2 Theories of Second Language Acquisition

Welcome back to Teach English Now, and welcome to our second course, Theories of Second Language
Acquisition. We are delighted to bring you a historical perspective of methods and approaches that different
teachers and researchers have brought to us throughout time.
>> Hello, I'm Jessica Cinco, and by understanding the history of English as a second, or foreign language, an
English teacher such as yourself can gain great insight into your own teaching practices. A historical
perspective like this will help you to examine arguments that different theorists have made, and how
research and studies have either supported or refuted some of those arguments.
>> Thanks, Jessica. In this series of lessons we will take you on a historical journey and show you some of
the ways teachers have thought about language, and how they turn these thoughts into actual practice of
language instruction in the classroom.
>> In some sense by showing you the different approaches, techniques, and content that teachers have
developed throughout time, we hope that you will be able to better see yourself reflected in their thoughts
and in their beliefs.
>> In fact, you may find yourself agreeing with one theorist in one moment and then recognize that that
theorist's views have been challenged in a very valid way. By seeing the strengths and weaknesses of each
approach, we hope to help strengthen your ability to recognize your own assumptions about how languages
are learned and come to a greater understanding of what you will do in your classroom.
>> Buckle up it should be a great trip. Thanks for watching Teach English Now.
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Video 1: Purpose, Content, and Technique

Welcome back to Teach English Now. In today's video, we're going to discuss basic elements that will give
you a way of understanding an approach to teaching language.
These basic elements are purpose, content, and technique. Within each of these basic elements or
categories, we will also invite you to ask key questions that will help us answer primary questions such as
who, what, why, and how.
The first category we want you to look at is purpose. When I mention purpose, I mean the reasons a
language is both learned and taught. In other words, why do you teach a language? While it might `seem
obvious to you, as to why a learner might want to learn English. There are actually a number of very
different reasons that people try to learn languages. Through our discussions, you will see that different
language teachers, over time, have had very different ideas of why a language should be taught. So,
question number one is, why should we teach languages? The second question doesn't ask why a language
is learned, but rather who is learning a language. The second question, who should we teach is also related
to purpose. By asking this question, you will see that different groups of learners themselves have different
aims and reasons for learning a language. And that a teacher's purpose is heavily influenced by the learners
that walk through the classroom door.
Let's move on to the category of content. When we discuss purpose we think of the question words, why
and who. Can you guess what question word we ask when we think about content? The answer, as you may
have already guessed, is what? What do you need to teach a language? What are the materials that are
required? By asking these questions, we can come to a better understanding of the nuts and bolts of
language teaching. By discussing content, we will be thinking about the things you would actually bring to
class. Books, diagrams, maps, audio recording and so forth. You will see that each approach varies in the
kind of content that is considered most useful in class.
The third and final category we wish to impress upon is technique. Technique refers to the strategies and
activities that a teacher uses in order to convey language forms. Or, in other words, technique refers to the
ways a teacher teaches. While purpose refers to why and who, and content refers to what, technique refers
to how a language is learned and taught. You can probably guess by now what our next questions are. The
questions are, how does a learner learn a language? And how should a teacher teach? The last question is a
little less intuitive, but relates to the overall philosophy of teaching. The question is how do we help
students to remember a language? Before we begin our exploration of the different methods and
approaches to language teaching through time, let me offer a small word of advice. One of the very
fundamental ideas we want to impress upon you is the idea that purpose shapes both content and
technique.
Let me say that again, purpose shapes both content and technique. What I mean is that often when you
uncover the teacher's answer to the questions of why and who. Many times the reasoning behind their
strategies will become clear. However, just as soon as the purpose changes, the techniques and content will
not only no longer seem clear, they may seem unreasonable.
This insight should help you realize how important it is to examine your own philosophy of teaching. Not
only what materials you might use and what strategies you might employ. But more fundamentally, what
is the reason you teach English and what are the purposes that your learners have for gaining language
proficiency. Anyway, it is something to think about throughout this next course and honestly, throughout
your entire teaching career. In the next video, we will discuss precisely how we are going to take you on this
journey through time. A time machine, you say? Now, that sounds exciting. We'll see you right around the
bend on Teach English Now.
Video 2: The Time Machine: Visiting 8 Teachers

throughout History
Hi, and welcome back. In this next video, we want to explain a little bit about this journey we are going to
take. It won't require a backpack or supplies. But it will require your thinking cap. You see, we will be taking
you on a trip back to very specific times in history, such as 1880, 1930, 1945, and so forth. We will travel to
different locations and drop in on very different people. The thing is each of those we visit will all be
language teachers of some kind, and they're all representatives of each of the approaches we will show you.
The way in which they perform and speak will help demonstrate some of the purposes, content and
technique that you should learn to identify as distinctive features of certain approaches. It's going to be a lot
of fun.
One word of caution, however, as we take you back in time and visit each caricature. Since these are
caricatures of language teachers, they are both representative and exaggerated versions of a general truth.
While this is useful, this kind of reductionist view can be limited. We encourage you to read and learn more
about each of these important approaches. Please remember to suspend judgement until you know
enough, and that these caricatures only serve as background information. Each of these approaches has a
rich history of proper technique and proper content when understood through the lens of purpose.
So why do we create these caricatures anyway? Well, there are several educational reasons. First, for the
limited purposes of this short course, we are trying to present as much history as we can in a very short
time. Second, by exaggerating some of the features of each of these teachers, we are hoping to show you a
clear contrast among approaches. This will help you catch a vision of what we will refer to later as the
pendular swing. You'll learn a little bit about that in our next video.
One more note, as we take you back in time, thinking cap and all, I want you to do one more thing. I want
you to assume the role of a reporter. Your job at each moment will be to ask each of these teachers the six
fundamental questions. You might even want to take some notes. So remember, we will have each teacher
answer our six fundamental questions. As they answer these questions, you will get a greater sense of what
these teachers believed about language teaching and what their classroom instruction might have been like.
In the materials for this module, we have placed a diagram to help you take notes on each approach. We
recommend that you print out and fill in the important information as we explore each one. It will serve as a
guide along this journey, so that you can see different approaches in comparison to each other. You can see
that the diagram contains information about our three primary categories, purpose, content, and
technique. At the end of each visit back in time, you can compare your notes to the completed diagram
we've uploaded to ensure you
didn't miss any important information. See you soon!
Video 3: The Angel and Devil Debates
Welcome back to Teach English Now.
Peter Elbow, an English writing theorist and rhetorician recommends that when students are learning
about value judgement such as the kind that we will find in these approaches.
One way to try to understand each judgement can be examined by doing what is called the Believing and
Doubting Game.
The Believing and Doubting Game suggests that if you take a statement, it is valuable to
both agree and disagree with the statement in order to get a clearer understanding of your own view. For
example, let's take a simple value statement like dogs make good pets. One of the things you can do with
such a statement is to look at it from the perspective of belief. Dogs are the best pets and a perspective of
doubt. Dogs are definitely not the best pets. In theory, this helps you get a greater understanding and vision
of both the weaknesses and strengths of the argument. Let's take a closer look. If you look at our statement
from a position of belief, notice that immediately, you come up with evidence that justifies your value
statement. If you tell yourself, I believe dogs make good pets, you might consider the fact that you have
known dogs that can play catch, can learn tricks, will come to a door and wag their tail and other such truth
statements to back up your value statement. However, by looking at the statement from a position of
doubt, notice that you might come up with an entirely different set of evidences that justify this new
position. You might talk about the idea that dogs eat more than cats and fish. Dogs often require bathing or
that dogs, especially some types of dogs have been known to bite, shed or mess the rug when they're
scared. That's my dog.
Now, why am I talking about the believing and doubting game? Because after
we show you each historical figure, we will spend some time playing it. This will allow you an opportunity to
think about it exclusively in terms of the advantages or strengths of a particular approach, but then also to
question it by taking a hard look at its possible disadvantages.
Although loosely based on Peter Elbow's game, we will call our game the Angel and Devil Debate
with the angel representing a position of belief and the devil representing a position of doubt.
In the next video, we will introduce you to the pendular swing and discuss one last bit of advice before we
leave on our journey. Are you getting anxious like I am? Sorry for dragging it out just a bit. I hate getting
ready for trips, don't you? Don't worry, we're just about ready to begin. See you soon.
Video 4: The Pendular Swing of ESL History

Welcome back. Let's talk about believing and doubting again. But this time, let's talk about it from
the perspective of different theorists. You see, new theorists often get some of their best ideas by
considering the ideas of a previous generation. In fact, it is often the case that a new approach is
born out of doubting the last one. In other words, often these approaches will demonstrate
sharp contrasts from one another. As a result, what ends up happening is that we often move from one
extreme to another extreme. This concept which exists in fields such as economics, art, science, music and
pendular swing
literature will be referred to as the , meaning the tendency for one movement to
replace another movement through a reaction of the perceived deficiencies of the former.
For example, in art, we have two movements at extreme ends of the pendulum. First, we have abstract
expressionism. This type of art appeared around the 1940's and 1950's, at the end of World War II, and
focused mostly on various shapes and colors, representing a mixture of emotions and expressions. Two
famous works from this period in are Number 1, Lavendar Mist, done in 1950 by Jackson Pollack And Door
to the River, done by Willem de Kooning in 1960. At the other end of the pendulum, we have the
photorealism movement. This type of art came out in direct contrast to the abstract expressionism
movement. This type of art appeared in the 1960s and 70s and focused on creating recreations of realistic
scenes often taken from a photograph, and adding artistic enhancements to make the scene even more
vivid and lifelike. Two famous works from this movement are Self-Portrait, done in 1969 by Chuck Close, and
McDonald's Pick-up, done in 1970. By Ralph Goings. As you can see, these two movements represent two
extremes in art and the pendulum swung from one to the other rather quickly.
This has been true in the language teaching for the last 130 years or so but especially the first 100 from
about 1880 to 1980. This moving from extreme to another is something we want you to pay close
attention to as you form your own ideas and ground yourself in a more balanced approach. This does not
mean that you can't choose sides. Rather that we want you to gain as much information as you can.
Suspend judgement for a time, and then make educated decisions about who, what, why, and how you
believe what you believe, to form your own philosophy about language teaching.
At the end of each presentation of an approach, we will try to show you best practices based on research
studies that come from each of these theories. In other words, rather than swinging back and forth like
monkeys on a vine we would like you to consider what good was learned from each approach, and what we
can take away with us through an examination of each period in language teaching history. All right, enough
introduction, are you ready to go? I am. Put those thinking caps on and get ready. In the next module we
are going to go back to the 1880s, to discover a very interesting approach to learning a language. It
permeated the United States and many other parts of the world, and it's called the grammar translation
approach. Thanks for watching Teach English Now, and I'll see you soon.
Critiquing Questions by LYNN W. ZIMMERMAN

