydrological cycle and the processes involved in
the land phase of that cycle. It is the geosciences that describes and practices:

 The spatial and temporal variations of water substance in the terrestrial, oceanic, and
atmospheric components of the global water system
 The movement of water on and under the earth‘s surface, the physical and chemical
processes accompanying that movement, and the biological processes that conduct or
affect that movement
 It is the study of water in all of its manifestations, and the impact of global, regional and
local water processes on natural and human events – past, present and future.

In short, it is the science of water with regard to-

Quantity of water and Quality of water

Hydrology analysis dealt with

 How much water is produced by the watershed

 Rainfall-runoff relationship
 How much water behaves in the channel
 Flood levels
  stream power
 As water changes from one state to the other quality changes. Quantity refers to the
space-time distribution of water resources. There is movement of water, means quantity
is dynamic. Water exists in liquid, solid and gaseous state. And, there is change from one
state/phase to the other.

Scope of Hydrology

The study of hydrology is multi-disciplinary. That is, it incorporates professionals from

various disciplines such as geography, chemistry, physics, b iology, geology and
engineering.
The hydrologic cycle is the central theme of the study of hydrology; hence all
of the physical, chemical and biological processes involving water as it travel its various
paths in the atmosphere, over and beneath the earth‘s surface are of interest to the
hydrologist
Hydrological studies involve the application of scientific knowledge and mathematical
principles to solve water related problems such as quantity, quality and availability in
society.
Hydrologists may be concerned with finding water supplies for cities or irrigated farms,
or controlling river flooding or soil erosion.
The study of hydrology involves both laboratory analysis and direct field measurements
of hydrological processes: rainfall, erosion, runoff, soil moisture etc.

Major Branches of Hydrology

Surface Hydrology: This area focuses on the study of hydrologic processes that
operate at or near Earth‘s surface.
Hydrogeology: This is the study of presence and movement of groundwater.
Hydrometeorology: This is the study of the transfer of water and energy between
land and water body surfaces, and the lower atmosphere.

Water on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs:
Atmosphere o Groundwater
Soil o Snowfields
Glaciers o Oceans
 Lakes o Rivers
1.2 Global Water Resources

Current estimates are that the Earth‗s hydrosphere contains a huge amount of water about 1386
million cubic kilometers. However, 97.5% of these amounts are saline waters and only 2.5% is
fresh water. The greater portion of this fresh water (68.7%) is in the form of ice and permanent
snow cover in the Antarctic, the Arctic, and in the mountainous regions. Next, 29.9% exists as
fresh ground waters. Only 0.26% of the total amount of fresh waters on the Earth is concentrated
in lakes, reservoirs and river systems where they are most easily accessib le for our economic
needs and absolutely vital for water ecosystems.

1.3 Hydrological Cycle

 Definition
 Water is continuously cycling from the ocean, to the atmosphere, to the land surface, and
back again to the ocean (Figure 1.2).

The processes that accomplish this never-ending cycle are evapo-transpiration, the combination
of evaporation from water and surfaces and transpiration from vegetation, which sends water
vapor into the atmosphere, precipitation which brings water back to the surface in liquid a nd
solid forms, and runoff from land to the rivers and streams that ultimately return it to the oceans.
 The hydrologic cycle is the endless movement of water between the atmosphere,
land and underground, driven by the sun and force of gravity.
 The entire process in the hydrologic cycle can be divided into five parts evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration and runoff.
 The evaporated water moves into the upper atmosphere, where it condenses and may fall
back as rain. On the land evaporation could take place from stagnant water body, the soil
and vegetation- in a combined processes known as evapo-transpiration. Some of the water
sinks into the soil through infiltration. When the soils are saturated, runoffs are generated.
The runoff could flow into river systems.
 Evaporation caused by the sun‘s energy is the driving force in the movement of
water in the hydrologic cycle.
 The hydrologic cycle is so fundamental to sustainable water supply because it
continues to move water and keep sources fresh.
1.3.1. Global Hydrological Cycle

Global hydrological cycle consists the general process of the water cycle, despite its cover large
geographic area (at global level). Give less detail information about the water flow of specific
area is the peculiar feature of this type of hydrological cycle.

Figure 1.3 shows hydrological cycle at the global level. The numbers estimate on the total
amount of water (per thousands of km3 ) in each process per annum. E= evaporation; P=a
precipitation; Q G=subsurface runoff; Q= surface runoff).

 The global hydrological cycles is disturbed by different human factors. These included
agriculture, industry, deforestation, excess groundwater extraction, urbanization and
others. These caused, flooding, drought, loss of biodiversity and etc.

The Catchment Hydrological Cycle

At a smaller scale it is possible to view the catchment hydrological cycle as a more in-depth
conceptual model of the hydrological processes operating. At catchment hydrological cycle
scale there are still essentially three processes operating (evaporation, precipitation and
runoff), but it is possible to subdivide each into different sub-processes. Evaporation is a
mixture of open water evaporation (i.e. from rivers and lakes) and close water evaporation;
evaporation from the soil; evaporation from plant surfaces; interception; and transpiration
 from plants. Precipitation can be in the form of snowfall, hail, rainfall or some mixture of the
three (sleet).

Interception of precipitation by plants makes the water available for evaporation again before
it even reaches the soil surface. The broad term runoff incorporates the movement of liquid
water above and below the surface of the earth. The movement of water below the surface
necessitates an understanding of infiltration into the soil and how the water moves in the
unsaturated zone (through flow) and in the saturated zone (groundwater flow). Figure 1.4
show hydrological cycle at catchment levels. (Q= runoff; the subscript G stands for ground
water flow; TF= through flow; I=interception; E= evaporation; P= precipitation).

Components of Water Cycle

The components of the water cycle include evaporation, condensation, precipitation,

transpiration and runoff.
 Evaporation occurs when the water in lakes, oceans, rivers and streams (surface
water) is heated by the sun and converted to a gas called water vapor.
  Condensation is a process by which water vapor returns to its original liquid state.
It may also be referred to as t he process by which water vapor is converted into
precipitation.
 Precipitation occurs when the condensed water vapour in the clouds become too
heavy to remain suspended in the air, it therefore falls to the Earth as rain, sleet,
hail or snow.
 Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the day. Water
inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor
through numerous individual leave openings referred to as stomata.
 Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams.
It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages
or other works that society might have on or in a stream channel.
1.1. Kinds of water Use

We use water for drinking, washing, cleaning, cooking, construction and growing our food as
well as for many, many other socioeconomic activities.

In some traditional societies a person consumes three to 19 liters per day for domestic use and
subsistence farming. In a city where water is also used for cleaning, manufacturing, and
sanitation, per capita use is estimated to be around 569 liters per day. In modern societies the
consumption is exceptionally high. If you take for example the people of the United States, they
have one of the highest water consumption rates in the world; each person uses an average of
5079 liters of water per day.

1) Domestic Use of Water

Domestically water is used for indoor and outdoor household purposes, i.e., all the things you do
at home: drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, brushing your teeth,
cleaning the house, watering the garden, and even washing the car.

Water generally gets to our homes in one of the two ways. Either it is delivered by a city/county
water department (or maybe from a private company), or people supply their own water. Water
delivered by other organ other than people themselves to homes is called "public-supplied
deliveries" and water that people supply themselves is called "self-supplied".

2) Agricultural Use of Water

The use of agricultural water makes it possible to grow fruits and vegetables and raise livestock,
which is a main part of our diet. Agricultural water is used for irrigation, pesticide and fertilizer
applications, crop cooling (for example, light irrigation), and frost control. Throughout the
world, irrigation (water for agriculture, or growing crops) is probably the most important use of
water (except for drinking and washing).

 Almost 60 percent of all the world's freshwater withdrawals go towards

irrigation uses.
3) Industrial Use of Water

Water in industry is used for cooling, transportation and washing, as a solvent, and also
sometimes entering the composition of the finished product. Industrial water withdrawals
account for approximately 23% of global water consumption.

