Absorption Cycle

- Vapour can be withdrawn from an evaporator by absorption into a

liquid.

Adiabatic Compression
- a process in which the heat of compression raises the enthalpy of
the gas

Adiabatic process
- there is no heat transfer involved in a process

Air Cycle
- Air cycle refrigeration works on the reverse Brayton or Joule cycle.
Air is com-pressed and then heat removed.

Air-cooled Condenser
- consists of a plain tube containing the refrigerant, placed in still air
and relying on natural air circulation

- An example is the condenser of the domestic refrigerator, which

may also have some secondary surface in the form of supporting
and spacer wires.

Azeotropic Mixtures
- mixture consists of two substances having different properties but
behaving as a single substance.

Boiling Point
- Temperature at which a liquid boils. Not constant but varies with
the pressure.

Boyle’s Law
- states that, for an ideal gas, the product of pressure and volume at
constant temperature is constant

Carnot refrigeration
cycle - a theoretical model that is useful for understanding a refrigeration
cycle

- a model cycle for a heat engine where the addition of heat energy
to the engine produces work
 - known as the reversed Carnot cycle

Cascade Cycle
- has two separate refrigeration systems, one acting as a condenser
to the other.

Charles Law
- states that, for an ideal gas, the volume at constant pressure is
proportional to the absolute temperature

Cold
- absence of heat

Compressor
Refrigerant high reliability, • long service life, • easy maintenance, • easy
Requirement capacity control, • quiet operation, • compactness, and • cost
effectiveness

Compressors
- are mechanical devices that compresses gases; it is widely used in
industries and has various applications

- is to pump the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator so that the

desired temperature and pressure can be maintained in the
evaporator

- function is to increase the pressure of the refrigerant vapor through

the process of compression, and simultaneously increase the
temperature of the refrigerant vapor

- are expected to meet the ff:

• high reliability,
• long service life,
• easy maintenance,
• easy capacity control,
• quiet operation,
• compactness, and
• cost effectiveness.

Condenser
- to accept the hot, high-pressure gas from the compressor and cool
it to remove first the superheat and then the latent heat, so that the
refrigerant will condense back to a liquid
 - the liquid is usually slightly subcooled

- in nearly all cases, the cooling medium will be air or water

- used to reject heat from a refrigeration system

constant-pressure
specific heat (cp) - if the process takes place at constant pressure (e.g., heating or
cooling a gas in a piston-cylinder device).

constant-volume
specific heat (cv ) - if the process takes place at constant volume (e.g., heating or
cooling a gas in a rigid tank).

Conduction
- direct from one body touching the other, or through a continuous
mass

- is the transfer of heat through matter (i.e., solids, liquids, or gases)

without bulk motion of the matter.

Convection
- by means of a heat-carrying fluid moving between one and the
other

- it is the transfer of heat between two bodies by currents of moving

gas or fluid.

Coefficient of
Performance (COP) - also known as the refrigeration efficiency

- defined as the heat extracted divided by the work input

Cooling Towers
- are like evaporative condensers, working on the principle of cooling
by evaporating water into a moving air stream

- the effectiveness of this evaporative cooling process depends upon

the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the unit, the volume of
airflow, and the efficiency of the air or water interface

- are essentially large evaporative coolers where the cooled water is

 circulated to a remote shell and tube refrigerant condenser

Cryogenics - the science of low temperature

Dalton’s Law
- of partial pressures considers a mixture of two or more gases, and
states that the total pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum of
the individual pressures, if each gas separately occupied the space

Displacement - causes movement by trapping a fixed amount of air then forcing

Compressors (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe

Dry Cooler - if it vaporizes inside the tubes the evaporator

Dynamic Compressors - is a continuous flow compressor is characterized by rotating

impeller to add velocity and thus pressure to fluid

Energy - capacity for doing work.

Enthalpy - is the sum of its internal energy and flow work

- H = U + pV
- may be expressed as a total above absolute zero, or any other
base which is convenient.

Entropy - the state of disorder, randomness of the property of a material

- is a measure of randomness or disorder of a system

Evaporator - is to receive low-pressure, low- temperature fluid from the

expansion valve and to bring it in close thermal contact with the load

Evaporative
Condenser - the mass flow of water over the condenser tubes must be enough
to ensure wetting of the tube surface and will be of the order of
80–160 times the quantity evaporated

- the mass flow of air must be sufficient to carry away the water
vapor formed, and a compromise must be reached with expected
variations in ambient conditions

Expansion
- is a constant enthalpy process.