© Jezper/Shutterstock.com
Question formation is a basic part of teaching and learning English. However, we often focus on
the ability to form the question properly and not as much on the quality of the information the question is
seeking. Whether teaching English language learners or students who want to be English teachers, teachers
need to carefully consider the intent of questions. If students are expected to provide simple factual
information, a question such as “What kind of pet do you have?” will elicit that information. However, if you
want your students to discuss their preferences for certain types of pets or the advantages and
disadvantages of different pets, then another type of question must be asked to promote discussion—in
other words, a discussion question.
The purpose of discussion questions should be to guide and stimulate discussion, not just
to acquire information. What makes a good discussion question? A question that results in a Yes/No answer
or one that elicits only factual information is not likely to promote discussion. More fruitful are open-ended
questions that elicit factual information as well as opinions and differing perspectives. Suppose your class is
discussing environmental issues. One may pose the question, “Do you recycle?” The appropriate answer of
“Yes” or “No” stimulates no discussion. The questioner could then add the qualifier, “Why or why not?”
However, this type of add-on still may not promote much discussion, especially with lower-level or younger
learners. The respondent might say, “Yes, I recycle because it’s the right thing to do.” On the other hand,
consider this question: “If you were going to design a recycling public-service poster for your city, what
would you focus on, and why?” With appropriate scaffolding, even upper beginners could discuss that
question. For upper-level learners, a question to stimulate discussion might be, “Some cities offer refunds to
people when they recycle and impose fines when people do not. What kind of incentive program do you
think your city should adopt to encourage recycling?” This question gives a framework and ideas with the
introductory statement and then asks the respondent to present his or her own ideas. Within a lesson that
provides background information, intermediate students should also be able to discuss that question.
WHY FOCUS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS?

I realized that we do not focus on teaching English students how to develop discussion questions when I
was teaching a graduate level course in intercultural communication in Poland; the students were at B2 and
C1 proficiency levels, and the course included opportunities for the students to lead small group
discussions. While most of the questions students asked were technically correct, few of their questions
were effective discussion questions. For example, I overheard one student ask, “Do women in our country
have equal rights?” Because these were upper-level students, this question did provoke some discussion
despite not being an open-ended question. However, in most English classrooms, it would not have. I
thought it would have been better to ask, “What evidence have you seen that women have equal rights in
our country?” or “How has the status of women changed in our country over the past 20 years?” To address
the issue of how to develop effective discussion questions, I planned an interactive activity that required
students to write questions about a topic we had just focused on; in this case, the topic was sociocultural
influences on intercultural communication. After writing discussion questions, students then critiqued one
another’s questions. Although I used this activity with a class of 30 students, this would also be an effective
activity in larger classes because it involves small-group work.
Q/A ACTIVITY
Because of the interactivity this technique encourages, it would be appropriate for almost any type of class.
The first step is to choose a topic that you would normally use and present it in whatever way fits the topic
and your class. The only criterion is that the topic should be one that promotes discussion—that is, a topic
on which students can express their opinions and perspectives.
Next, divide the students into an even number of groups. The ideal group size for this activity is four
students. The group will have two identities: in Part 1 of the activity, they will be Group 1; in Part 2, they will
be Group 2.
As Group 1, students write three open-ended discussion questions about the topic the class has been
studying. Once students have completed this task, they give the questions to another group (Group 2).
Although I prepared a handout (see the sample at the end of this article) and gave a copy to each group,
students could just as easily prepare this activity themselves using notebook paper.
As Group 2, students orally respond to the questions they received. Tell them not to write their answers,
but to read the questions aloud and discuss them as they would in a small group discussion.
Next, tell groups to write a critique of each question.
Ask students: • Did the question stimulate much discussion? Why? Why not? • How could the question be
improved to be a better discussion question? You might want to write these questions on the board. Then
have a full-class discussion about the activity. Ask students to identify the question they thought was the
best and to explain why. Ask for suggestions to improve the questions that promoted less discussion in their
groups. Elicit from the students the differences between Yes/No questions and open-ended questions, along
with observations about how the latter promote more discussion. Conclude by having students summarize
the characteristics of effective discussion questions. You might want to list those characteristics on the
board.
CONCLUSION
This multistep technique engages students in authentic discussion at several levels and uses a variety of
language skills and functions. Because of the technique’s simplicity, it could be used with almost any age
and level of student, except very young learners and beginners.
To start off, students have to be familiar enough with the topic to be able to develop their questions; that
may require them to read about or do research on the topic and to discuss it with classmates. Or, students
can develop questions about a topic the class has recently studied. Writing the questions will provide
opportunity for discussion about how to properly phrase them. As students answer another group’s
questions, they are discussing the topic again, perhaps from a different perspective than they did originally,
because each group will approach the topic differently. Then, as students analyze, discuss, and write about
the quality of the questions, they have to use appropriate language to explain the strengths and weaknesses
of each question. Finally, the whole-class discussion about the most effective questions and suggestions for
improving weaker questions promotes speaking about the topic using relevant vocabulary; it also engages
students in the functions of comparing and contrasting the various questions, making suggestions, and
perhaps agreeing and disagreeing. These are all skills and functions that students at the upper beginner
level and beyond can manage and continue to develop.
Lynn W. Zimmerman, PhD, was a 2014–2015 English Language Fellow in Elbasan, Albania, where she taught
at Aleksander Xhuvani University. She served as a Peace Corps volunteer and a Fulbright Scholar in Poland.
Q/A Activity Worksheet

Group 1: Write three open-ended questions that could be used in a discussion group. Give the list of
questions to Group 2.
Group 2: Discuss the questions. Do not write your answers to the questions.
Write a critique of each question. Did the question stimulate much discussion? Why? Why not? How could
the question be improved to make it a better discussion question?
Video 5: Summary
Welcome back to Teach English Now! Let's review what was discussed in the first module. And take a closer
look at how we will examine each approach to language teaching and learning that will be discussed in this
course. As Shane mentioned in video two, we have placed a blank diagram in the learning materials for this
module. If you download and look at the diagram, you will see that it has a place for you to write
information about each approach. The information you should write will be given in future modules, and
will focus on the answers to the questions Shane talked about in video one. As we travel back in time to visit
teachers from each approach, they will answer the questions of why and who, or the purpose of teaching
language. What, or the content of language teaching and how, or the technique or practice of language
teaching. Pay close attention to what these teachers say and write down the information in the boxes on
the diagram. At the end of the module we will review the information and then show you how the two
approaches compare with each other. We will also ask you to make some of your own comparisons and
write down your ideas. Your classmates will be able to review your response and provide feedback. Giving
you the opportunity to share and collaborate as you develop your own ideas about the purpose, content
and technique of language teaching. See you next time on, Teach English Now.
Video 1: Back in Time: Grammar Translation
Welcome back to, Teach English Now! The moment has finally come to make our first trip back in time.
Today we are going to examine an approach called, The Grammar Translation Approach. This approach was
widely used in the United States and Europe by teachers of Greek and Latin as well as many other
languages. I'm setting our time machine to 1880 , are you buckled in? Well than, let's go.
What? What is this? Who are you? Impertinence! There was no knock from my door, no sense of courtesy.
How dare you come barging in here unannounced! What do I see here? Women in my classroom. Highly
unusual no doubt, highly unusual. What, what was that you say? Time travelers? Oh, I see. Hmm, six
questions and you promise to leave. That is a promise. I certainly expect those who enter my doors to live
up to their promises. Alright. We will see if their morality of the future is something I can trust, or not. I will
answer your six questions if you promise to leave me in peace. Fine, which young man would like to ask me
a question first? Well, isn't it obvious?
Why should we teach languages?

We should teach language and, in fact, all disciplines - Art, science, mathematics, in an effort to help people
become more cultured. The grand end of education is mortal thinking. We should make sure young people
understand great art, literature, such as that found in Latin and Greek. We stand on the shoulders of giants.
How can students truly appreciate the great books of literature if they do not learn their Latin? Students
must be taught how to be model individuals and we must teach them how to speak correctly. If they cannot
speak correctly and understand the rules of language they will be just like immoral people you find in the
streets who are ignorant, cannot even read the Bible. For shame. Simple question.
Who should we teach?
We should teach young men from rich families who can afford the best scholars. I'm not cheap you know.
What materials are needed to teach a language?
A teacher needs books. The best books. Certainly Homer, Cicero, Aristotle, Plato, and the Old and New
Testament. Latin, Greek, Aramaic, these are the languages that matter.
How does a learner learn a language?

Young men learn languages by studying the great books in the original language. They learn by engaging in a
text, and pouring over it. Since those texts contain the keys of understanding within them, Learners also
obtain an understanding of language through disciplined attempt and a systematic and ambitious amount of
instruction. I may be old, but I'm no softy.
How should a teacher teach?

By giving students large chapters to translate every night I will give them an entire chapter in the original
Greek. Then I will have them translate the student's native language. And then I will have the learner
translate back into the original language. Then I will also ask questions to test their comprehension, so that I
am certain that my students are paying attention to the themes found within the literature. I will also give a
small list of verbs, I don't know, perhaps five hundred.
How do we help students remember a language?

They must continue to read the books again and again. It is their dedicated effort that makes the difference.
Their essays will certainly reflect that they have indeed learned each work. All I want them to know.
Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate:

Grammar Translation
Welcome back from your visit to 1880. Did you enjoy the grammar translation approach and that dear old
professor? Have any of you had this kind of instruction? Maybe not, but perhaps you recognize
him a bit in teachers you have known. As you could tell from our visit, the teachers in the grammar
translation approach valued the historical and cultural aspects of languages. And that being able to read and
translate language opened up new worlds of literature they wouldn't normally have access to.
Culture, my eye. Boring, boring. I wanted to poke my eyes out, or at least poke someone's eyes out.
Of course you would find it boring, you lazy sack of do-nothing. The grammar translation approach holds
students to high standards. Not only standards of conduct, such as proper etiquette, but high standards of
commitment and a belief that there is something to learn from other cultures that we can and should
understand. It isn't just about language, it is about becoming something worthwhile, which is something,
let's admit, you would never understand. We aren't just learning about words, we are letting these words
guide our behavior, and give us an understanding of human nature.
Who, what, huh? Oh, were you talking? Were you actually agreeing to be a student in a class like that? It
doesn't change anyone's behavior reading old dusty books that no one relates to anymore. And the very
idea of learning a language that is dead is ridiculous. Dead. Dead. The language is dead, and the ideas are
dead. And oh my, I am asleep.
Bravo, bravo. Quite the performance. You are pretending to be passionate, but what you really are is
exactly the opposite. You don't believe that literature and art can really move people. And you don't really
believe that learning a language, even a dead language can be a way to be moved. You are a slug.
>> Pretty boy. >> Hater. >> Teacher's pet. >>
an opportunity for you
Regardless of your view, the grammar translation approach presents
to think about language in terms of a historical lens. Not only is it an older

approach, but the approach itself demonstrates to the learner a way to look back in history and see what
historical treasures can be found. By looking at language through the lens of literature, grammar, and
culture, we get a sense of what truly mattered to our dear old professor.
In the next video, we'll take a look at some of the things language teachers have learned from the grammar
translation approach. Believe it or not, there are things we still do today that have been handed down to us
by those wonderful teachers of yesteryear. See you then.
Video 3: What have we learned?:

Grammar Translation
Welcome back to Teach English Now. I hope you were able to see things from both perspectives in our last
video. It is essential that, as we look at each approach, you are able to analyze each argument and
then make educated decisions about what you want your language classroom to look like. In this video, we
want to take a look at some of the techniques that have their foundation in the grammar translation
approach. And that may, believe it or not, prove useful in today's context. There are several techniques that
we might say were originally derived from, or at least in constant use by those using the grammar
translation approach. Did you notice any? To be honest, most teachers nowadays don't generally use back
translation. That was the technique that our dear old professor mentioned briefly.
Inback translation , a learner is asked to take a text in an original language, turn it into their native
language, and then turn it back into the original language. This was supposed to help learners precisely
understand language forms and vocabulary. The idea was that every word in one language has a proper
substitute in another. This idea, that every word or phrase as a precise translation, has been challenged in
later research. And for most language researchers, myself included, that simply isn't true.
Reading Comprehension Questions
But now let's talk about some of the techniques that we do still use. One of the common activities in a
grammar translation classroom is the use of reading comprehension questions. And a whole variety of
comprehension question types. The idea is that a well worded question can help a teacher know if students
really understand the meaning of a vocabulary word, a sentence, a paragraph, or an entire story.
Comprehension questions can engage students in understanding tone, plot, characterization, and setting.
Comprehension questions can also move students beyond what is understood, can lead students to apply
the questions to real-life situations. No doubt that comprehension questions are an essential technique you
can put in your teacher toolbox.
Use of Antonyms and Synonyms
Other useful techniques include the analyzing of vocabulary by looking at antonyms and synonyms. In this
technique, a teacher can create word lists that has strong associative qualities, which definitely helps with
memory.
Use of Cognates
Another technique is to look for vocabulary that is similar to the learner's native language. This is often
referred to as cognates. Finding cognates has a way of lessening the burden of understanding some words.
And giving students information for which they are already familiar. Many teachers today rely on cognates.
Especially teachers who are teaching students with similar language backgrounds. I myself, don't use
cognates much since I have speakers from many different language backgrounds in a single class.
Fill in the Blanks and Writing Compositions
Grammar translation teachers also used other activities that you will see in today's world. Such as fill in the
blank activities. Which I am guessing everyone has had experience with. And also, writing compositions.
Especially as forms of summative assessment. I definitely do that too. Although, can you imagine writing a
five-page paper in Latin? That sounds tough.
All-in-all, my guess is that you may not see grammar translation as a perfect fit for your teaching style. But
please keep in mind that this doesn't mean that there aren't important takeaways. Thanks for watching
Teach English Now. Oh, I think I hear something. Yep, I guess it's time for our next trip. Buckle up, next stop,
the turn of the 20th century. Get ready to go back in time to 1910.
Video 4: Back in Time: Direct Approach

Welcome back to Teach English Now. Time to make our second trip and learn about what is commonly
refered to as the direct approach. Theorists in the direct approach took a different view than those in the
grammar translation approach. They started to examine how languages are learned among children. And
what principles of first language acquisition might be applied to learning in a second.
1910, here we come.

Hello, I knew you would come. Adventurers always do. They always find me. So you too would like to taste
what this tongue has tasted, feel the spray of ocean that has hit this face, and see all the wondrous things
these eyes have seen. Well then, come aboard. I will show you of people and places that others have only
dreamed about. You know as well as I do that language Is a passageway to culture, alive and waiting for us
just around the corner. Not dead, no never, but alive if we will just get on the ship that will take us there. Six
questions, you say? To keep life to six questions is a miracle. But I will do my best to speak a simple pros
that will delight you and inform you. I will speak truth, and the truth is all you will need.
Why should we teach?
Language is a small part of your larger goal, is it not? Your goal is to immerse yourself. To become one with
the native cultures and tribes. When I lived among the Ohutu tribes to the South, they accepted me as one
accepts a small child and I became a child as I lived with them. I learned the meaning of tree and flower, of
root and seed. I learned to become Ohutu, myself. And thus I have been many men, and have lived many
lives. I learned Spanish from the sailors that came to port, I learned Dutch from the pirates off the island
coast, and I learned Portuguese from the nights spent with a Brazilian bar maid.
We must teach those who come our way. Who drift in and out of our lives. Those who come to us from far
away. They are those who I know I must teach. So, please sit down. Let me teach you. I will teach any who
make their way to my door, and any who have come hoping to see what the world has in store.
I was taught the simple way that a child learns. My wise teacher taught me Ohutu by simply sitting on the
ground, until I also sat. And then he pointed out the sky, and taught me sky. And then he pointed out the
dirt in his hands, and so I learned dirt. He also opened up maps to me, and then I understood the shape of
the land. I learned colors, objects, and the fact that the river was between two hills, and that the trees were
among the hills. Eventually my teacher opened up his heart, and I learned to feel like the Ohutu feel. He
asked me what I felt, and that is the day I spoke and became Ohutu.
We all learn as children language learn by becoming explorers of the world around us. We don't learn from
dusty books. We learn from what we can touch, and feel, and see. We read and see all around us. Those
daily things that were once considered too low to even be thought of as worth teaching.
A teacher needs only to point to the world around him. A teacher must make it clear to the learner that
they are in charge of seeing this world and of expressing and sharing it. A teacher must make it clear that
learners are in charge of their own learning. Even their own mistakes. Teachers must make it clear that
learners must share what they have learned so that a teacher can see if they have learned well. In an effort
to share culture, a teacher must realize that it is the daily affairs of men and women that make us who we
are. What we eat, what we drink, what we see with our own eyes. This is the essence of language.
As a learner understands a culture, there will be no need to remember it because you will become a part of
it. You will become as they are. And your ability to live in that culture is the only true test of language. But if
I had to judge your ability to speak another language in my classroom, I would have you speak honestly and
openly. No false grammatical sentences, but you would speak and I would recognize your ability to
understand as the people of that language understand. Perhaps some day the Ohutu tribe will make you
one of their own as well. Do you wish to run with the bulls in Pamplona? To dance a carnival in Rio? To truly
live, and learn, and speak. Climb aboard. Let's go on an adventure together.

Direct Approach
Welcome back from your visit to 1910. Here we find a teacher that is quite the explorer of the world. Would
you have enjoyed having him teach you different languages? What would be attractive about having
someone that wants you to experience cultures so firsthand and so personally? I hope you get a sense of
what is meant by the direct approach.
One of the primary principles of the direct approach is that language learning should be done completely in
the primary language. Think about just how different that is from the grammar translation approach.
In grammar translation, using both languages by translating back and forth between languages wasn't a
task that was valued. But in the direct approach, there is no use of the primary language. Furthermore, you
may have noticed also that while reading might still happen, reading and writing skills are de-emphasized.
And speaking and listening skills are more of the focus. The idea of travel, the idea of learning so that you
can experience a culture is much more what we are going for here. While direct approach teachers might
not have actually taken their students on journeys to different countries, the classroom was created in such
a way that students felt like they could understand the culture and what people might think, feel, wear, eat,
and so forth. The idea was to learn directly from someone who knows and understands the culture, as well
as the language.
>> Well, I can definitely get behind the idea of learning Portuguese from a Brazilian bar maid, if you know
what I mean.
>> You are a vulgar idiot. But the idea behind the premise does feel sound. Experiencing culture in a first
hand, almost childlike way, does seem attractive.
>> All right, let's get real for a second, if I may. How many people are honestly going to go visit other
cultures with Dr. Jones here, and spend a couple of years sitting in the dirt? Come on, be reasonable.
Teachers don't have time for learners to sit around staring at maps until they figure out what questions to
ask.
>> Are you saying that teachers don't have time to help learners learn for themselves? Listen, languages are
supposed to connect us to other people. Languages are supposed to allow us to understand how other
people feel and live. Inviting learners to explore their own ideas. And to explore whole different culture
seems exactly what I would love to do in a classroom. It seems to me that the direct approach helps us
really get down to the idea of adding culture to the whole equation. Isn't it exciting to think about visiting all
of these different places.
>> So, the purpose of learning a language, let me get this right, is so that I can have a bowl of gourmet on
the streets of Pamplona, ooh, you have some of the dumbest ideas.
>> And you have some of the darkest ways, of understanding bright ideas.
>> Well, it seems once again that it is a little difficult to reconcile the different arguments. Certainly the
direct approach allowed us to think of language in terms of child acquisition. And there is no doubt that
there has been a lot of research that has allowed us to examine whether or not second languages should be
taught in the same way as a first language. What do you think? Is there anything that seems attractive about
a direct, almost childlike approach to you? Would you imagine this to be a good approach for certain groups
of students? Who would enjoy this method and who might not? In the next video we'll take a look at
some of the things language teachers still use that might be considered an homage to the direct approach.
See you then.