CONCLUSION
The hydrological cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of
water between the biosphere, lithosphere and the atmosphere. Water moves from one
reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.
SUMMARY
A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning and it has no end.
It can be studied by starting at any of the following processes: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.
MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1 .What is the components of hydrological cycle?
2. Describe the under listed hydrological properties: evaporation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow.
3. Draw a typical hydrologic cycle, showing the various components.
CHAPTER TWO: COMPONENTS OF THE WATER BALANCE
2.1 Basic Concept of Water Balance
 The water balance equation is a mathematical description of the hydrological processes
operating within a given timeframe and incorporates principles of mass and energy
continuity.
It is also possible to represent hydrological cycle in the form of an equation, which is normally
termed the water balance equation. In this way the hydrological cycle is defined as a closed
system whereby there is no mass or energy created or lost within it. The mass of concern in this
case is water.
The water balance is based on the mass balance principle: Input = Output + Change in storage.
P ± E ±_S ± Q = 0
Where P is precipitation; E is evaporation; S is the change in storage and Q is runoff.
P – Q – E –_S = 0

Refers to a given watershed/catchme nt/basin/lake ≈ Inflow–out flow =∆S

𝑃 + 𝑄𝑠𝑖 + 𝑄𝑢𝑖 - 𝐸 - 𝑄𝑠 - 𝑄𝑢 - ∆𝑆 - µ = 0
I - Q ± ΔS (Because change may be negative or positive)
I - Q ± µ = 0 (to make the result zero) → water balance
For large river basin, underground inflow and out flow are ignored i.e
P - E - Q - ∆S - µ = 0
For small basins:
𝑃 + 𝑄𝑠𝑖 + 𝑄𝑢𝑖 - 𝐸 - 𝑄𝑠0 - 𝛥𝑆𝑚 - ∆𝐺 - ∆𝑆1 - 𝛥𝑆𝑐ℎ - 𝛥𝑆01 - 𝛥𝑆𝑠𝑛 - µ = 0
Where
P = precipitation
Qui = underground out flow
Qsi = surface inflow
E = evapo-trans piration
Qso = surface discharge
∆Sm = change in soil moisture
∆G = change in ground wate r
∆Sl = change in reservoir
∆Sch = change in river channel storage
∆Sgl = change in glacier
∆Ssn = change in snow cover
In short:
𝑃 + (𝑄 + 𝐸𝑇 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 0

Where P is precipitation (liquid and solid), Gin is ground-wate r in flow (liquid) Q is stream
out flow(liquid) ET is evaporation (vapor), Gout is ground water out flow (liquid) and all
values are the true totals or long-term averages. The total amount of liquid water leaving
the region can be called the hydrological circulation, Ґ, or, more commonly, the runoff,
RO, for the region.
Ґ=𝑅0=𝑄+𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅0=𝑃+𝐺𝑖𝑛-𝐸𝑇
𝑅0 = 𝑄+𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃 - 𝐸𝑇
Global Water Resources
Importance of studying hydrological cycle/budget
 To know changes due to human activity
 To know rain and evaporation relation ship
 For agronomic
 For land use planning
 To know water demand and supply
 For engineering purpose
 To know water demand of crops
 To know effectiveness of rainfall this depends on losses.
P-∑ → Q; discharge effectiveness, hydrologists
P-∑ → F; infiltration effectiveness, agriculturalists
2.2. Precipitation

 Precipitation can be defined as water falling in solid or liquid form e.g. rain, snow, and
hail.
Precipitation is the release of water from the atmosphere to reach the surface of the earth. The
term precipitation covers all forms of water being released by the atmosphere, including snow,
hail, sleet and rainfall. It is the major input of water to a river catchment area and as such need‘s
careful assessment in any hydrological study. Although rainfall is relatively straightforward to
measure (other forms of precipitation are more difficult) it is notoriously difficult to measure
accurately and, to compound the problem, is also extremely variable within a catchment area.
2.2.1. Types of Precipitation
There are different kinds of precipitation: (A) convectional, (B) orographic and (C) cyclonic.
i. Orographic Precipitation
Orographic or relief precipitation results when warm moist air moving across the ocean is forced
to rise by large mountains. As the air rises, it cools. A higher elevation results in cooler
temperatures (Figure 2.2).

Cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air. As air cools, the water vapor in the air
condenses and water droplets form. Clouds forms and precipitation (rain or snow) occurs on the
windward side of the mountain (see diagram). The air is now dry and r ises over top the
mountain. As the air moves back down the mountain, it collects moisture from the ground via
evaporation. This side of the mountain is called the leeward side. It receives very little
precipitation.
ii. Convectional Precipitation

Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the earth's surface. The warm ground heats
the air over it. As the air warms, the air molecules begin to move further apart. With increased
distance between molecules, the molecules are less densely packed. Thus, the air becomes lighter
and rises rapidly into the atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools. Water vapor in the air condenses
into clouds and precipitation (Figure 2.3).
 ii. Cyclonic Precipitation

Cyclonic or Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge of a warm, moist air mass (warm
front) meets a cool and dry air mass (cold front). The molecules in the cold air are more tightly
packed together (i.e., denser), and thus, the cold air is heavier than the warm air. The warmer air
mass is forced up over the cool air. As it rises, the warm air cools, the water vapor in the air
condenses, and clouds and precipitation result. This type of system is called Frontal Precipitation
because the moisture tends to occur along the front of the air mass.

Factors for the Distribution Precipitation

A) Altitude
As temperature decreases with altitude it is reasonable to assume that as an air parcel gains
altitude it is more likely to release the water vapor and cause higher rainfall. This is exactly what
does happen and there is a strong correlation between altitude and rainfall: so-called orographic
precipitation.
B) Aspect
The influence of aspect is less important than altitude but it may still play an important part in
the distribution of precipitation throughout a catchment. For example, in the humid mid- latitudes
(35° to 65° north or south of the equator) the predominant source of rainfall is through cyclonic
weather systems arriving from the west.
C) Slope
The influence of slope is only relevant at a very small scale. Unfortunately, the measurement of
rainfall occurs at a very small scale (i.e., a rain gauge). The difference between a level rain gauge
on a hill slope compared to one parallel to the slope may be significant.
D) Rain shadow effect
Where there is a large and high land mass it is common to find the rainfall considerably higher
on one side than the other. This is through a combination of altitude, slope, aspect and dynamic
weather direction influences and can occur at many different scales.
Formation of Precipitation
There are three conditions that need to be met prior to precipitation formation:
i. Cooling of the atmosphere
Cooling of the atmosphere may take place through several different mechanisms occurring
independently or simultaneously. The most common form of cooling is from the uplift of air
through the atmosphere. As air raises the pressure decreases; Boyle‗s Law states that this will
lead to a corresponding cooling in temperature. The cooler temperature leads to less water vapor
being retained by the air and conditions becoming favorable for condensation.
ii. Condensation nuclei
These are particles in the atmosphere of the order of 0.1 to 10 µ m. These particles originate
from products of combustion, oxides of nitrogen, aerosols, salt particles, etc…
iii. Growth of the water/ice droplets.
The saturated air tends to condense on these particles – and then water droplets grow in size,
become heavier, and fall to the ground as precipitation.
Forms of Precipitation
Many forms of precipitation exist. They are usually distinguished by their sizes. These include:
a) Rain