Expansion Valves
- is to control the flow of refrigerant from the high-pressure
 condensing side of the system into the low-pressure evaporator.

First Law of
Thermodynamics - thermodynamics is the science of energy and entropy

- thermodynamics is experimental observation.

- defined as the law of conservation of energy, and it states that

energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

Flooded Cooler
- if the refrigerant vaporizes on the outside surface of the tubes the
evaporator

Halocarbons
- contain one or more of the three halogens – chlorine, fluorine, or
bromine – and are widely used in refrigeration and air-conditioning
systems as refrigerants

Heat - is a form of energy and is commonly generated from chemical

sources

- is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by

mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter

- always requires a difference in temperature for its transfer

Heat Pump
- the same device as an evaporator

- is to transfer heat to a heated space to keep it at a desired high

temperature (TH)

Heat Transfer
- the definitive experiment which showed that heat is a form of
energy convertible into other forms was carried out by the Scottish
physicist James Joule

- takes place when a temperature difference exists within a medium

or between different media

- igher temperature differences provide higher heat-transfer rates

Ideal Cycle
- Reversed Carnot Cycle

- The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is

cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then
throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat
from the refrigerated space.

Ideal Gases
- gases such as air and hydrogen can often be treated as ideal
gases particularly for temperatures much higher than their critical
temperatures and for pressures much lower than their saturation
pressures at given temperatures

Jacob Perkins
- the first designers of refrigeration machines, 1834

Hydrocarbons
- mainly consist of carbon and hydrogen

- include methane, ethane, propane, cyclopropane, butane, and

cyclopentane; highly flammable

Latent Heat
- if there is no change of temperature but a change of state (solid to
liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa).

- there is change in state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa)

- energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its

physical state (phase) that occurs without changing its temperature

Liquid Coolers
- Shell and tube type heat exchangers are the more common form of
evaporation units for water cooling and chilling applications. These
are utilized to cool liquids, which can be used as the secondary
refrigerant or to cool the final products directly.

Magnetic Refrigeration
- Magnetic refrigeration depends on what is known as the
magnetocaloric effect , which is the temperature change observed
when certain magnetic materials are exposed to a change in
magnetic field.
Mass Transfer
- The mass entering a system carries energy with it and the energy
of the system increases.

- The mass leaving a system decreases the energy content of the

system.

- When a fluid flows into a system at a mass flow rate of m (kg/s),

the rate of energy entering is equal to mass times enthalpy mh (kW).

Nonazeotropic
Mixtures - Is a fluid consisting of multiple components of different volatiles
that, when used in refrigeration cycles, change composition during
evaporation (boiling) or condensation. Recently, nonazeotropic
mixtures have been called zeotropic mixtures or blends.

Radiation - mainly by infrared waves (but also in the visible band,e.g. solar
radiation), which are independent of contact or an intermediate fluid

- Is a process where heat waves are emitted that may be absorbed,

reflected, or transmitted through a colder body. Sun heats the earth
by electromagnetic waves. Hot bodies emit heat waves.

Refrigeration
- the process of removing heat

- is the action of cooling, and in practice this requires removal of

heat and discarding it at a higher temperature

- is therefore the science of moving heat from low temperature to

high temperature

- maintaining a space cooler than the surrounding

- the process that involves the transfer of heat from a low

temperature space to a higher temperature space

Refrigeration Systems
- is to remove the heat from a low-level temperature medium (heat
source) and to transfer this heat to a higher level temperature
medium (heat sink)

Refrigerants
- are well known as the fluids absorbing heat during evaporation
 - provide a cooling effect during the phase change from liquid to
vapor, are commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat
pump systems, as well as process systems

Refrigerant Classes A - non toxic

B - toxic

1 - no flammability

2L - very low/lesser flammability (hard to ignite, slow burning)

2 - low flammability

3 - high flammability

Refrigerant - which are known as the heart of the vapor-compression

compressors refrigeration systems

Refrigerator - Is a device used to transfer heat from a low- to a high-temperature

medium. They are cyclic devices.

- a device having a primary objective is to cool the lower

temperature space

- is to absorb heat from a cooled space to keep it at a desired low

temperature

Saturation Curve - Defines the boundary of pure liquid and pure gas, or vapour. In the
region marked vapour, the fluid is superheated vapour.

Second Law of - refers to the inefficiencies of practical thermodynamic systems and

Thermodynamics indicates that it is impossible to have 100% efficiency in heat to work
conversion

Shaft work - Mechanical energy used to drive a mechanism such as a pump,

compressor, or turbine. Flow work is the energy transferred into a
system by fluid flowing into, or out of, the system.