Direct Approach
Welcome back to Teach English Now. In this video, we want to pay tribute to the way in which the direct
approach has informed teachers today. As we mentioned briefly in the last video, one of the ways in which
the direct approach has influenced us is through an examination of whether or not second language should
be learned like a first language. The answer as you can imagine is somewhat complex. First of all, through a
number of studies it appears hats learners go through a rather predictable development sequence just like
children. Second of all the use if visual aids and objects made readily available around a room It's a time-
tested technique that all teachers should feel comfortable with. Supporting your room with pictures, objects
and maps can help support memory and understanding. On the other hand, it is also true that learners,
especially at later ages, draw on their knowledge of their native language as they try to learn a new one.
This is often referred to astransfer . And one of the most common arguments being made, is whether
transfer is negative or positive. Let me explain.
Negative transfer might refer to transferring a linguistic item incorrectly from one language to
another.
Whereas positive transfer refers to the idea of correctly assuming that how it works in one
language, presumably your native language, is the same way it works in the new language.
I definitely transferred, for example, my knowledge of Spanish to help me with my Portuguese. And, in fact,
when I don't know a word in Portuguese, I usually attempt the Spanish word and put a Portuguese accent
on it. And quite honestly, it sometimes works out. Good idea or bad idea? Well, again, it sometimes works.
Ultimately, the idea that an adult learner should learn exactly like a child probably doesn't hold true.
Because an adult does have resources and understanding that a child doesn't in order to facilitate learning.
However, there are ways that a childlike direct approach can be very useful. Here are some techniques that
I have definitely learned in my language classroom. That are techniques that are used in the direct
approach.
Enactments
students can enact a play or a situation in a way that is fun and culturally specific. An enactment of a play or
a dialogue, especially with the use of gestures, pictures and visual aids Helps to support an understanding of
both culture and meaning.
Student self-correction
Teachers in the direct method were very good at putting the responsibility of learning on a learner. A
teacher often used the approach of repeating an incorrect sentence and then using a questioning voice in
order to help the student catch the mistake. For example, a student might say I catched the ball. And a
teacher might lift a brow and say questioningly I catched the ball? To see if the student can self correct. The
very concept of self correction puts learning squarely on the shoulders of the learner and can help the
learner develop the ability to monitor his or her own language.
Draw a picture
Drawing a picture based on a dictation can be a fun way to help students pay attention a teacher. A teacher
might ask students to draw a picture of a house with a certain number of windows and doors, maybe a tree
outside. And perhaps something unusual like a monkey in a tree. After the teacher dictates and students
draw based on the dictation, students can compare their results with that of other students.
Using maps and information gap
The use of maps can help to draw students into the geography and culture of where a language is spoken.
In addition, it can be a great tool for helping students talk to each other. For example, imagine that one
student has a map with all of the rivers labeled, but all of the mountains are unlabeled. Another student has
a map with all of the mountains labeled, but not the rivers. A teacher could invite students to share
information with each other in pairs. With only one simple rule, students with the river map are not
allowed to look at the mountain map. And the students with the mountain map are not allowed to look at
the river map. They must complete their maps with both rivers and mountains by talking with each other
and asking questions. This kind of information sharing is referred to as information gap. And has become a
common ESL technique all over the world. Thanks for watching Teach English Now. In the next video, we will
summarize some of the important features of the two approaches you have seen so far. We will also invite
you to compare and contrast these two approaches. And consider what parts of theses approaches
resonates most with you. See you next time.
The Berlitz Method

by Jessica Cinco
The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century brought much excitement and technological
development. Henry Ford introduced his new, affordable Ford Model T automobile, which enabled the growing
American middle class to travel more. The Wright brothers, and others, were experimenting with flying
contraptions which quickly evolved into air travel vehicles called airplanes. Extensive railroad lines zigzagged
across countries and continents. These were times when people began leaving the safety and security of their
own homes and hometowns to venture out to places that, just years before, were too expensive or inaccessible
to visit.
With so many people traveling out of their comfort zones and discovering more of the world, the need to
practically learn and use languages to communicate when traveling to new countries was imperative, thus
bringing about the birth of the Direct Method of language learning. One of the masterminds behind this
approach was the German-born Maximilian Berlitz. Upon moving to the United States to teach French and
German, he developed interactive methods for educating his American students (Brown, 2007). In 1878, he
founded the Berlitz language schools, which, to this day, continue to offer language courses using the “Berlitz
Method.” This method utilized many of the activities and the pedagogies of the student-centered Direct
Approach. For well over 100 years, these schools have taught languages whose objective is to emphasize mainly
speaking skills and some listening skills over reading and writing (Stieglitz, 1955).
Berlitz published multiple books on language education and acquisition. The below excerpt is taken from a text
for English language teachers, entitled simply, Second Book. In its preface, Berlitz states that the dialogues and
other activities in the book should be led by the teacher, with non-native English speakers either repeating
dialogues, enacting them or answer questions only in English. He goes on to explain that teachers should put
posters, or “wall pictures,” on their walls to portray the location of the conversations in the text. These posters
would give the students a visual aid to understand what they’re discussing (Berlitz, 1906).
Here is one of Berlitz's activities for communicating at the post office. Teachers would have already discussed
some ideas about American post offices and sending letters. Berlitz instructed teachers to read the dialogues and
then students should repeat. Then students would orally discuss questions and the perhaps act out the scene. All
of which sounds very familiar to the description of the Direct Approach in the video. Readers will notice some
interesting vocabulary used at the time this book was published (Berlitz, 1906).
At the Post-Office
Mr. A – Here is my card. Are there any letters for me?
Clerk – There are two, one is registered. Have you any papers by which to identify yourself?
Mr. A. – Yes, here is my passport.
Clerk – Sign your name in this register, please.
Mr. A. – Where can I get some postage stamps?
Clerk – Next window.
Mr. A. – (At the other window) What is the postage for a letter to Mexico?
Clerk – Two cents, if it does not weigh over an ounce.
Mr. A. – And for Chili?*
Clerk – Postage to all foreign countries except Canada, Cuba, Mexico and England is five cents for the first ounce.
Mr. A. – Give me five 2-cent stamps and two 5-cent ones, please. Where can I find a public telephone station?
Clerk – Across the way, right opposite.
Exercise
1. How do we send a letter to another city?
2. What do we put on the letter to show where it is going?
3. What do we put there to show that the postage is paid?
4. How can Mr. A. prove who he is?
5. Where does Mr. A sign for the letter? (Berlitz, 1906)
(Many more questions were included, but for the sake of brevity, these five questions are used as just a sample.)
The above situation and following activity helped students understand how to pick up mail, buy stamps, identify
themselves and so on. The dialogue not only taught English language but also focused on American culture,
specifically in a post office. Students learning English by using this activity can practice this encounter in English,
but also answer oral comprehension questions, heightening their speaking ability. Teachers will help students
with pronunciation and correct accent. Students can also enact this dialogue and even embellish or change it
with other information they’ve learned about American Post Offices.
* In American English, the South American country is now spelled as “Chile.” Berlitz used the spelling of the early
1900’s, “Chili.”
Video 7: Summary
Welcome back to Teach English Now. In this module, we went back to 1880 and visited a teacher from the
Grammar Translation Approach. This teacher told us his purpose in teaching language was to teach young
men of affluence and power to be moral by examining the literature of the Roman and Greek civilizations.
Only by learning the cultural values of these civilizations through translation could his students develop into
the men they were meant to be. To him, it was the intellectual exercise of translation and understanding
the deep ideas expressed by these accent writers that made language learning worthwhile. This teacher
taught using classic works in the the orignal Greek and Latin. Books, such as Homer's Odyssey,
and The Bible, provided ample material for translation. And students spent their timetranslating and
examining long passages from these works, as well as passages from plays, poetry, short stories, and novels.
This teacher made use of the technique of translation and back-translation, or having the students translate
the original language into their native language, and then back into the original language. This technique
required students to understand the vocabulary and the grammar of the original language, and the nuances
of meaning the original writer was trying to convey. The teacher used reading comprehension questions to
test students' knowledge of the works they were translating. And had students focus on memorizing
long lists of vocabulary words. To test their knowledge of the language, he would have his students write
essays in the target languages on a variety of moral topics. Let's contrast the Grammar Translation Approach
with the next approach we visited, the Direct Approach. This teacher was a world traveler. Someone who
understood that languages were a way to get to know living people and that only learning about ancient
civilizations was not a way to really get to know the world we live in. Our caricature mentioned living among
the Uhutu and learning their culture, history and people by interacting with them. His purpose was to teach
his students to experience life in another culture and to learn language via experience, and not just sitting in
a classroom. His students were people who wanted to travel the world like he did and experience things for
themselves. Our world traveler spoke about learning geography by studying maps in the target language
and history by hearing his Uhutu teacher tell stories about their people. He learned languages through
dialogues and conversations with native speakers, and by reading passages about the people he was
visiting. He was completely immersed in the target language and culture. His techniques mimicked those we
might see parents use in teaching their children to speak their first language. He taught through
conversations, drawing maps, question and answer sessions, and reading aloud to student. He expected his
students to learn vocabulary and grammar inductively through experiencing them, rather than by teaching
them explicitly. And he encouraged his students to find and correct their own mistakes whenever possible.
While each of these approaches may have had their place in language teaching history, they are very
different ways of thinking about language. Grammar translation essentially ignored any aspect of speaking
the language while explicitly teaching grammar and vocabulary. On the other hand, the Direct Approach
focused almost solely on speaking the language and learning through experience, instead of explicit
instruction. In the assignment at the end of the module, we'd like you to take a moment and consider each
of these two approaches, and how you feel about the views they take on language learning and teaching.
Then, we'd like to know if you agree or disagree with these principles and why. Finally, we'd like to know if
you plan to apply any of these principles in your own classroom, and which techniques you might use, if any.
Once you submit your response, your classmates will have the opportunity to review your responses and
provide feedback, making this a truly collaborative experience. We hope you've enjoyed what you've seen
so far. In our next module, we'll visit two more approaches. The Reading Approach and the Audio-Lingual
Approach. See you next time.
Video 1: Back in Time: The Reading

Approach
Welcome back to Teach English Now. Today, we are going back in time to examine an approach called the
reading approach. This approach was mainly seen in public schools starting the 1930s. The approach
came about partly as a reaction. A move to the other side of the pendulum if you will, from the direct
approach we saw in Module Two. You see, most people in the 1930's didn't really have opportunities to
travel all over the world and so communication was not seen as a major goal of language learning in public
schools. It was also hard to find teachers who knew the language well enough to teach the direct approach.
Oh, and one more thing. A third reason for the emergence of this approach, was the advent of standardized
testing, that became more and more prevalent around this time.
So with that in mind, let's set the dial to 1930. Are you ready? Okay, here we go. Oh, seriously these
migraines are gonna kill me. Those monsters. Oh, whoa. Hey. Did the principal send you? Who? What?
Where did you come from? Oh, okay as long as the principal didn't send you. You don't mind if I sit down do
you? Thanks. I'm sorry if I seem a bit tired, but I just finished teaching seven classes of French to a bunch of
eighth graders who couldn't care less about learning French. You think my student's are ever gonna go to
France. Heck I only went once and they made me the French teacher. To be honest I have a degree in
economics. But they closed down that class because of lack of interest. Sorry, economics joke. Anyway,
what's that? You're time travellers. You have six questions to ask about teaching languages. All right, let's
get this over with. I have to coach softball in about an hour. I get an extra 20 bucks for that gig. All right,
what's the first question? What was that?
You wanna know why we should teach languages? Well, listen. As fun as it would be to go all over
the world with Captain Adventure, I'm a real teacher and I teach normal students. My students are never
gonna travel to a different country. Are yours? No, of course not! They're normal students, so they don't
need to know how to speak a language with the natives and get all touchy feely with a culture. Do you
wanna know what they do need to do? Pass the test the administration wants me to give at the end of the
semester. They need that, and the only way they'll be able to do that is by learning how to read enough,
know enough vocabulary and grammar so they can take that test. And you want a bit more honesty? Can
you close the door? I don't want the principal to hear this. All right. Okay here's the truth. This is a job and
I get paid to do this job. Am I right? Of course I'm right. I'm a real teacher and I have bosses and
I have to do what they say. And I do this for money, so sue me. My job is to teach these monsters of
mine to learn a little bit of French and then just go away and leave me alone.
All right. You wanna know who we should teach? Well, we should teach real students. Normal students.
They're kids who sit in class all day and then go home and forget everything they just learned. They won't
use French when they go home. So they won't remember most of what I teach them during the day. Just
saying the truth.
All right, next question. Materials. Let's see. Well we need books, of course. Can't read without books and
the administration tells me which books to use, so I usually teach whatever they give me. We are also given
a list of vocabulary words and grammar so the students can memorize them and prepare for the test. That's
about all I used to teach.
What's the next question? Mm-hm. How do people learn languages? I don't know. I've got an economics
degree. Well all right, well my students probably won't learn the language. But maybe I don't know if they
learn a few vocabulary words, and maybe read a book in French, then I would be thrilled. They can do that
by memorizing a bunch of vocabulary words and grammar patterns and translating from French into English,
you know.
Next. How should a teacher teach? That's funny. All right, word of advice, pace yourself. Seriously. Okay,
and obviously teachers should give students books to read in the language. I have all of my students
reading the same book and they have to read the same chapter each night, then I give them a quiz, same
quiz the next day with the same questions about the chapter they just read. The quiz is based of the test
they're gonna have to take at the end of the year.
All right, last question. Oh man, I don't know. I guess we help students learn some of the language by
having them keep reading. Who knows, maybe some of them will take French in college. If I'm lucky. The
more they read, the more language they will pick up. Seriously. I just hope enough of them will pass
the test at the end of the year so I can get my contract renewed. Know what I mean?
Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate: Reading

