Chapter 3

Assembly Level Machine Organization

3.1 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

CPU/PROCESSOR
# Central Processing Unit (CPU), is contained on a single integrated circuit
called a processor (micro) that is located on the motherboard.
# An integrated circuit, also called chip or an IC, is a complete electronic
circuit that has been etched on a small slice of nonconducting material
such as silicon.
# The CPU contains two unit: Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU).
# CPU is the brain of the computer. Its function is to execute programs
stored in the main memory by fetching their instructions, Decoding
(translating the program instruction into the commands that computer can
process), executing them one after another and then store back into main
memory.

CU ALU
Decode
Execute

Store
Fetch

MAIN MEMORY

# CU interprets and controls the execution of instructions. CU issues the

signals necessary to control operations of the microprocessor. CU also
responsible of sequencing the actions, where it controls what registers and
devices are to be enabled, and when they are to function. The control is
achieved through a structure called the control bus (Carry control signal).
# Bus is parallel electrical line or paths connecting a source to a destination.
It is a common path used for specific exchange of data between various
block functions. Buses can be on printed circuit boards, or parallel-
connected wires in a ribbon cable, or conductive paths etched on the
microprocessor chip.
# ALU carries out arithmetic and logic operations. In short ALU performs:
 Arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction. Some ALU’s
have division and multiplication functions as well.
 All logic operations such as AND, OR, XOR, etc

# ALU components are the comparator, logic registers, and shifter.

 Comparator compares the magnitude of two numbers placed in the
buffer registers. It works in conjunction with status registers to display
result of the comparison.
 Logic registers perform the logic operations.
 Shifter will move the content of the register one or more positions to the
left or right. It is also use to perform rotate operation. Operation of ALU
is controlled by the control signal to facilitate the sequencing and
operation of each individual block.

REGISTER

# Register is a single, permanent storage location within CPU used for

particular, defined purpose. It holds binary value temporarily for storage ,
for manipulation, and/or for simple calculation. Register is manipulated
directly by control unit (CU) during execution of instruction.
# Inside the processor, there are also various types of registers. Those are
data registers, address registers and status registers.
# General-purpose register or Accumulators are considered to be part of the
arithmetic/logic unit. It holds the data that are used for arithmetic
operation, as well as the results. In most computers, these register are
also used to transfer data between different memory locations, and
between I/O and memory.
# In today microprocessors, user can decide whether to perform arithmetic
operation either with the accumulator or on two locations outside the
microprocessor. Arithmetic operations performed with the accumulator are
generally faster than operations done in other registers or memory.

# The control unit contains several important registers:

 Program Counter (PC) is 16 bits wide, because it must be able to hold
and address. The address in the program counter register is always the
address of the next instruction to be executed. Since programs are
normally carried out sequentially, the counter portion of the device
generates sequential address numbers.
 Instruction register (IR) holds the actual instruction currently being
executed by the computer.
 Memory Address Registers(MAR) are used for addressing purposes – to
holds the address of a memory location that are currently used to store
the data. Address registers are usually at least 16 bits wide. It is
necessary to provide numbers large enough to access vast numbers of
memory locations. Several types of address registers are index
registers, page registers, and stack registers.
 Memory Data Register(MDR), sometimes known as the memory Buffer
Register, will hold a data value that is being stored to or retrieved from
the memory location currently addressed by the memory address
register.
# Although memory data register and memory address register are part of
CPU, operationally these two registers are more closely associated with
memory itself.
# The control unit will also contain several 1-bit register, sometimes known
as flags, that are used to allow the computer to keep track of special
condition such as arithmetic carry and overflow, power failure, and internal
computer error. Usually, several flags are grouped into one or more status
registers. Each bit in the 8-bit status register has a specific meaning in
relation to the result in the ALU.
# Input/Output register – to hold the I/O data and an I/O address that
addresses a particular I/O devices.

# Most register supports 4 types of operations:

 Register can be loaded with values from other locations, in particular
from other registers or from memory locations. This operation destroys
the previous value stored in the destination register, but the source
register or memory location remains unchanged.
 Data from another location can be added to or subtracted from a register,
leaving the sum or difference in the register.
 Data in a register can be shifted or rotated to the left or right by one or
more bits. This operation is important in the implementation of
multiplication and division.
 The value of data in a register can be tested for certain conditions, such
as zero, positive, negative, or too large to fit in the register.

Besides that register can also be cleared or set, and the value in a register
can be inverted, incremented or decremented.

SYSTEM CLOCK
# Microprocessor must perform all operation under a very strict timing
sequence. The control unit utilizes the system clock to synchronize, or
control the timing of all computer operations. The system clock generates
electronic pulses (ticks) at a fixed rates and measured in megahertz (MHz-
One megahertz is equal to one million pulses per second). These ticks are
called cycle
# An ‘instruction cycle’ beginning when the address for retrieving an
instruction from memory is placed on the address bus for fetch, and
ending when the execution phase is complete.
CSC159 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION NAME:
DEC 2004 – MAR 2005

EXERCISE 2

1. Name the main 3 parts of a computer.

_________________
2. What is an ALU. Describe the components of ALU.
__________________
3. What is the purpose of ALU?
_________________
4. Describe the function of accumulator.
__________________
5. What are the functions of data register?
_________________
6. Explain why we need to have instruction decoder and program counter?
_______________________
7. What is the purpose of having flag registers?
________________________
8. Which part of the microprocessor holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed?
__________________