Rain occurs when the condensed water vapor of the atmosphere falling in drops (>0.5 mm,
maximum size 6 mm) from the clouds. Rain must be liquid before hitting the surface and must
not freeze onto surface. Therefore, the surface temperatures must be above freezing and the air
above the ground must be above freezing.
 b) Snow
Snow occurs when ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e., water vapor condenses to ice).
Snow must begin as a snowflake (Bergeron) and remain a snowflake until reaching the ground. If
flake melts into a drop, it can never return to flake form again. Therefore, the cloud and all of the
air beneath the cloud must be below freezing.
c) Sleet
Sleet (Ice Pellets) is frozen raindrops that strike the earth's surface. That´s, it occurs when frozen
rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature. In a sleet situation the
precipitation aloft when it is first generated will be snow.
d) Glaze
It is formed due to freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold objects.
Which is rain that hits a below freezing surface to form a glaze. The surface must be at or below
freezing while the air above the surface must be warmer than freezing.
e) Hail
Hail is dense precipitation ice that is at least 5 millimeters in diameter. It forms due to ice
crystals and super cooled water that freeze or stick to the embryo hail stone.
f) Drizzle
It is a light steady rain in fine drops with diameter between 0.2 and 0.5 mm, terminal velocities
between 70 and 200 cm per second, and intensity <1 mm/hr. Drizzle fall mostly from low stratus
cloud and it frequently accompanied with fog and poor visibility.
g) Dew
Dew is the smallest water drops formed during condensation on the earth sur face, most
frequently on grass during the warm period of a year. Dew arises mostly with clear and calm
weather in the evening hour and at the night when there is no fog. It happens when moisture
condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces.
h) Frost
It is a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of exposed objects by dew
or water vapor that has frozen.
I) Fog
It is a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapor (interfering with visibility). Fog develops when soil and vegetation cool in
temperature typical of the dew point. Dew can produce a large amount of precipitation. It
restricts visibility to1000 m or less. Dense fog restricts to 100 m or less. Fog co nsists of
suspended tiny water droplets (could also be suspended ice crystals). Fog is a cloud on the
ground.
j) Mist
It is very thin fog at the surface of the earth by condensation of atmospheric vapor.
k) Snow flakes
It is ice crystals fused together.
Measurement of Precipitation
Precipitation is measured with a rain gauge. It consists of a collecting jar, a funnel and a
container, which is dug on the ground, with 30cm of the instrument appearing above the ground.
Rain gauge is usually sited is an open place, where there are no trees or tall buildings to obstruct
the incoming precipitation. The diameter of the funnel is normally 13cm. The water that collects
in the jar is then poured into a measurement cylinder from where the amount of precipitat ion that
has fallen is read off. Figure 2.1 shows a diagrammatic representation of a rain gauge.

2.2.4. Analysis of Rainfall Data

Important rainfall dates are:
1. amount – daily, monthly, seasonal and annual time serious, storm level data rain event
regardless of amount
2. duration of storm- the period in which storm occur, how long the rain rains
3. intensity if rain= amount of rain ∕ time duration→ mm ∕ hr
Probability of flood occurrence, infiltration and erosion are factors of intensity
Example: Exercise on calculating rainfall data
Table 2: Rainfall data

Calculate
1. Amount of rainfall: 46.8mm (summing all values)
2. Duration of storm: 40 min
3. Intensity of rainfall: (46.8 mm ∕ 40 min) ×60= 70.2 mm/ hr
4. The 5 min peak intensity: (13.0÷5) ×60 = 156mm / hr
This is the highest rain occurred within the 5 minutes.
2.2.5. Estimation of Missing Data
A. Station year method
In this method, the records of two or more stations are combined into one long record provided
station records are independent and the areas in which the stations are located are
climatologically the same. The missing record at a station in a particular year may be found by
the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison. For example, in a certain year the total rainfall
of station A is 75 cm and for the neighboring station B, there is no record. But if the annual
average rainfall record at A and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the missing year‗s rain fall
at B (say, PB) can be found by simple proportion as:

75/70=PB /80

Therefore, PB=85.7 mm

This result may again be checked with reference to another neighboring station C.

B. By simple proportion (normal ratio method)

Calculating Mean Rainfall on a Watershed/area

The mean depth of rainfall on a watershed is required in many hydrologic investigations.

Several methods are used in deriving this value. The three most common are the arithmetic
mean, the Thiessen polygon, and the isohyetal methods (Fig. 3.6). Today it is possible to do areal
rainfall in GIS.

Point rainfall—it is the rainfall at a single station. For small areas less than 50 km2 , point rainfall
may be taken as the average depth over the area. As the rainfall over a large area is not uniform,
the average depth of rainfall over the area is determined by one of the following three methods:

1. Arithmetic average method—it is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amounts

of rainfall at the individual rain- gauge stations in the area, i.e,

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝛴𝑃1/𝑛

Where P ave = average depth of rainfall over the area

ΣP1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations, n = number of rain-gauge stations in the
area
This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges are uniformly
distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary very widely from the mean. These limitations
can be partially overcome if topographic influences and aerial representatives are considered in the
selection of gauge sites.

2. Thiessen polygon method

This method attempts to allow for non- uniform distribution of gauges by providing a weighting
factor for each gauge. The stations are plotted on a base map and are connected by straight lines.
Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent stations to form
polygons, known as Thiessen polygons. Each polygon area is assumed to be influenced by the
rain gauge station inside it, i.e., if P1, P2, P3, are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1,
A2, A3,....are the areas of the polygons surrounding these stations, (influence areas) respectively,

The average depth of rainfall for the entire basin is given by;

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒=(𝛴𝐴1𝑃1)/(𝛴𝐴1)
Where ΣA1 = A = total area of the basin.

The results obtained are usually more accurate than those obtained by simple arithmetic
averaging. The gauges should be properly located over the catchment to get regular shaped
polygons. However, one of the serious limitations of the Thiessen method is its non- flexibility
since a new Thiessen diagram has to be constructed every time if there is a change in the rain
gauge network.

3) The isohyetal method

In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable base map and the lines of equal
rainfall (isohyets) are drawn giving consideration to orographic effects and storm morphology.
The average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the a verage of the two isohyetal
values are weighted with the area between the isohyets, added up and divided by the total area
which gives the average depth of rainfall over the entire basin,

i.e.,=(𝛴𝐴1-2𝑃1-3)/(𝛴𝐴1-2)

Where, A1–2= area between the two successive isohyets P1 and P2

𝑃1-2=𝑃1+𝑃2/2

ΣA1-2=A= total area of the basin.

This method if analyzed properly gives the best results.

2.3. Inte rception: Process and Measurement

 The capture of precipitation by the plant canopy and its subsequent return to the
atmosphere through evaporation.

Interception: - the process by which precipitation falls on vegetation surface (canopy), where it is
subjected to evapo-transpiration.

The amount of precipitation intercepted by plants varies with leaf type, canopy architecture,
wind speed, available radiation, temperature, and the humidity of the atmosphere.

Interception loss also depends on:

✓Vegetation type and stage of development (leaf area)

✓ Intensity, duration and amount of rainfall

Precipitation that is not intercepted can be influenced by the following processes:

Stem flow (Rs)- water reaching the ground surface by running down trunks and steams. It is the
process that directs precipitation down plant branches and stems. The redirection of water by this
process causes the ground area around the plant's stem to receive additional moisture. The
amount of stemflow is determined by leaf shape, stem and branch architecture. In general,
deciduous trees have more stemflow than coniferous vegetation.

Canopy drip - some plants have an architecture that directs rainfall or snowfall along the edge
of the plant canopy. This is especially true of coniferous vegetation. On the ground, canopy drip
creates areas with higher moisture content that are located in a narrow band at the edge of the
plant canopy.

Through fall (Rt)- describes the process of precipitation passing through the plant canopy. This
process is controlled by factors like: plant leaf and stem density, type of the precipitation,
intensity of the precipitation, and duration of the precipitation event. The amount of precipitation
passing through varies greatly with vegetation type.

Measure ment of Interception

𝑅𝑛=𝑅-𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑖=𝐸𝑐+𝐸1
𝑅=𝑅𝑡+𝑅𝑠 +𝐸𝑐
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐸1

Where,

Gross rainfall (R) - rainfall measured above the vegetation canopy or in the open

Litter inte rception loss (El)-water evaporating from the ground surface (usually including near
ground plants and leaf litter).

Total interception loss (Ei) - the sum of canopy and litter interception looses

Canopy interception loss (Ec) –water evaporating from the canopy

Net rainfall (Rn) - the gross rainfall minus total interception loss
  The most common method of measuring interception loss (I) in the field is to compute
the difference between the precipitation above the vegetation layer (P) and the net
precipitation below the vegetation canopy, comprising the through fall (T) and stemflow
(S), thus:
I = P – T – S ------ (Method-2)

Due to the difficulties of installing equipment underneath a vegetation canopy, this method
has been used more for forest vegetation than for lower-order covers.

Cannot be directly measured, but estimated using the above formulas but difficult because of:-

➢difficulties in accurately measuring rain fall

➢spatial variability of through flow

➢difficulty and expensiveness of measuring stem flow

Hydrological Importance of Interception

Interception process is important because it can help to reduce runoff and erosion
problems. Secondly, the net rainfall beneath a vegetation canopy is generally less than the
gross rainfall falling onto the top of the vegetation canopy. In some cases the interception
loss may be quite large and can have a significant impact on the water balance.