Approach
Welcome back. How was your visit to the 1930s? So, now you've seen what the reading approach is like. It
was an interesting time in education history, when standardized testing became very important for a
number of things. The Scholastic Aptitude Test, or SAT , was first developed in 1926
and standardized testing in public schools became quite prevalent. Also grammar rules are back in style.
And even a bit of translation
came back into focus, as well as the use of vocabulary lists. In the reading approach, the purpose of teaching
language is very practical and focused on the immediate needs, abilities, and to put it this way, the
probabilities of the students. They probably aren't going to travel around the world, but they might be able
to pick up enough language to help them pass the test and use that language they have learned
immediately by reading in that language.
>> Practical for students? [LAUGH] How about practical for the teacher that doesn't speak French? Or how
about practical for the administration that only has to write a single test for an entire school system? Oh, it's
practical all right. In the most delightfully selfish way possible. I love it. Standardized testing, it feels, mm,
positively sinful. [SOUND]
>> Standardized testing is sinful? That's a stretch, even for you. Look, perhaps testing may not be so
popular, and standardized testing even less so, but the testing movement helped us actually attempt to
know whether any of our techniques are useful or not. Without this testing movement, we wouldn't
have such a rich number of studies that help us know what techniques to use.
>> Sorry to interrupt your love affair with tests, but I'm not done. Let's pretend that testing really is all you
say it is, and that we are all bunches smarter because of it. Are you really going to excuse an approach to
language learning called, The reading approach? Seriously, just reading, that doesn't seem a bit short-
sighted to you? Reading, that's it? Sit quietly at your desks and read. [LAUGH] I swear, sometimes I feel like
you're defending things that I should be defending. Sit and read and take tests. Well, if that is what heaven
has to offer, I think I'll stay right where I am.
>> And what's wrong with reading? It was the 1930s. People couldn't just hop on a plane and fly across the
ocean to find someone who spoke French. Reading was the best way for them to use the language they
were learning, and reading books in a foreign language let them learn about the culture and other aspects
of people who spoke the language almost as well as if they had actually visited that country.
>> I'll bet you spend most of your time in the library, hm? What's the matter, don't have any real friends?
Reading is boring. And people who read too much are boring. Reading doesn't help you learn a language.
You learn a language by interacting with people who speak that language. And if you can't do that,
I suggest you just give up and not learn the language at all. I have several other activities I can also suggest.
>> I have plenty of friends. And if people didn't read, how could they learn about things? They can't go and
visit every place they want to learn about. You're just saying that because you don't like to learn, because it
just so very hard for you. You're an idiot.
>> Touchy, looks like I'm rubbing off on you, bookworm.
>> I am not a.
>> Well, whether you side with our angel or devil, the reading approach served it's purpose well back in its
day. And it has given us insights into language learning, as well as several techniques and concepts
that many teachers still follow today. We'll take a look at these in the next video, and talk about how you
can use the principles and ideas from the reading approach in your classroom, if you so choose. Thanks for
watching Teach English Now! [MUSIC]
Video 3: What have we learned?: Reading

Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now! In this video, we want to take a look at what we've learned
from the reading approach. Specifically, we'll talk about what we've learned and changed, as well as what
we've kept in most language classrooms today when it comes to the reading approach. First, let's talk about
what's changed. Obviously, contrary to the 1930s, it is a lot easier to interact with people who speak the
language we are teaching. So for most students, the main purpose is not to learn how to read a foreign
language, but to learn all four skills. Namely, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. As such, there is not
as much focus on reading nowadays as there was back in the 1930s. Of course, reading is still a main
focus in academic programs, because those students generally have to do more reading than, say, students
who are learning English to travel. And because reading has less of a focus, there is a lesser focus on
memorizing lists of vocabulary words and grammar structures that are only used in reading. Also with some
exceptions, there are a lot of well qualified teachers out there that can speak a language well. And so a
movement away from a focus on reading makes sense. Still, the reading approach has given us many
techniques that are used today. Let's name a few.
Skimming and scanning.
Teachers today still teach and practice the skills of scanning and skimming. Which are techniques for
getting information from a reading passage without reading the entire thing carefully. Teaching specific skills
such as these, helps students get what they need from long reading passages in a short amount of time. And
are useful for various types of learners, from university students, to casual travelers who may
need to learn to read a menu or brochure in a foreign language.
Extensive reading.
Another useful technique, still used today, is extensive reading. A number of studies show that general
exposure to a language, and a lot of it, helps increase understanding and acquisition of the language.
Especially when combined with teaching. In other words, just reading books in a foreign language may not
be the most effective way to learn that language, but it certainly doesn't hinder you. And may even help
you, because you see more vocabulary words, more grammar structures, and more use of the language in
context. Many teachers today still ask students to read something everyday in the language they are
studying. I myself have a library of books in English that I let students borrow, so they will read more outside
of class and, hopefully, find joy of reading in English.
Guided Reading.
Sometimes, teachers will use guided reading with students to help them more easily comprehend a
particular story or reading material. Guided reading is like reading with scaffolds. The teacher covers specific
vocabulary that appears in the reading. And that students might not know. They may have explained parts
of the story in the native language. Or in a simpler language to help students understand. And of course,
they may also give students tests and quizzes to see how much they understood and learned from
the guided reading activities. Guided reading helps students also learn different kinds of strategies for
language learning, as a teacher shows a learner how to break down passages into bite-size comprehensible
chunks. In short, while most language teachers no longer focus only on reading today, there are still many of
the techniques from the reading approach that are useful, especially in academic contexts. You may find
yourself using some of these from time to time, depending on your answers to the questions of purpose,
content, and technique for your particular teaching situation. Thanks for watching Teach English Now. In the
next video, we are going back to the 1940s to look at the audio lingual approach, should be fun, see you
then. [MUSIC]
Video 4: Back in Time: The Audio-lingual

Method
[MUSIC] Hello again, it's good to see you again at Teach English Now. So far in this module we've focused on
the reading approach which focuses solely on reading because, at that time in our history, it was assumed
that students would not likely travel or use the spoken forms of the language. Now, we are going to swing
to the other side of the pendulum and take a peak at what was referred to as the audio-lingual approach, or
audio-lingual method. The audio-lingual method came about in the 1940's at the beginning of World War
II. It was born out of a need to have soldiers who could communicate with French allies and interpret
German messages. These soldiers needed to learn the languages quickly and accurately, and focused mainly
on spoken language and less on the written forms. Audio-langualism was heavily influenced by the
behaviorist theories of B.F.
Skinner who was a famous psychologist at that time. When you think of
behaviorism, think of Pavlov's dogs. Basically, behaviorists believed that you could train humans to do
anything, with the right amount of motivation. So, when the army needed to train hundreds of soldiers to
speak a language quickly, they turned to Skinner and other experts to help them out. So, let's take a trip
back to the 1940's and see what an audio-lingual classroom is like.
[SOUND] All right, soldiers. Repeat after me. [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN]
>> [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN] >> Soldier, you didn't do that right, now drop and give me ten.
That was a sorry excuse, soldier. But stand up and let's do it again. [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN]
>> [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN] >> What was that noise? Who are you? And where in the world did you come
from? You don't have authorization to be here. Apparently you do. Says here that I have been ordered
to answer six questions from you about language teaching in the Army. Looks like I got no choice, so what's
the first question? Why should we teach languages? [LAUGH]
Well, isn't it obvious? There's a war going on. These men have got to get over to Europe and save the world.
And to do that, they have got to speak with our allies. And spy on our enemies. And I've got six weeks to
teach them. So, we've got no time for nancying about. Now, give me the second question.
Who should we teach? We teach soldiers. Everyone in the army. If we don't, how are they going to talk
to the allies when they get over there?
Huh, what's the next question? You need me, soldiers. That's all you need. And I will [SOUND] motivate you
to speak language and do it correctly. If I can't find a teacher who speaks the language then I've made a
recording of my beautiful voice so you can all listen to my lovely sentences in your free time. If that doesn't
work, perhaps I can inspire you through my handy dandy guide book with lists of words or phrases I might
throw at you at any time. Next question. [NOISE]
One more time for those of you who apparently are especially slow. Are you listening to me? Repetition,
repetition, repetition. You learn by repetition, saying the words or phrases over and over until you can say
them correctly and automatically without having to think about it too much.
Next question. Why are you giving me a question with the same answer? If you were one of mine, I'd. All
right. Teachers teach by drilling the students over and over until they get it right. I have my students repeat
every word or phrase at least ten times in class so I can make sure they're doing it right. If they don't get it
right in class then, well, they have to go and practice in all that free time we give them. Until at last they've
got it. The only way for them to learn the language is through repetition.
What's the last question? Help students acquire language. I don't help you learn the language, I will make
you learn the language, soldier! Believe you me, by the time I'm done with you, you will be saying
[FOREIGN] like the rest of my solders. Now, excuse [FOREIGN], I have to get back to my class! One more
time ya sorry sacks! Repeat after me, [FOREIGN]? >> [FOREIGN] >> [FOREIGN] [MUSIC]
Video 5: Angel and Devil Debate: The Audio-