Specific Enthalpy a measure of the heat energy per unit mass of a substance, usually
expressed in kJ/kg, as a function of cp dT
Specific Entropy - a property resulting from the second law of thermodynamics (SLT)

- the heat added to a substance to the absolute temperature at

which it was added and is a measure of the molecular disorder of a
substance at a given state

- unit of entropy is kJ/K and the unit of specific entropy is kJ/kg · K.

Sensible Heat - there’s a change in enthalpy

- can be sensed as a change in temperature

Specific Heats - the energy required to change (to raise or to drop) the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance by a unit temperature difference

- its unit is kJ/kg · K or kJ/kg · ◦C

Specific Internal - represents the molecular state type of energy and is a measure of
Energy the energy of a simple system in equilibrium as a function of cv dT

Stirling Cycle - is an ingenious gas cycle which uses heat transferred from
the gas falling in temperature to provide that for the gas rising in
temperature

Superheated vapor
- is the saturated vapor to which additional heat has been added,
raising the temperature above the boiling point

Thermodynamic
Tables - first published in 1936 as steam tables by Keenan and Keyes, and
later were revised and republished in 1969 and 1978

- in literature they are also called either steam tables or vapor tables

Thermostatic
Expansion Valves - The thermostatic expansion valves are essentially reducing valves
between the high-pressure side and the low-pressure side of the
system.

- Are the most widely used devices, automatically control the

liquid-refrigerant flow to the evaporator at a rate that matches the
system capacity to the actual load.

- They operate by sensing the temperature of the superheated

refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator.
Two main types of
Compressors - Positive displacement: compress discrete volumes of low-pressure
gas by physically reducing the volumes causing a pressure
increase, ; causes movement by trapping a fixed amount of air then
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.

- Dynamic : raise the velocity of the low-pressure gas and

subsequently reduce it in a way which causes a pressure increase.

; is a continuous flow compressor is characterized by rotating

impeller to add velocity and thus pressure to fluid.

Types of Heat Transfer

- Conduction

- Convection

- Radiation

Two main functions of

compressors - To pump the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator so that the
desired temperature and pressure can be maintained in the
evaporator.

- To increase the pressure of the refrigerant vapor through the

process of compression, and simultaneously increase the
temperature of the refrigerant vapor. By this change in pressure the
superheated refrigerant flows through the system.

Two types of
refrigerant - closed cycle: air confined to the machine at a pressure higher than
the atmospheric pressure was utilized repeatedly during the
operation

- open cycle: air was drawn into the machine at atmospheric

pressure and, when cooled, was discharged directly into the space
to be refrigerated

Types of condenser
- Air cooled

- Evaporative

- Water cooled
Pure Substance
- defined as a substance which has a homogeneous and invariable
chemical composition

Vapor
- a gas at or near equilibrium with the liquid phase

- a gas under the saturation curve or only slightly beyond the

saturated vapor line.

Vapor Compression
Cycle - Is used for refrigeration in preference to gas cycles; making use of
the latent heat enables a far larger quantity of heat to be extracted
for a given refrigerant mass flow rate. This makes the equipment as
compact as possible.

Water-cooled
Condensers - are used to remove heat from refrigerant vapor and transfer it to
the water which runs inside the tube

- this type of condenser is developed to transfer heat from a working

fluid to a secondary fluid

- the vapor normally enters the condenser at a temperature above

that of the secondary fluid

William Thompson
- appointed to the chair of natural philosophy at Glasgow University,
aged 22

- published his paper on the absolute temperature scale two years

- became lord kelvin in 1892

Work
- energy that is transferred by a difference in pressure or force
of any kind and is subdivided into shaft work and flow work
- denoted by W

Evaporative condenser
- this cooling effect of the evaporation of water can be applied
directly to the evaporative condenser refrigerant pipes in the
evaporative condenser
 - the mass flow of water over the condenser tubes must be
enough to ensure wetting of the tube surface and will be of
the order of 80 - 160 times the quantity evaporated
- the mass flow of air must be sufficient to carry away the
water vapor formed, and a compromise must be reached
with expected variations in ambient conditions

Evaporators
- The purpose of the evaporator is to receive low-pressure,
low temperature fluid from the expansion valve and to bring it
in close thermal contact with the load.
- The refrigerant takes up its latent heat from the load and
leaves the evaporators as a dry gas.
- Evaporators are classified according to their refrigerant flow
pattern and their function.