2.4. Evapotranspiration: Process and Measure ment

Definitions

Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state.
Evaporation can only occur when water is available. It also requires that the humidity of the
atmosphere be less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more
evaporation). The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the
evaporation of one gram of water requires 600 calories of heat energy.
Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata. Stomata are small
openings found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues. In most
plants, transpiration is a passive process largely controlled by the humid ity of the atmospheric
and the moisture content of the soil.
It is often difficult to distinguish between evaporation and transpiration. So we use a composite
term evapotranspiration.
 Evaporation from soils, water bodies, and plant interception and transpiration are
considered collectively as evapotranspiration (ET).

Factors Affecting Evapo-transpiration

The rate of evapo-transpiration at any instant from the Earth's surface is controlled by four
factors:
1. Energy availability
The more energy is available the greater the rate of evapo-transpiration. It takes about 600
calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas.
2. The humidity gradient away from the surface
The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become higher in drier
air.
3. The wind speed immediately above the surface
Many of us have observed that our gardens need more watering on windy days compared to calm
days when temperatures are similar. This fact occurs because wind increases the potential for
evapotranspiration.
4. Wate r availability
Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

A. Direct micro-meteorological measure ment

There are three main methods used to measure evaporation directly: the eddy fluctuation (or
correlation), aerodynamic profile, and Bowe n ratio methods. These are all micro- meteorological
measurement techniques and details on them can be found elsewhere.
The eddy fluctuation method measures the water vapor above a surface in conjunction with a
vertical wind speed and temperature profiles. In recent years this has become possible with hot
wire ane mometers and extremely fine thermistor heads for thermometers. One difficulty is that
you are necessarily measuring over a very small surface area and it may be difficult to scale up to
something of interest to catchment-scale hydrology.
The aerodynamic profile (or turbulent transfer) method is based on a detailed knowledge of the
energy balance over a surface. The fundamental idea is that by calculating the amount of energy
available for evaporation the actual evaporation rate can be determined. The measurements
required are changes in temperature and humidity giving vertical humidity gradients. To use this
method, it must be assumed that the atmosphere is neutral and stable, two conditions that are not
always applicable.
The Bowen ratio method is similar to the aerodynamic profile method but does not assume as
much about the atmospheric conditions. The Bowen ratio is the ratio of sensible heat to latent
heat and requires detailed measurement of net radiation, soil heat flux, temperature and humidity
gradient above a surface. These measurements need to be averaged over a 30- minute period to
allow the inherent assumptions to apply.
All of these micro- meteorological approaches to measuring evaporation use sophisticated
instruments that are difficult to leave in the open for long periods of time. In addition to this they
are restricted in their spatial scope (i.e., they only measure over a small area).

B. Indirect measurement (water balance techniques)

Evaporation pans
The most common method for the measurement of evaporation is using an evaporation pan.
This is a large pan of water with a water depth measuring instrument or weighing device
underneath that allows you to record how much water is lost through evaporation over a time
period. This technique is actually a manipulation of the water balance equation, hence the
terminology used here of a water balance technique. An evaporation pan is constructed from
impervious material and the water level is maintained below the top so that no seepage or
leakage occurs. This eliminates runoff (Q term) from the water balance. Therefore, it can be
assumed that any change in storage is related to either evaporative loss or precipitation gain.
E = ∆S – P
Lysimeters

A lysimeter takes the same approach to measurement as the evaporation pan, the fundamental
difference being that a lysimeter is filled with soil and vegetation as opposed to water. This
difference is important, as Et rather than Eo is being indirectly measured.

One major difference from an evaporation pan is that a lysimeter allows percolation through the
bottom, although the amount is measured. Percolation is necessary so that the lysimeter mimics
as closely as possible the soil surrounding it; without any it would fill up with water. In the same
manner as an evaporation pan it is necessary to measure the precipitation input immediately
adjacent to the lysimeter. Assuming that the only runoff (Q) is through percolation, the water
balance equation for a lysimeter is shown in equation.

E = ∆S – P – Q

Estimation of Evaporation

The difficulties in measuring evaporation using micro- meteorological instruments has led to
much effort being placed on estimating evaporation rather than trying to actually measure it.

I. Thornthwaite
Thornthwaite then derived an equation to provide evaporation estimates based on a series of
observed evaporation measurements (equation 3.6).

The a and b terms in this equation can be derived in the following ways. Term b is a correction
factor to account for unequal day length between months. Its value can be found by looking up
tables based on the latitude of your study site. Term a is calibrated as a cubic function from the I
term such as is shown in equation.

II. Penman
Penman was a British physicist who derived a theoretical model of evaporation. Penman‘s first
theoretical model was for open water evaporation
 , where an empirical relationship state that:

and Q* = net radiation (in evaporation equivalent units of mm/day)

∆ = rate of increase of the saturation vapour deficit with temperature (kPa/°C

δe = vapour pressure deficit of the air (kPa)

γ= psychrometric constant (≈ 0.063 kPa/°C)

u = wind speed at 2 m elevation (m/s)

2.5. Infiltration Processes

Infiltration refers to the movement of water into the soil layer. The rate of this movement is
called the infiltration rate. If rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, water will
accumulate on the surface and runoff will begin.
Movement of water into the soil is controlled by gravity, capillary action, and soil porosity. Of
these factors soil porosity is most important. A soil's porosity is controlled by its texture,
structure, and organic content. Coarse textured soils have larger pores and fissures than fine-
grained soils and therefore allow for more water flow. Pores and fissures found in soils can be
made larger through a number of factors that enhance internal soil structure.
The rate of infiltration normally declines rapidly during the early part of a rainstorm event and
reaches a constant value after several hours of rainfall. A number of factors are responsible for
this phenomenon, including:
(1) The filling of small pores on the soil surface with water reduces the ab ility of capillary
forces to actively move water into the soil.
(2) As the soil moistens, the micelle structure of the clay particles absorbs water causing them
to expand. This expansion reduces the size of soil pores.
(3) Raindrop impact breaks large soil clumps into smaller particles. These particles then clog
the soil surface pores and reduce the movement of water into the soil.
Measurement of Infiltration

Hydrograph analyses and infiltrometer studies are some of the commonly used methods for
determining infiltration capacity. Hydrograph is a graph which represents the changes in the
level of water with time. Estimates of infiltration based on hydrograph analyses have the
advantage over infiltrometers of relating more directly to prevailing conditions of precipitation
and field. They are however, not better than the precision with which rainfall and runoff are
measured. Of special importance in such studies is the areal variability of rainfall.
Infiltrometers are usually classified as rainfall stimulators or flooding devices. In the former,
artificial rainfall is simulated over a test plot and the infiltration is calculated from observations
of rainfall and runoff, with consideration given to depression storage and surface detention.
Flooding infiltrometers are usually rings or tubes inserted in the ground. Water is applied and
maintained at a constant level and observations are made of the rate of replenishment required. It
should be noted that several other methods for measuring infiltration have been developed and
are currently in use.
CHAPTER 3: GROUNDWATER

Definition of Groundwater
 Groundwater can be defined as water below Earth‘s surface.
 Groundwater is the part of the sub-surface water that fully saturates the pore spaces in
bedrock, regolith, or soil, and so occupies the saturated zone.
Ground water is the part of precipitation that enters the ground and percolates downward
through unconsolidated materials and openings in bedrock until it reaches the water table.
The water table is the surface below which all openings in the rock or unconsolidated materials
are filled with water. The water table is the surface below which all openings in the rock or
unconsolidated materials are filled with water. Water entering this zone of saturation is called
recharge. The movement of ground water is called base flow. When base flow, interflow and
lateral flow moves up a stream/ a spring develop.

Groundwater comes from precipitation. Precipitated water must filter down through the vadose
zone to reach the zone of saturation, where groundwater flow occurs. The rate of infiltration
is a function of soil type, rock type, antecedent water, and time. The vadose zone includes all
the material between the Earth‗s surface and the zone of saturation. Near the upper boundary
of the zone of saturation where water pressure equals atmospheric pressure, is the water
table. The capillary fringe is a layer of variable thickness that directly overlies the water
table. Water is drawn up into this layer by capillary action. The vadose zone has an important
environmental role in groundwater systems. As with water, surface pollutants must filter
through the vadose zone before entering the zone of saturation. The following diagram
shows the formation of groundwater (Figure 3.1).