lingual Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to the present day and to Teach English Now. Did you like the audio method? As I
may have mentioned before, this method really came about because of the needs to teach a lot of soldiers
foreign languages in a short amount of time. In fact the audio lingual approach is sometimes called the army
method.
[SOUND] Oh yeah, now this is a method I can sink my teeth into. The whole listen to me or else thing! Very
appealing. Is anyone supposed to learn a language with someone yelling at them all the time and forcing
them to do push ups? Who cares? I just like the deliciousness of a system that understand absolute power.
Drill and kill, baby. Well.
[SOUND] Look, that drill sergeant. He was a little severe, I'll give you that but once again, you don't know
what you're talking about. Not everyone who uses the audio lingual approach is a drill sergeant and I have
never seen a teacher in this method, actually make students do push ups. These teachers simply understood
how repetition helps people learn and they use repetition to help students learn language faster and easier.
Students learn real language they can use from the very beginning and memorizing the words and phrases
help them communicate even if they are just beginning. Think of it as creating a bank full of useful phrases.
Phrases that you will be able to call upon when the time is right. I'm the one that doesn't understand? Look,
a memorize a group of phrases is not the same as knowing language. What's the point in memorizing a
phrase, if you can't understand all the ways someone may respond to your question or sentence? Do you
know how many answers there are, even to the simplest question? How are you? I'm fine. Doing good!
Great! Never better! Not bad! Simply peachy! Out of this world! Unbelievably well! Can't complain. Look,
over time as students learn more phrases, they can say more complex things. Eventually, they know enough
words and phrases to get by. It's a start. If you have a limited amount of time and you have got to learn a
different language, it only makes sense that you would be given simple functional ways to communicate.
How is this for simple and functional? Drop dead.
[LAUGH] Well, I never.
[SOUND] Well, it's certain that those two just don't get along. Which do you agree with? Although critics of
the audio lingual approach give many arguments similar to our devil, we must concede that it worked well
enough to serve the Army's purposes back in World War II. And the truth is that there are many aspects of
the audio lingual approach that still exist in classrooms today. In the next video, we'll take a look at some of
the things we've learned from the audio lingual approach. And talk about what you can do in your
classroom to help students learn using this method. See you next time. [MUSIC]
Video 6: What Have We Learned?:

The Audio-lingual Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now! Let's take a closer look at the audio-lingual approach and
discuss what teachers have learned from this approach that still applies today. Before we do that, however,
we should look at what principles make the foundation of the audio-lingual approach, so you can
understand how to apply it to your own teaching. As we said earlier, the audio-lingual approach is based on
the idea of language learning as habit formation. If the vocabulary and grammar of the new language
is a habit, students won't have to think about what to say, it will be automatic. Thus, the teacher's job is to
help students form the habits they need by providing practice, repeatedly. The audio-lingual method also
incorporated behavioral psychology, using rewards or reinforcements to help students form those habits. In
our visit to the 1940s, we saw the general reinforce habits he wanted his students to form by making sure
they do pushups when they didn't get it right. There was even a concept that is often referred to
overlearning, which was a theory that suggested that practicing new skills beyond the point of initial
mastery leads to durable, long-term gains. Because of the need to practice repeatedly, the audio-lingual
method relies on several different types of language drills to help learners form habits.
Drills like the single-slot substitution drill, where students replace one word or phrase for
another in a line they have already memorized.
Or the transformation drill, where teachers ask students to transform a line they have already
memorized into a different grammatical form.
Sometimes drills were turned into games. One example of this is the chain drill or chain
game. In this game, one student begins by saying a line, such as, I like swimming. The next student then
repeats the first student's line and adds their own, such as, she likes swimming. I like watching television.
This type of drill allows for repetition while putting the communication into a specific context with limited
responses. Of course, not everyone agreed that language acquisition is only forming new habits. Linguists
such as Noam Chomsky wrote articles that criticized the audio lingual method, pointing out that
people understand sentences they never heard before and create new sentences they have never said
before. Eventually, many people considered the audio lingual approach to be less effective than other
methods available at the time. Still, there are some things that we have certainly learned.
Use of language labs and habit formation drills.

Today, most teachers combine techniques from the audio-lingual approach with other approaches to teach
language. One example of this can be found in the language lab. Language labs are typically setup with
technology that allows students to listen to recordings of the language they are learning. And either practice
repeating those same phrases or applying to those phrases. Some technologies allow students to record
their responses and send them to the teacher for grading. Teachers can have students do different types of
drills for practice outside the classroom and focus on other things inside the classroom.
Minimal pairs.
Teaching pronunciation is another area where teachers may turn to the audio-lingual approach. Teaching
pronunciation often involves having the students listen and repeat until they can produce the phrase or
word understandably. Teachers will often use minimal pairs, which is a pair of words or phrases with only
one sound that is different. Students are often asked to first listen to one of the pair and point out which
one they heard, and are then later asked to say one of the pair with either the teacher or another student
pointing to which one they think the student said.
Dialogues and memorization.
Today, many foreign language teachers still use dialogues and memorization as a way to introduce
vocabulary and grammar, and to get students speaking the language initially. Students feel a sense of
accomplishment when they're able to interact with another student using a dialogue they have just
memorized or created on their own. Once the students are more advanced, however, they will need more
interaction with the language in real situations and authentic context, to help them progress in their
language learning.
Gamification.
Another thing I would like to point out has to do with rewards and reinforcement in society today. Most of
you are probably familiar with video games. And there has been a movement in education to use some of
the principles of gaming in educational contexts. A big part of this involves reinforcement and and principles
of behavioral psychology. Learners are awarded points for completing a specific task, and rankings are kept
to see who the top students are in the class of a particular group. Thus, we are seeing a return to some
of the principles that influence the audio-lingual approach even now. Well, that's it for module three. Thank
you for watching. In module four, we'll take a look at two more approaches to language teaching, the
cognitive approach the effective humanistic approach. See you next time. [MUSIC]
The Navajo Code Talkers

by Jessica Cinco
The Audio Lingual Approach was a direct result of American involvement in World War II. The United States Army
developed the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or more informally, “The Army Method" to help
American soldiers quickly learn the languages of allies and enemies alike so that they could effectively
communicate when sent to the European front. This method laid the groundwork for the Audio Lingual Approach
by focusing on aural/oral skills, especially pronunciation, pattern drills and practiced conversations (Brown,
2007).
The Second World War also caused the American military to take a closer look at some of the nation’s native
languages. One goal of the Army Method was the make soldiers proficient in the enemies’ languages to intercept
communications. However, the American military needed to keep its own communications out of enemy hands,
especially after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The solution for this need for secrecy came in a very interesting
package, proposed by Philip Johnston , a civil engineer in Los Angeles. Johnston was the son of
missionary parents, who grew up on a Navajo reservation. As a result, he spent his youth totally embedded in
this Native American language and culture. His idea, of using the Navajo language to communicate top secret
messages, led to the development of the Navajo Code Talkers (Adkins, 1997).
Originally, 29 Navajo young men were recruited for this communications assignment. Later, because of the
success of the Code Talkers, an additional 400 Navajo men enlisted to continue this project. These young men
were sent to the Pacific Islands where the American military was fighting. The Navajo Code Talkers successfully
sent and received classified messages from the U.S. to the Pacific Islands, which ended up saving hundreds of
American lives (Mosbacker, 2015).
Here are a few examples of Navajo Code Translation that Mosbacker (2015) include in her article:
Organizations Navajo Word Translation

Corps Din-neh-ih Clan
Division Ashih-hi Salt
Regiment Tabaha Edge Water
Battalion Tacheene Red Soil
Officers Navajo Word Translation
Commanding General Bih-keh-he War Chief
Major General So-na-kih Two Star
Colonel Atsah-besh-le-gai Silver Eagle
Major Che-chil-be-tah-ola Gold Oak Leaf
Captain Besh-legai-nah-ki Two Silver Bars
Lieutenant Besh-legai-a-la-ih One Silver Bar
The officers' Navajo literal translations are actually descriptions of the officers' insignia worn on their uniforms.
Even with such simple, literal translations, since the enemies weren't familiar with Navajo, or any Native
American language for that matter, the Navajo Code was never decoded by America's enemies.
This is just one example of how linguistics played a vital role in World War II. Take a moment to reflect on how
language, either your own or another, has been used as a method for secret communication.
References:
Adkins, Adam (1997). Secret War: The Navajo Code Talkers in World War II. New Mexico Historical Review.
Retrieved November 16, 2015 from https://ejournals.unm.edu/index.php/nmhr/article/viewFile/2171/1983
Brown, H. Douglas (2007). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.
Mosbacker, Krista (2015). Navajo Code Talkers. Intersections: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Thought. Retrieved
November 16, 2015 from http://www.uvu.edu/is/intersections/intersections/volume12.pdf#page=20
Video 1: Back in Time:

The Cognitive Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. We are ready to go to a very interesting period in time. When
researchers began to leave their mark on the language learning world. While behaviorists dominated
language learning thinking in the 40's and 50's, it would be accurate to suggest that the number of studies
produced in the late 60's and early 70's, by cognitive scientists put language learning on the
university map. And language studies was now perceived as a serious discipline that could indeed be
researched and understood. This was a time when many universities established linguistics and language
departments, and provided funding for investigative research. Much of this research focused on how the
brain processes language and how language structures and knowledge are acquired and remembered. Thus,
it was called the cognitive approach. Let's set the dial to 1960 and you can see for yourself.
[SOUND]
The analogical modeling of language would assume the errors of a learner in terms of a learner himself, and
what we can understand about that learner. Thus, that impenetrable black box, which we know as the
mind, would become understood by recognizing the response to the stimuli we have given it. I have several
computer simulations I would like to run, and oh, oh, oh. Hello. Wow. That's a lot of humans. I'm not used
to talking to people. I usually just talk to my handy dandy cath 5272 here. Wow. And girls. [LAUGH] You sure
are pretty. Oh sorry nevermind, what are you doing here? Six questions. Okay sure, I'll answer your
questions. I actually love investigative research. Investigate away.
Do you know what would be really great? If I could program them with all of the rules of language. If I could
just learn all of the rules, then we should teach computers, well we could teach computers how to talk. I
believe that if we learn all the rules, we can program a computer to be just like a human. Wouldn't that be
scientific? I could publish. I could publish a plethora of articles and books. How about that?
I don't like teaching humans. I prefer programming and well, I do love observing humans, I do collect data
on the errors that they make. In fact, if computers are like people then I can likely predict not only the
errors that humans make, but the rules that are going inside, inside of their heads. And if people are like
computers then well, we could teach anyone another language by just programming them correctly. If they
make a mistake then I will teach them the rule and then they won't make the mistake again I mean right?
We need grammar rules. We need to know, really, all the rules because people make mistakes so when they
make mistakes, you just need to teach them the rule. And the rule immediately so that you can give them
the corrective feedback. And then you teach them and keep teaching them until they don't make the
mistakes anymore.
Hm, well, they need to know the rules. And we need to teach them the rules and then they won't forget. My
job is to find all of the rules of every language. It's a job I take very seriously and I will write books about all
of the rules and then students will read. Did you know in fact there are 50 meanings of the word so? Hm.
People need to know all the rules.
So, one class I will teach all of the rules of the word so, just like I was explaining. I'll give all 50 meanings.
And that should help students a lot in how to learn how to speak a language correctly. And did you know
that there are 150 rules of the comma and I want to teach all 150 rules. In fact, I have a book I'm rather
proud of that I'm publishing at the end of the month. It's called, The Comma. [LAUGH] That should help a lot
of people to not make the same mistakes they've been making all the time with that comma. It's a pretty
tricky little thing, don't you think? Any other questions?
The more information we give the learner in terms of corrective feedback and the more knowledge that we
have as we study the language the better we can serve our students. I guess that's it. Hey, do any of you
want to buy my books? I think I may have a couple around here somewhere. Well, if any of you would like
to co-publish with me, that also would be great. I'm always looking for a partner to co-publish. You know
what they say, publish or parish. I gotta get out of here really, I've been stuck in this basement for a long
time, any chance I can come with you to see the future? It sounds so exciting. Man, I am so bored, I've got
to get a girlfriend. Wait, don't go! >> [MUSIC]