Types of Evaporators

Bare tube coil

evaporator - Prime surface evaporator
- Easy to clean and defrost
- s/f contact area is less
- Limited applications

Finned tube
evaporator - Over the bare tube metal fins are fastened
- Shape, size, spacing can be adapted for better rate of heat
transfer
- Extended surface evaporators

Plate evaporator
- The bare coils are either welded on the plate of between the
two plates which are welded together
- Used in household refrigerants, beverages cooler, ice cream
cabinets

Shell and tube

evaporator - Contraction is same as shell and tube type of condenser
- Available in flooded as well as dry expansion type
- Baffle plates are provided for good turbulence of liquid
- Capacity 2TR to 250TR
Shell and coil
evaporator - Generally dry expansion evaporators for chilling water
- Used for small 2TR to 10TR
- Restricted to operate above 5 degree calicoes to prevent
freezing problems

Tube in the evaporator

- Double tube evaporator
- Refrigerant can flow in outer pipe and liquid to be cooled can
flow in inner pipe
- The flow of refrigerant can be parallel or counter

Natural convection
evaporators - Low velocity and min, hydration is require
- Velocity of air depends upon temperature difference
- Circulation of air around coil depends upon its size shape
and location
- The coil should occupy 2/3rd of width of the path and 3/4th
the length of the box

Forced convection
evaporators - Air is forced over refrigerant coils
- Fins are provided t o increase heat transfer rate
- More efficient than natural convection evaporators
- Require less cooling surface and high evaporator pressure
can be used which save power input to the compressor

Frosting evaporators
- Operates below 0 degrees celsius
- The frost forms on the evaporator comes from the moisture
of the air
- Cooling efficiency is decreases until the ice and frost is
removed

Non-frosting
evaporators - Operates above 0 degrees celsius therefore frost does not
forms on evaporators
- Temperature close to cooling 0.6 degrees celsius to 1
degrees celsius
- RH from 75-80 % in the cabinet
- This keeps the food fresh and stops shrinking in weight

Defrosting evaporators
- Frost creates pm the coils on the coils when the compressor
is running and melts after the compressor shuts off
 - Temperature of about -7 degrees celsius to -6 degrees
celsius
- It also keeps high RH of about 90 % to 95 %

Reynolds number
- Correlates well with the flow characteristics.
- Turbulent (unpredictable, rapid mixing)
- Transitional (turbulent, outburst)
- Laminar (predictable, slow mixing)

Prandtl Number (Pr)

- Is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity
- It is used in many calculation involving heat transfer in
flowing fluids
- It gives a measure of the relative thickness of the thermal
and momentum boundary layers

Nusselt Number
- is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer at a
boundary in a fluid

Heat pump
- A device in which the objective is to heat the
higher-temperature space

- Ice refrigeration
Methods of - Mechanical Refrigeration
Refrigeration - Absorption Refrigeration
- Steam Jet Refrigeration
- Air cycle Refrigeration

Mechanical
Refrigeration Basic - Compressor, Condenser, Expansion Valve, Evaporator
Components

- is an ideal refrigeration cycle and is also called as the

reversed Rankine cycle.
Vapor Compression - The cycle is basically applied to household refrigerators and
Cycle air conditioners both for household and cars.
- The cycle is composed of four processes and uses
refrigerants as the circulating substance.
Types of Compressors - Dynamic
- a continuous flow compressor that is characterized by
rotating impeller to add velocity and thus pressure to
fluid
- Centrifugal
- Axial
- Radial
- Ejector
- Positive Displacement
- causes movement by trapping a fixed amount of air
then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe
- Reciprocating Compressor
- Diaphragm
- Double Acting
- Single Acting
- Trunk
- Crosshead
- Rotary Compressor
- Vane type
- Screw type
- Scroll
- Liquid Ring
- Lobe

Types of Condensers - Air-cooler

- Bare tube
- Finned tube
- Water-cooled
- Shell-and-tube
- Shell-and-coil

Types of Expansion - Capillary tube

Devices - Inside diameter: 0.50 mm to 2 mm
- Length: 1 m to 6 m
- Capacity: up to 10 kW
- Expansion valves
- Gate valve
- Constant pressure expansion valve
- Thermostatic expansion valve
- Thermostatic expansion valve with external equalizer
- Float valve (used with flooded evaporator)
Refrigerants - Halocarbon Refrigerants
- R-12
- R-22
- R-40
- Inorganic refrigerant
- R717
- R-718
- R-729
- R-744
- Hydrocarbon refrigerants
- R-50
- R-170
- R-290
- Azeotropes
- R-502