 Areas in which the pore spaces are completely filled with water are
called the saturated zone.
 Above the saturated zone is an area in which the pore spaces are filled with air and
water called the unsaturated or vadose zone (Figure 3.1).
The distinction between saturated and unsaturated sub-surface zones is based on location
of the water table, which is found at the top of the saturated zone (Figure 3.1), where the
pore water pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.
The water-bearing soil or rock that is capable of yielding usable amounts of water is called an
aquifer. There are two major types of aquifers: confined and unconfined.
Confined aquifer: Confined aquifers have non-porous layers above and below the aquifer zone.
The non-porous layers hold water and restrict water movement. Such layers are referred to as
aquitards or aquicludes. Clay soils, shales, and non-fractured, weakly porous igneous and
metamorphic rocks are examples of aquitards. Sometimes a lens of non-porous material will be
found in material that is more permeable. Water percolating through the unsaturated zone will be
intercepted by this layer and will accumulate on top of the lens. This water is a perched aquifer.
 The zone of saturation is an unconfined aquifer, a water-bearing layer that is not confined
by an overlying impermeable layer. The upper limit of the water that collects in the zone
of saturation is the water table; it is the contact surface between the zones of saturation
and aeration (unsaturated or vadose zone).

Unconfined: An unconfined aquifer has an extensive water table open to recharge by percolation
from the surface. Unconfined aquifers are also called water table aquifers. The position of the
water table reflects the amount of water in storage and it moves up and down depending upon the
relative rates of recharge (input) and discharge (output). Precipitation is the main source of
natural recharge, but for some aquifers other types of recharges are important. An unconfined
aquifer does not have confining layers that retard water movement (Figure 3.2).

 An aquiclude is a body of rock that does not conduct water in usable amounts.
Ground-water supplies are obtained from aquifers, which are subsurface units of rock and
unconsolidated sediments capable of yielding water in usable quantities to wells and springs. The
hydrologic characteristics of aquifers and natural chemistry of ground water determine the
availability and suitability of ground-water resources for specific uses (Figure 3.3).
Importance of Underground Water

Groundwater contributes to the generation and regulation of stream flow in watersheds, and the
sustainability of many wetlands, ponds, and lakes.

1. Nearly 95% of rural residents rely on groundwater for their drinking supply.

2. About half of irrigated cropland uses groundwater.

3. Approximately one third of industrial water needs are fulfilled by using groundwater.

4. About 40% of river flow (on average) depends on groundwater.

Proble ms of Groundwate r Management

Groundwater is an important component of fresh water. However, sustained extraction of

groundwater resulted in drying of wells and reduction in water amount in streams and lakes,
decreasing of water quality, lowering of the water quality and subsidence of land.

Meanwhile, the management of groundwater as natural resource has received more and more
attention. Groundwater management has already taken some shape in several countries through
the implementation of legislatives and other regulatory measures with respect to groundwater
withdrawal and soil and groundwater protection.
Summary
 Groundwater can be defined as water below the earth surface.
 Groundwater is the largest potential source of freshwater in the hydrological cycle.
 Groundwater is fed by surplus water, which percolates downward from the zone of
capillary water as gravitational water.
 Water table depletion and contamination are some of the major challenges
affecting the use of groundwater resources.
CHAPTER FOUR: STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

Runoff‘ is that part of precipitation that appears in a drainage channel as surface flow in a
perennial or an intermittent form. It is that part of water, which can be used for engineering
purposes and hence is also known as yield of catchment. The yield from a catchment is generally
expressed in terms of volume, in a season or a year.

 Runoff, which is also known as stream flow, stream or river discharge, or catchment
yield, can simply be referred to as the movement of water over the Earth‘s surface.
 Runoff is often defined as the portion of rainfall, that runs over and under the soil surface
toward the stream

Runoff is a loose term that covers the movement of water to a channelized stream, after it has
reached the ground as precipitation. The movement can occur either on or below the surface and
at differing velocities. Once the water reaches a stream it moves towards the oceans in a
channelized form, the process referred to as stream flow or river flow. Stream flow is expressed
as discharge : the volume of water over a defined time period.

Runoff is expressed as the rate of flow during a specific period of flow, i.e., Q in time T and is
indirectly a volume over the period. Thus, the unit for runoff is million cubic meters (10 6 m3 or
million m3), or ha m (denoting 1- m depth of water over an area of 1 ha).

Thus 1 million m3 x 102 ha m

The runoff is also sometimes expressed in meters or millimeters as the depth of water spread
uniformly over the entire catchment. For instance, 90.0 mm yield from a catchment of 50 km2
50𝑥106𝑥90/100 = 4.5 million m3 or 450 ha m.

A continuous record of stream flow is called a hydrograph (see Figure 5.1).

Although we think of this as continuous measurement it is normally either an averaged flow over
a time period or a series of samples (e.g. hourly records). The unit for time on the x-axis may be:
hours, days, months. On the y-axis, the unit for discharge is m3/s.
Sources and Components of Runoff

The sources and components of runoff from a catchment area are as follows:

1) Direct Precipitation on the Stream Channel

 The contribution of precipitation falling directly on to water surfaces is normally small
simply because the perennial channel system occupies only a small proportion (1-2
percent) of the area of most catchments.

When the river is in floods, there will be a spread of flood water. The precipitation occurring
directly over this water surface contributes to the runoff without any abstractions there from.
However, this quantity is very small and normally neglected.

2) Surface Runoff / Overland flow

 Overland flow is a thin sheet of water that flows over the land surface

This is the major part of the runoff. The water quantity that reaches the stream from the overland
flow and is carried by the stream on its surface is the surface runoff. It is also known as quick
flow.

3) Inte rflow
 Underflow (subsurface flow) or interflow is the movement of water in the subsoil
laterally
All the water, which infiltrates into the ground, may not reach up to the groundwater table if it
meets a local impervious layer. This water may move laterally as per the slope of this impervious
local layer and may find an outlet into the stream. This component of runoff is known as
interflow.

 Alternative terms found in the literature include, Throughflow, subsurface stormflow,

storm seepage and secondary baseflow.
4) Groundwater Flow

The water that infiltrates may reach the groundwater storage if not obstructed by any impervious
layers in between. If the groundwater table level is higher than the water leve l in the stream or
the bed level of the stream when it is dry, then the water will flow from the groundwater storage
into the stream.

Speed of flow: overland flow> interflow> base flow/ground water flow.

Direct surface runoff = overland flow + interflo w

To total runoff = Overland flow + interflow + base flow

Factors Affecting Runoff

I. Precipitation

The runoff is clearly a function of precipitation, its intensity, its duration and its coverage. More
the intensity more will be the runoff. The infiltration rate reduces after some time; hence more
the duration, proportionately more will be the runoff. Similarly, more the area covered by the
storm, more will be the runoff.

II. Size and Shape of the Catchme nt Area

The size of catchment has a definite effect on the runoff. More the area, more will be the runoff.
So also, the shape will have a definite effect on the runoff. In case of a fan-shaped catchment
area, the base period of the resulting hydrograph will be less and thus more peak flow may be
expected.

II. Geographical Conditions

The nature of the soil, its permeability, has an effect on the infiltration rate and has indirect effect
on the runoff. Impervious rock outcrops will increase the runoff. Also, impervious sub-surface
layers at higher levels than groundwater table level inc rease the runoff.

III. Meteorological Conditions

The temperature has an effect on the evaporation and infiltration and may indirectly affect the
runoff. The barometric pressure, altitude and wind will not only affect the storm and its
movement, but may also affect the runoff.

IV. Drainage Net

The rainwater after meeting all abstractions, first flows through small rivulets and then flows to
bigger ones. The pattern of the various tributaries normally known as drainage net or drainage
pattern will affect drainage of the surface flow.
 V. Other Factors

(1) Cultivation in an area, (2) contour bunding, (3) ploughing, (4) deforestation, (5) urbanization
and so on has a direct effect on the runoff.

ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF

Runoff is that balance of rain water, which flows or runs over the natural ground surface after
losses by evaporation, interception and infiltration. The yield of a catchment (usually means
annual yield) is the net quantity of water available for storage, after all losses, for the purposes of
water resources utilization and planning, like irrigation, water supply, etc.

Maximum flood discharge is the discharge in times of flooding of the catchment area, i.e., when
the intensity of rainfall is greatest and the condition of the catchment regarding humidity are also
favorable for an appreciable runoff.

The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following methods:

a) Empirical formulae, curves and tables

b) Infiltration method

c) Rational method

d) Overland flow hydrograph

e) Unit hydrograph method

f) Coaxial Graphical Correlation and API

The above methods are discussed as follows:

i) Empirical formulae, curves and tables. Several empirical formulae, curves and tables relating
to the rainfall and runoff have been developed as follows:

Usually, R = aP + b

Sometimes, R = aPn
where R = runoff, P = rainfall, a, b, and n, are constants. The first equation gives a straight- line
plot on natural graph paper while the latter equation gives an exponential curve on natural graph
paper.

ii) Infiltration Method. By deducting the infiltration loss, i.e., the area under the infiltration
curves, from the total precipitation or by the use of infiltration indices, which are already
discussed. These methods are largely empirical and the derived values are applicable only when
the rainfall characteristics and the initial soil moisture conditions are identical to those for which
these are derived.

iii) Rational Method. A rational approach is to obtain the yield of a catchment by assuming a
suitable runoff coefficient.

Yield = CAP, where A = area of catchment, P = precipitation, C = runoff coefficient

The value of the runoff coefficient C varies depending upon the soil type, vegetation geology etc.
and the following Table given by Richards may be taken as a guide.

In the rational method, the drainage area is divided into a number of sub-areas and with the
known times of concentration for different subareas the runoff contribution from each area is
determined. The choice of the value of the runoff coefficient C for the different sub-areas is an
important factor in the runoff computation by this method. This method of dividing the area into
different zones by drawing lines of time contour, i.e., isochrones.
(iv) Overland Flow Hydrograph. Overland flow occurs as a thin sheet of water over the ground
surface (soon after a storm starts), joins a stream channel, and then flows in the channel to the
concentration point. Overland flow is relatively slow and is the dominant type of flow in the case
of very small areas such as air ports, municipal block areas and flow from broad surfaces into
storm drains and gutters.

Overland flow is essentially a uniform flow over the surface as developed by C.F. Izzard (1948).
The Reynolds numbers.

where V = velocity of flow

d = uniform depth of flow

ν = kinematic viscosity of water

q = discharge per unit width

(v) Unit Hydrograph Method. The hydrograph of direct surface discharge measured at the outlet
of drainage area, which produces a unit depth of direct runoff (i.e., a Pnet of 1 cm o ver the entire
area of the catchment) resulting from a unit storm of specified duration (called unit period) is
called a unit hydrograph of that duration. The unit hydrograph method was first proposed by
L.K. Sherman in 1932. The area under the hydrograph represents a direct runoff of 1 cm.
4.3. Stream Discharge Measurement

Discharge is defined as the rate of flow, i.e., volume flowing per unit time. The most satisfactory
determination of the runoff from a catchment is by measuring the discharge of the stream
draining it, which is termed as stream gauging. A gauging station is the place or section on a
stream where discharge measurements are made.
Some of the usual methods of stream gauging are given below:
Importance of Discharge Measure ment

All over the world, there is always a demand for surface water resource and hence it is essential
to assess the available water resource as accurately as possible. It can be assessed theoretically
by following some empirical formulae, but this will not be accurate. Even for the derivation of an
empirical formula, observed discharge data are required. The surface water resource can be
evaluated by measuring discharge in a stream continuously over a period. The surface water
resource available at a site can be evaluated by scanning the observed data. This will give more
realistic estimate and may involve less error.

Units of Discharge

The normal unit of discharge is m3 /s. The term Cumecs is also used instead of m3 /s. If the
discharge is small as in a laboratory, then the unit lit/s or cc/s is used. The discharge from a
specific catchment is sometimes expressed as Discharge Per Unit Catchment Area as m3 /s/km2 =
m/s, per unit area of the catchment.

Thus, a discharge of 1 mm/h from a catchment area of 25 km2 will be

 Objectives of Discharge Measure ment

The objectives of discharge measurement are as follows:

1. To assess the available surface water accurately from the catchment area of a project—may be
for irrigation, hydroelectricity generation, flood control or water supply
2. To study the relation between precipitation and runoff
3. To study the variation in runoff
4. To evaluate the maximum water level that may be reached in the case of a bridge or a culvert for
the largest possible flood by extrapolation from the observed stage-discharge record
5. To study the regeneration of water due to irrigation on the banks of the river

The Basic Principle

The basic principle followed in all the discharge measurement methods is the continuity equation

Q = A×V

Where, Q = Discharge in m3 /s

A = Area of cross section in m2 at right angles to the velocity of flow

V = Average velocity of flow in m/s

The two parameters A and V are measured and the discharge is calculated.

In recent years, some modern techniques are used so that the discharge flowing in a stream is
calculated without measuring the velocity and the area of flow.

Wate r Potential

Water potential is the volume of water at a site during a specific time, say, a year, a season or
even a month.
Units of Water Potential

The normal units of water potential are m3 or million m3 (106 m3 ), normally denoted by million
m3 or ha m (104 m3 ).

1 m3 /s a day = 86,400 m3 = 0.0864 million m3 = 8.64 ha m

The water potential from a catchment area is sometimes mentioned as m/km2 , i.e. the potential
per unit area of the catchment area. It means that so many metres of water depth are uniformly
spread over the entire catchment. If the water potential from a catchment area of 100 km2 is 2.00
m, the potential in usual volume terms will be:

2 × 100 × 106 = 200 × 106 m3

= 200 million m3
= 2 × 104 ha m
The Stream
A stream is that through which water flows naturally. When the stream is small, it is also called
runnel, brook, bourne, nalla or rivulet. A river is termed for a stream when the discharge is
comparatively more. Channel is a term also used for a river. Canal is a term normally used for a
man-made channel.
Measure ment of Discharge
The different methods followed to measure discharge in a stream are as follows:
• Area-slope method
• Area-velocity method
• Salt titration method
• Hydraulic structures Method
• Hydraulic model method
• Stream Gauging Network
However, in spite of the development in different sciences and in instrumentation, it is still not
possible to measure the discharge in a stream accurately.
 AREA-SLOPE METHOD

The basic principle followed in this method is that the area of flow is measured and the velocity
of flow is evaluated by using the Manning‘s formula. For this purpose, the water surface slope is
observed and the Manning‘s ‗n‘ is assumed. Then the continuity equation, Q = A × V is used.

where, Q = Discharge in m3 /s

A = Area of cross section in m2 at right angles to the velocity of flow

V = Velocity of flow in m/s

The procedure to be followed is as follows:

1. Select two cross sections of the stream at a distance of about 150 m. For the selection of this
reach, the criteria as explained in Section 9.3.1 are followed.

It is assumed that steady uniform flow exists between these two cross sections.

2. Observe the depths of flow at these two cross sections as well as the water surface level
accurately between these two cross sections.
3. Find the area of flow and also the wetted perimeter at these two cross sections from the
predetermined stage vs area and stage vs wetted perimeter curves.
4. Find the mean area of flow Am and the mean wetted perimeter Wp.
5. From the water levels at the two cross sections, find accurately S, i.e. the slope of the water
surface. (This will be the slope of energy also, since ‗steady uniform flow‘ is assumed between
these two cross sections.)
6. Calculate the mean hydraulic radius Rm as

7. Assume a suitable value of the Manning‘s n for the reach of the stream between these two cross
sections.
8. Calculate the average velocity of flow using the Manning‘s formula as

where, Vm = Average velocity of flow in m/s

Rm = Mean hydraulic radius thus calculated in m

S = Energy slope

n = Assumed value of Manning‘s coefficient

9. Calculate the discharge as

Q = Vm × Am

The discharge is calculated by using the area and the slope of the water surface and hence it is
known as Area-slope Method. To achieve accuracy, the procedure may be repeated and the
average value of discharge of all the trials may be finalized.