The cognitive approach to language learning stemmed from larger disciplines, such as those found in the
world of psychology and sociology. You may have noticed in this language approach there is a rather
scientific understanding of language learning. And, that understanding the mind was a serious and exciting
endeavor. You'll also notice that the metaphor of the mind as a computer is used to help us understand
what these scientists were trying to understand. Why do language learners make errors? What is going on
in our mental processes that cause errors? How do certain processes become automatic? Noam
Chomsky, a noted sociologist and cognitive scientist noted that people possess the ability to produce
language that has never before been produced. And that behaviorist approaches simply couldn't explain the
fact that we say things that have never before been said. That's a great thought. And what is also worth
noting is that the cognitive approach truly inspired people to learn how languages functioned and what
rules were at play in each language. Linguistics departments all over the world, became avant garde. Cutting
edge places to put a scientific lens to language study. Leading to publications and an explosion of interesting
research and fascinating ideas. Fascinating? What in the world is fascinating about publishing in a journal?
Ladies, honestly, any of you find ol' four eyes here to be a fascinating man? Anyone wanna sign up to hang
out with that guy for an evening. Yeah, I didn't think so.
[MUSIC] Do you know what really is fascinating? The idea that we can actually look at language from a
scientific lens and really learn how people learn and what people know. The human capacity for
language is amazing. We can learn about principles such as retrieval, semantic encoding, retention and
transfer. We can really get a peek inside the brain and figure out what we can do to help people learn
better.
>> Aah, I have a headache, listen people are not computers. Do I need to say this slowly so you'll
understand? Okay, people are not computers. You don't just find out what they are doing wrong and then
tell them they're doing it wrong and then expect that they get it right the next time. The metaphor itself is
just so completely flawed.
>> The metaphor may be flawed, as all metaphors are, but you have to admit that there are some parallels.
If we look at the kinds of errors our learners make, and if we see that there is consistency in these errors,
we can be better informed in understanding what errors are normal. What errors resist change and
then what we can do about it.
>> Oh what you can do about it. Do you see my point? Of course you don't. Just because you know that
errors are being made doesn't mean that you can help people figure out a way around them. And haven't
we already learned that teaching people tedious rules and giving them explicit grammar instruction is an
excellent way to make everyone hate your class? I mean I guess it doesn't matter if you're already
unpopular.
>> I am too popular. Ooh, how do you know that? Did your mommy tell you how popular you are?
>> Seriously? Mom joke? [SOUND]
>> The cognitive approach truly didn't become an actual teaching approach. Rather it was more a way to
understand a learner than anything else. However it did inform learning in key ways and cognitive studies
continue to this very day to help us understand key features about language learning strategies. In the next
video, we'll consider some of those language learning strategies and discuss ways in which the cognitive
approach can help you. As a language instructor, see you then. [MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Hello again. Like I said before, the cognitive approach isn't exactly a teaching approach as much as
it is a way to understand a learner. But that doesn't mean that there aren't key take aways for teachers in a
language classroom. Let's discuss a few of these ideas now.
Language learner strategies. Cognitive and meta-cognitive.
First of all, one of the great concepts that is directly tied to the cognitive approach is that learners have both
cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies that they use in order to learn. Teachers that study these strategies
can understand learners, different learning styles and then try to accommodate learners as a result. There
are entire books, not as boring as a book about a comma, on learner strategies. And entire disciplines
devoted to the use of learner strategies effectively used in a classroom. These books help learners and
teachers understand how to plan, organize, and monitor learning. In fact, it wouldn't be entirely incorrect to
say that cognitive scientists helped us move away from teacher centered views about language learning,
and closer to the student centered strategies we use today. For those of you who have taken our first
course, Foundational Principles, remember that we discuss certain strategies such as practice. Cognitive
theorists spend a lot of time discussing the process of practice and they break it down into key components.
For example, one of former practice is often termed, rehearsal.
A rehearsal might be defined as speaking practice that can be done by yourself, I often practice in front
of a mirror. Or with a partner or group. And come to fine out, there are several steps to a successful
rehearsal.
A rehearsal of language often involves pre-learning vocabulary. Often enhanced by writing down
vocabulary words to help chunk certain ideas together.
Second, learners often have to slow down during particularly difficult linguistic structures, like a hard to
pronounce word or difficult grammatical item.
Finally students have to repeat the process so that the difficult sections and the easier sections move
together until it feels more authentic, more automatic.
Interestingly enough cognitive scientists noticed that thinking of location and audience gives the learner
better recall and understanding. Thus cognitive theorist would definitely recommend extensive practice and
practice that involves a clear understanding of the mental processes associated with practice.
Feedback on errors and explicit grammar instruction.
Another important cognitive science concept that language teachers use today is the need to give student
feedback on their errors rather than punishing or ignoring the use of errors. Errors especially those that an
entire group of learners makes help give an instructor information on mental process, thus by examining
common errors, error types can be identified, examined, and then attempts to clarify those errors can be
made. Are errors bad? No! They give you a window to examine what is going on in the minds of your
learners. And in fact, errors help a teacher understand what rules should be explicitly taught. Grammatical
rules it is argued can help learners receive the necessary information to overcome certain language rules.
While the amount of explicit grammar instruction is debated in today's world, most teachers find
themselves in the position of providing clear grammar instruction to those who continue to make certain
errors.
Pre-reading and pre-listening activities.
Recognizing that the mind doesn't just receive instruction all at once, cognitive scientists would most likely
recommend activating background knowledge, using pre-reading and pre-listening activities. Pre-reading
and pre-listening activities are very common in most language textbooks, and can come in a variety of
forms. For example, you might see an activity that shows a simple picture, and asks students to explain what
they see. This picture engages students to think of language that is likely going to be seen in the reading or
listening activity. Thus, if you were teaching an activity about going to a restaurant, you might see a picture
of a restaurant featured in the anticipatory activity. The basic concept is that you want
to activate a student's mind. Engage them in ideas and thoughts that they already know. So that you
stimulate the same part of the brain that you will be requiring them to use in the future reading or
listening activity.
Other Cognitive Processes.
There are a number of cognitive processes that we will discuss in our third course about lesson design. In
Robert Gagne,
fact, we will loosely base lesson plan design on the work of cognitive scientist who
suggests a number of different steps of instruction for appropriate learning to take place. In the future, we
will discuss such concepts as gaining attention, reception, informing learners of objectives, expectancy,
stimulating recall of prior learning, retrieval, and other steps intended to help learners retain information.
Lesson planning with the learner in mind is a powerful way to ensure that instruction isn't simply left to a
learner to solve. Rather a wise instructor can carefully build lesson plans so that students will receive the
information in a way that allows them to hold on to that information.
Now, let's do as cognitive scientists would suggest and do a little predicting exercise, a great mental process.
Anyone have any idea how the pendulum might swing next? The cognitive approach looked an awful lot at
the mind of a learner, didn't it? And it also focused a lot on research and studies and got a little bit away
from students themselves. What do you think the next approach might look like? Let's find out in our next
video here at teach English now, see you then. [MUSIC]