Merits and Demerits of the Area-Slope Method

The merits of the area-slope method are as follows:

1. This method is based on only two or three observations at site.

2. Time required to complete the procedure as compared to other methods is less.
3. A team of two or three observers is adequate to conduct the test.

The demerits of the area-slope method are as follows:

1. The assumed value of n may not be very correct and may lead to erroneous result.
2. The method is based on the assumption that ‗steady uniform flow‘ exists between the two cross
sections. This may not be correct, since during flood, the flow in a river is neither steady nor
uniform.
3. It is very difficult to observe the water surface levels accurately, since there are oscillations in
the water surface.
 Example 9.2

While taking discharge observations on a stream by area-slope method, the following

observations were taken:

1. Distance between two observation sections of the stream = 250 m

2. Depth of flow at the u/s cross section A = 3.50 m
3. Depth of flow at the d/s cross section B = 3.50 m
4. Water level at the u/s cross section A = 236.62 m
5. Water level at the d/s cross section B = 236.37 m
6. Manning‘s coefficient (assumed) = 0.030

Find the discharge flowing in the stream.

Solution:

From the graphs of depth vs area of cross section and depth vs wetted perimeter, the area of cross
section and the wetted perimeter at both A and B were evaluated as follows:

CROSS SECTION AREA (M 2 ) WETTED PERIMETER

(M)

A 110 76.2

B 108 75.8
b) Area-Velocity Method
In this method also the basic continuity equation, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑥𝑉, is used to estimate the discharge
flowing in a stream. The values of A and V are assessed separately and then the discharge is
calculated.
Area of Flow
The area of flow is assessed in a similar way as that for area–slope method discussed earlier.
Velocity of Flow
The velocity of flow is not uniform over the depth. It is very low (theoretically zero) at the
bottom. It increases with the depth. However, it slightly reduces at the surface.

c) Salt Titration Method

In this method, a concentrated solution of a salt or a chemical in water is added to a stream at a

constant rate q and is allowed to mix with the flow of the stream. A sample of the mixed flow is
collected at a location such that thorough mixing is achieved. If necessary artificial means may
be followed for thorough mixing. The sample thus collected is tested in the laboratory and the
concentration is determined accurately.

The discharge Q in the stream can be calculated from the following equation:

n1 × q + n0 × Q = n2 (Q + q)

Where, Q = Discharge in the stream in m3 /s

q = Discharge of the concentrated salt/chemical in m3 /s

n = Normality of the concentrated salt/chemical before mixing

n2 = Normality of the sample collected after mixing

n0 = Normality of water in the stream before mixing

HYDRAULIC MODEL METHOD

A three-dimensional composite model of the stream to a suitable scale may be constructed in the
laboratory. By running the model, a stage-discharge curve may be obtained for the cross section
where the discharge in the prototype is required. This stage-discharge curve may be used for the
prototype by using the discharge scale. This curve may be extrapolated if required.

Before using the stage-discharge curve observed on the model, it should be seen that the model is
proved to prototype conditions.

4.4 Frequency Analysis and Hydrograph Analysis

Frequency: ―The frequency is the number of time that a given magnitude floods may occur in a
given period. Historical stemflow records may be used directly to estimate discharges at various
frequencies. If adequate stemflow records exist and the watershed has remained relatively
unchanged during the course of that record, then those observed stemflow are probably the best
indicator of the potential flood responses of the watershed in its present condition.
Significant features of the flood-frequency method described as follows:
1. It is concerned with momentary peak discharges.
2. Recurrence intervals are computed by the formula

3. Curves are fitted graphically.

4. The mean annual flood is defined as the flood having a recurrence interval of 2.33 years.
5. A means is provided for computing flood frequencies of natural flow on any stream, gagged or
un-gagged, in a region.

4.5 Floods
A ―flood‖ is an unusual high-water state in which water overflows its natural or artificial banks
onto normally dry adjacent land. Floods are normal and natural occurrences which we must
adapt ourselves to live with at all times. Floods may happen gradually or very suddenly without
any warning.

Features of Flood
The features of flood are mentioned as follows:
• When the river is in flood, normally the maximum discharge in m3/s it carries, is the
consideration of the flood.
• In some cases, the maximum level reached by the flood water is the consideration.
• The spread of water, i.e., the area inundated during the flood is also a consideration.
• The duration of the high- water spread may be a consideration. However, all these
considerations are interdependent.

Causes of Flooding
The causes of floods may vary from a rural area to an urban area but some of the major ones are:
 Heavy rainfall
 Deforestation of the catchment basin
 Heavy siltation of the river bed which reduces the water carrying capacity of the river
way
 Landslides and mudflow by blocking the flow of the stream
 Blockage of urban drains
 Bursting of reservoirs as a result of dam failure

• Failure of the flood protection dikes, sea walls, levees or dam failures
• Soil erosion generating material that clogs drainage system and inlets
• Inadequate street cleaning practice that clogs street inlets
• High tides may flood coastal areas, or seas be driven inland by windstorms.
• Tsunamis are caused by underwater earthquakes or eruptions
Impacts of Flooding
 people can be injured or killed by flooding
 floodwater is often contaminated with sewage, which can lead to illness and affect clean
drinking water
  power supplies can be disrupted
 businesses can be forced to shut down
 services such as hospitals and schools can close
 transport networks can be affected, such as flood damage to bridges, railways and roads
 homes and properties can be flooded
 people may have to move out of their properties until flood damage is repaired
 possessions can be damaged and washed away
Flooding has a range of impacts on the environment including:
 wildlife habitats can be destroyed by floodwater
 contaminated floodwater can pollute rivers and habitats
 silt and sediment can destroy crops on farms
 river banks and natural levees can be destroyed as rivers reach bank full capacity
 rivers can be widened and deposition can increase downstream
 trees can be uprooted by high- velocity water flow
 plants that survive the initial flood may die due to being inundated with water

Flood Return Frequency Analysis

Flood frequency analysis is an important activity in hydrology. The sizing of bridges, culverts,
and other facilities, the design capacities of levees, spillways, and other control structures, and
the delineation of floodplains depend upon the estimated magnitude of various flood flows that
serve as design values.
The number of times a flood of a given magnitude can be expected to occur on average over a
long period of time. Frequency analysis is the estimation of peak discharges for various
recurrence intervals. Another way to express frequency uses probability to characterize flood
flow with a probability of being equaled or exceeded in any year. The exceedance probability is
one divided by the return interval, expressed as a percent.
Flood Control

Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood
waters. Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These methods
include planting vegetation to retain extra water, terracing hillsid es to slow flow downhill, and
the construction of floodways (man- made channels to divert floodwater). Other techniques
include the construction of levees, dikes, dam; reservoirs or retention ponds to hold extra water
during times of flooding.
Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed wholly or partially to aid in flood
protection and control. In many countries, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed.
Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from overflowing
their banks. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable
inflatable tubes are used.

Other methods of flood control include the stoppage of further developments of flood plains;
proper channelization of drainage systems; discourage indiscriminate to disposal of waste
(especially rubber bags and cans), which are not biodegradable and have the capacity to block
drainage systems, leading to flooding.
 CHAPTER FIVE: PROBLEMS IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING,
DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Objectives
At the end of this unit, you are expected to: -

✓ Define water pollution

✓ Identify sources and causes of water pollution

✓ Explain Water Resources Conservation and Management

✓ Describe Integrated Water Resource Management

5.1 Wate r Pollution

Wate r pollution is the contamination of water sources by substances which make the water
unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities.
 Water pollution refers to degradation of water quality.

 A pollutant is any biological, physical or chemical substance that in

identifiable excess is known to be harmful to other desirable living organisms.
  Water pollutants include chemical contamination from waste sites, chemical
wastes from industrial discharges, heavy metals such as mercury and lead, sewage
waste, food processing waste, fertilizers and pesticides.

5.1.1 Sources of Water Pollution

i) Point sources

This type of pollutant is discharged at a specific source such as a leaking pipe or a holding tank
with a hole in it, polluted water leaving a factory, or garbage being dumped into a river. These
sources of pollution are easy to identify because the cause of the pollution can be observed.

ii) Non-point sources/dispersed

A dispersed (or nonpoint) source is a very broad, unconfined area from which a variety of
pollutants enter the water body. Non-point sources of water pollution affects a water body
from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or
wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Non-point pollution may involve a broad range of
pollutants usually at lower amounts than the point sources. This type of pollution is
difficult to identify and may come from pesticides, fertilizers, or automobile fluids
washed off the ground by a storm.

5.1.2 Causes of Water Pollution

The most common causes of water pollution are as follows:

A. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of wastes which contains toxic chemicals
and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our environment. They
contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and many other harmful
chemicals.

B. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household is
chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful
bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are known as a
common water pollutant; the sewers of cities house several pathogens and thereby diseases.
C. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other
minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contain harmful
chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which may
result in health problems.

D. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper, aluminum,
rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some countries.

E. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the
sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as
fish, birds and sea otters.

F. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial amount
of ash in the atmosphere.

G. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers
to protect crops from insects and bacteria.

H. Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the
underground water and make it unfit for the people to drink.

I. Global warming: An increase in earth‗s temperature due to greenhouse effect results in global
warming.

J. Radioactive waste: Nuclear waste can have serious environmental hazards if not disposed off
properly. Few major accidents have already taken place in Russia and Japan.

K. Urban development: As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in
increased use of fertilizers to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in
construction activities, inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more garbage is pr
L. Leakage from the landfills: When it rains, the landfills may leak and the leaking landfills
can pollute the underground water with large variety of contaminants.

M. Animal waste: The waste produce produced by animals is washed away into the rivers when
it rains.
N. Unde rground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products through
underground pipes is well known. Accidental leakage may happen anytime and may cause
damage to environment and result in soil erosion.

Effects of Pollution

Pollutants in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical chemistry or
sensory changes. Many of the chemical substances are toxic.

Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of
water‘s physical chemistry includes acidity, electrical conductivity, temperature, and
eutrophication.

Eutrophication is the fertilisation of surface water by nutrients that were previously

scarce. Even many of the municipal water supplies in developed countries can present health
risks.
Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than
14,000 people daily.

5.2. Wate r Resources Conservation and Manage ment

Water conservation refers to reducing use of water; water recycling specifically means
reclamation of water (e.g., ―grey water,‖ treated wastewater or storm water) for reuse. Because
of the strong demonstrated link between water and energy, reducing water use equals reducing
energy use.

Water-saving management practices and technology for the home, agriculture, and industry can
enhance the beneficial use of water. For example, using grey water (from sinks and appliances)to
flush toilets and water plants; irrigating crops with reclaimed water; achieving higher efficiency
in industrial processes; and desalinating seawater can all stretch valuable water supplies.

Wate r Resources Management (WRM) is the process of planning, developing, and managing
water resources, in terms of both water quantity and quality, across all water uses. It includes the
 institutions, infrastructure, incentives, and information systems that support and guide water
management.

What do you mean by sustainable management of water resources?

Sustainable water manage ment means using water in a way that meets current, ecological,
social, and economic needs without compromising the ability to meet those needs in the future.
Here are some water conservation methods where major savings can be done, without much
hassles:
 Rainwater harvesting.

 Water metering.

 Grey water recycling.

 Pressure reducing valves.

 Water efficient bathroom accessories.

5.3. Integrated Wate r Resource Management

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a process that promotes the coordinated
development and manage ment of wate r, land and related resources in order to maximize
economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of
vital ecosystems.

Water resources are tapped by multiple users for a variety of purpose. Therefore, effective water
management requires a systems approach, with comprehensive integration of a number of
factors. In particular, attention must be given to both water quality and quantity. Conjunctive
management of groundwater and surface water resources is required and the water needs to be
appropriately allocated to the various users.

Human needs must be balanced with ecosystem needs, economic development with
environmental protection. Efforts have to be made toward optimizing the mix of demand
management programmes, new facilities construction, and improved operations and maintenance
of existing facilities. Water- management approaches need to incorporate ongoing advances in
water supply technologies such as desalination processes and efficient irrigation techniques –and
the technology chosen have to be appropriate for the particular country, region, and local culture.
In addition, computer technology can be used to assist in data collection, analysis, systems
modeling and management.

Figure 5.1. Stages in IWRM planning and implementation

Water management means knowing or determining how much water is sufficient for various
activities like;

 Agriculture
 Industry
 Consumption
 Environmental

According to Wurbs (2003), the development and management of water resources include
the following key dimensions.
  Facilities Provision
 Demand Management
 Desalination
 Water Allocation
 Integrated Water Management.

1. Facilities Provision

Water supply facilities include wells, dams and storage reservoirs, pipelines and pump
station, water treatment plants, municipal distribution pipe network, wastewater collection
and treatment systems, and irrigation equipment. Dams, reservoirs, and associated
structures play a key role in water supply and multipurpose water management.

2. Demand –oriented water management- are options to reduce the demand or consumption.

 Quota for every user (effective)

 Tariffs as strategy (progressive tariff)

3. Desalination

Removing dissolved salts from ocean water or brackish (slightly salty) gro undwater is an
appealing way to increase freshwater supplies because of the huge volume of, seawater
adjacent to coastal cities.

4. Wate r Allocation

Water rights systems and interstate and international agreements allocating water resources are
becoming increasingly important. Around the world, 261 river basins are shared by two or more
countries, often leading to disputes and conflicts related to water supply. As a result, methods of
cooperation and conflict mitigation need to be brought into play.

5. Integrated Wate r Management

Water resources are tapped by multiple users for a variety of purpose. Therefore, effective
water management requires a systems approach, with comprehensive integration of a
number of factors.
Exercises

A water budget equation connects the elements of the hydrological cycle. For example, for a
given watershed a water budget equation for time step of t is given by

Pt - SRt - Gt- Et - Tt = St (1.1)

Where Pt = rainfall (mm)

SRt = Surface runoff (mm)

Gt = groundwater flow (mm)

Et = Evaporation (mm)

Tt = Transpiration (mm)

St = Change in storage (mm)

Note that if t is a year, it may be assumed for preliminary analysis that what is
infiltrated will be shown up in the groundwater flow, and thus the infiltration
term may not be considered in Eq. (1.1) and the change in storage term may be
zero.

Example 1.1 In a given year, a watershed with a drainage area of 215 km2 received 900 mm of
rainfall. The average flow rate measured at the outlet of the watershed was 3.1 m3/s. Estimate
the amount of water lost due to the combined effects of evaporation and transpiration. Assume
the annual change in storage is zero.

Solution:
The equivalent runoff depth in mm over the watershed is calculated by dividing the
annual volume of runoff by the watershed area.

Runoff depth = (3.1 * 86400 s/day * 365 d/year * 1000mm/m ) / (215 km2 * 106 m2 /km2 )

Then using Eq.(1.1): Pt - (Rt + Gt) - Et - Tt = St, we estimate (Et + Tt )

900 mm - (3.1 * 86400 s/day * 365 d/year * 1000mm/m ) / (215 km2 * 10 6 m2 /km2 ) - (Et + Tt )
= 0.

(Et + Tt ) = 900 - 454.7 = 445.3 mm

445.3 mm of rainfall is consumed annually by evaporation and transpiration over the

whole watershed.

Some of the methods of estimating missing rainfall values are

1. Station-Average Method
2. Normal-Ratio Method
3. Quadrant Method

4. Regression method
 Station-Average Method
• This method is often used in flat areas with very less rainfall variability
Normal-Ratio Method
 MARKED ASSIGNMENT

☹If you have indeed studied this course, you will be assessed by the

following questions (Please only attempt on any of 8 questions and submit

your assignment in hard copy)

 As a newly appointed officer of water resources, what are the measures you will put in
place to ensure effective and efficient deve lopment and management of water resources
in Ethiopia?
 Examine the causes, impacts of flooding and control measures.
 Identify the various sources of runoff to a stream channel.
 Differentiate between evaporation and transpiration.
 State the factors that affect the rate of infiltration.
 Identify the factors driving the evaporation process.
 Of what importance is interception? Can you account for the factors that influence the
rate of interception?
 Identify the three major types of precipitation and state their modes of formation
 Identify the various forms of water pollution.
 Discuss the formation of groundwater.
 Identify the problems of groundwater management.
 Examine the various use of water in the society.
 Identify and discuss the various processes in the hydrologic cycle.