The Affective-Humanistic Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now! Once again, it is time to go take a look at the historical past.
In this video, we are going to the tail end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s, to a time
in US and world history where a great deal of emphasis was placed on the student's feelings. Rather than
viewing language through a cognitive space, this approach, the affective humanistic approach focused on
the value of human beings in society and culture. Hold on tight. I have set the dial to 1970. Here we go.
[MUSIC] Oh, you poor things. You look so tired. Wouldn't you all like to sit down? I have individually rugs for
each of you that I have stitched out of tree root from my garden in the back. Feel free to sit down there, and
maybe you there, and maybe you there. Oh, yeah. Oh, yeah, that's better. I also have some tea. In fact,
Americans in the South call it sweet tea. And I have a wonderful story to explain the Southern tea tradition a
bit later. I might even speak in a Southern accent, and I'll talk about sweet tea. That's just something I like to
do. But first, let's give you all new names, why don't we? Let's call you Paul, you Sam. What am I thinking?
Why don't you all choose your own names, and write it on your name tags. Thank you. You're all so great.
Do you feel that? I feel like we've already bonded. I hear you have six questions for me. [MUSIC] [LAUGH]
Let me do that again, I love it so much.
[MUSIC] Please, what's your first question? Well my dears, why don't you tell me? I'm very interested in
hearing your feelings and the reasons you have decided to learn English. I would love to help each of you
with your buried goals and your thoughts. I for one, I love to teach languages so that I can show you all the
ways that English can touch your heart. Oh, the stories I have to share.
That's a good question. I consider myself a second chance teacher. Do you know what I mean? Second
chance, I mean that sometimes students come into my class and feel like they haven't been successful
before. They feel like they aren't good learners, and oh, baby, I like to turn that around. I like them to see
how valuable they are, and how in my place, in my space we're all loved and we are all equal. We all go
through this experience together. Some of you may feel like you can't learn a language. And I'm here to tell
you that you need to expand your mind. Because guess what? You can.
First, oh, oh, would you like more tea? Anyway, first there's no doubt that I will be using, well let me turn
on some music, too. What do you think of Mozart? Fantastic, isn't he? Mind-blowing, just gets me in the
mood to teach. And now, what was the question? And don't you just love the pictures behind me and all
over? They're just so bright and beautiful like my shirt. Oh, we'll be discussing these to discuss some
vocabulary words for our story about sweet tea. Do you like it, do you like the mood of this room? I was
hoping you would. Oh, and yes, and feel free to use the musical instruments you see all around you.
[MUSIC] I really do.
I want you to free your mind. I want you to relax, enjoy. Everyone knows that language takes place on two
planes of consciousness. One is the conscious mind, but I want to open up your subconscious mind. This will
allow you to learn faster and better. Just stay calm and enjoy. You can do it.
How should a teacher teach? Well today we are going to learn our story about Brer Rabbit and Brer Bear.
These are old stories, Southern stories. And the great thing about this story is that we will have a
dramatization afterwards. [LAUGH] We'll have auditions. Does anyone want to be a big strong bear? Anyone
want to be a clever rabbit? Just to let you know he is my favorite, and he is the hero in our story. But don't
worry. You don't have to decide who you want to be just yet, there will be a song. I'll sing it to you. And it'll
help understand who each of these characters are and then after we can decide. And for those of you that
don't want to act, I don't want to mess up your groove. Don't worry, if you don't want to play one of these
three characters, you can just join me in singing the song. It's all groovy. That's a fantastic question too. I
feel that. The music and the movement will help you remember. The colors and the pictures and
the costumes will help you remember. Relaxing will help you remember. You will help you remember
if you let go and let me show you a whole different world. [MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now, and welcome back from your journey to 1970. We hope you
enjoyed learning about our representative teacher for the effective humanistic approach. In this approach,
we see several unique techniques that might have been used in methods referred to as
de-suggestapedia or the silent way. In de-suggestapedia, which the last video was
loosely based on, the concept was to help the students overcome their fear of language learning through an
environment that would unlock the potential of their conscious and subconscious mind. The idea was that
[SOUND].
>> Oh yeah, I am freeing my mind. Exactly what was in that tea anyway? Because it looked fantastic.
>> [MUSIC]
>> A drug reference. Hilarious. Look, we have obviously swung from one side of the pendulum to the other.
And the easiest thing to point out is that the cognitive approaches focus on the mind, made certain theorists
feel like what was missing was a recognition of students' feelings. No doubt it is important to consider the
effective part of language learning. Risk taking, fear of failure, all of these important principles, we need to
consider.
>> Oh, my feelings are so important. And it's just so scary to learn a language. I need someone to tuck me in
to my nice, warm bed and make all the monsters go away. [INAUDIBLE] Someone help me with my feelings.
Give me a break. This method makes it seem like your average student is treated like a defenseless baby
and that teachers, seriously, shouldn't you be at a Jimi Hendrix concert with all the rest of his hippie friends.
>> I'm glad you brought up music. Shows you were at least paying attention sometimes. Yes, the effective
humanistic approach brought music to a classroom. It brought color. It brought food and story. It helped
teachers be human. And to acknowledge how humans actually learn. Didn't you love the idea of posters all
over the room or musical instruments or a bag full of costumes that students can wear. What an exciting
way to keep students interest.
>> Well, if wearing bunny ears, or dancing around like a bear is your idea of learning a language, count me
out. And I certainly don't need a teacher to tell me about my feelings.
>> That's obviously because you don't have any.
>> Ouch. If I had feelings, that attempt at an insult might have hurt me. See you later Mr. Sensitive.
>> Being sensitive is a good thing, you [NOISE]
>> All in all, the effective humanistic approach brought much needed attention to the learner as a human
being. No doubt there was a gap in our understanding of how learners interact with language content, and
that there was a significant need to recognize potential psychological barriers to language learning. But does
any of this translate into how teachers teach today? Find out in our next video, and
thanks for watching Teach English Now. [MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back. So what are some of the potential concepts from the affective humanistic approach
that are still useful in today's modern language classroom? Well, no doubt, teachers still show general
concern for how students might feel within their classroom. And it is extremely useful to understand
principles of language learning such as the effective filter, which we went over in some detail in our
first course Foundational Principles. But there are also specific techniques that are still used today that were
popularized by the methods found within this effective humanistic approach.
Positive Reinforcement.
While maybe not so deliberate in today's classes, the idea of positive reinforcement still resonates among
lots of teachers today. Since many language learners, young and old find it difficult to learn a new language,
helping learners to take risks and be comfortable, especially being comfortable making mistakes is a
powerful way to engage students in language learning.
Multiple Concerts.
Again, perhaps not so deliberately, but what used to be done to help students receive information was to
listen to a dialogue or reading more than once.
The first time through, students would listen to a dramatic reading with a copy of the script in front of them
and it might even be done in concert with the rhythm and intonation of a piece of classical music.
The second time through, they would be invited to listen to the dialog at a normal rate of speed and maybe
take some notes afterwards.
A third time through, they might be asked to complete an outline of their notes.
They idea is that learning doesn't just happen with a single pass and that students can get more and more
information through each additional concert. Secondarily, it helps students recognize that it isn't necessary
to capture every single word the first time through and that success can happen through repeated effort.
Dramatization.
Having stories and then acting out those stories help to reinforce vocabulary and grammatical items, as well
as allow learners to enjoy the concepts they are learning. Have you ever been in a class where you were
asked to represent someone else? Where you even had to act? In some sense, by permitting students to be
different people or different characters, they can lose themselves in a moment and embrace the silliness of
a dramatization. No doubt, it is a time for active learners to demonstrate their performance abilities.
However, one note is that not all learners tend to enjoy acting out in front of large groups and so
accommodations should be made to allow all to participate. Often, I will have students join the scriptwriting
team or the performance team, which allows some of them to show their ability to create a performance
without actually having to perform. Just an idea.
So modern teacher, you have now been given some possible techniques you might include in your own
teacher tool box. Positive reinforcement, multiple readings of a dialogue, sometimes called a concert and
the use of dramatization or other ways to help engage students and especially get their creative juices
flowing. I have found that some of the most enriching activities are those that allow students to stop
learning and start creating and I strongly encourage you to allow your students to do the same. See you
next time on Teach English Now. [MUSIC]
Role Playing in the Classroom

by Jessica Cinco
As a creative extrovert, one of my favorite techniques of the Affective Humanistic Approach is the use of
dramatizations, or skits, in the classroom. I have fond memories of language learning, both in my high school
German classes, and later, as an EFL teacher in Korea, in my Korean classes, of creating and performing skits for
different situations. I remember acting out scenes in hotels, restaurants and tourist locations with my friends in
German class. I was always the goofy character, asking challenging questions or giving unexpected answers. Later
on in Korean class, I remember crafting specific skits for talking to taxi drivers, buying movie tickets, and asking
about bus schedules. Prior to these skits, my teachers primed the students by instructing us in target grammar
and vocabulary.
Heather Benucci offers teachers a multi-faced dramatization activity about jobs, rooted in the Affective
Humanistic Approach but also extended using some Communicative Approach techniques that you’ll later learn
about in Unit 5. Here is Benucci’s activity, from the English Teaching Forum (2015).
Video 7:
Summary
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. In this module, we visited the 1960s and the early 1970s to
take a look at the cognitive approach and the affective-humanistic approach. This was an interesting time in
our history, when research and peoples' general attitudes towards life and others, influenced the way
teachers taught in the classroom. In this video we'll look at the important ideas from both approaches and
then compare them to help you see both points of view.
The cognitive approach was heavily influenced by researchers in psychology and sociology. Developments in
technology allowed scientists to run simulations and see images of the brain at work. This fueled the desire
to know how language was processed in the brain, and how languages were learned. Because most
researchers are attached to universities, there was also a great need to publish articles and books about the
research. And indeed, some researchers became fairly well known in their fields and beyond. Noam
Chomsky, a famous researcher of the time, was known for his research in many disciplines including
linguistics. One important thing we need to stress about the cognitive approach is that it is not a classroom
approach. Much of the research at this time was done in labs and not in classrooms and very few of the
researchers were actually teachers themselves. People in this approach were more focused on the
characteristics of the learners' brains than they were on specific materials or content. Similarly, these
researchers did not examine any particular techniques or teaching methods. They focused more on the
learner characteristics and strategies learners could use to improve their practice and recall of language
information.
The affective-humanistic approach is almost exactly the opposite of the cognitive approach. In the early
1970s, people began to focus a lot on learners' feelings, and looking for ways to remove some of the
barriers to language learning that many learners experienced in the classrooms of the past. The major focus
was on making learners comfortable and providing a soothing learning experience. Our caricature brought
in tea, music, colorful posters and aromas. He also had students sitting on mats instead of at desks and
talked on a soothing voice. Teachers in this approach used plays and customs, told stories and played games
with their students, all the while, respecting their feelings and striving to make them feel comfortable. Some
techniques from this approach included positive reinforcement, having students choose a new identity to
get them out of their shells and encourage experimentation in the language, and being spontaneous and
creative. Teachers often repeated reading and listening exercises multiple times, each time focusing on
different aspects in combining these exercises with music or smells to unlock the subconscious mind. They
often had students create using singing and dancing and games to help students free their minds. It's time
once more for you to consider each of these approaches and how you feel about the important points
we've discussed form each. Then, you can complete the writing prompt by sharing which principles you
agree with and which ones you disagree with and why. And by sharing which techniques you would like to
apply in the classroom. As always your peers will be able to review your responses and provide feedback.
Thanks for watching, in our next module we'll be looking at the last two approaches we cover in this course,
the comprehension approach and the communicative approach. See you then.
The Comprehension Approach
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. So far we have discussed six different approaches to language
teaching covering almost 100 years of research and evolving theories. As we discussed earlier, each of these
differing approaches gravitates toward one end of our swinging pendulum. Representing extremes and
theories of how languages should be taught and learned. As we get closer to the present day,
we will focus on a more balanced approach. Taking what we have learned from each of the different
approaches to form our own philosophy of language teaching. And answering the questions for ourselves of
who, why, what and how. In this module, we will cover the final two approaches. The comprehension
approach and the communicative approach. This video will take a look at the comprehension approach. This
approach is based on the research and writings of Stephen Krashen, who we have mentioned in other
courses and James J Asher.
Krashen asserted that student's learn language through comprehensible input. And that teaching should
focus on helping student's comprehend language. Much like a child learns.
Asher created a teaching method based on the comprehension approach called Total Physical Response. We
may see some of this method when we go back in time in just a few minutes. This focus on comprehension
and giving learners time to process language before having to speak makes the comprehension approach
somewhat similar to the direct approach. However, for the comprehension approach there is a stronger
focus on actual language input and lowering the effective filter that sometimes inhibits students acquiring
language. So, let's set our time machine for 1980 as we take a closer look at the comprehension approach.
[SOUND] [FOREIGN]. Welcome, it's good to see you. Where did you come from? The future? Six questions
about the comprehension approach? Well, I'm sure I can answer six questions. I hope I can help you
understand how the comprehension approach helps students learn languages. What's the first question?
Well, let me see if I can break this down for you. Of course, we want students to be able to understand
what they hear in the target language. They need to feel confident in their language ability and increase in
their knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and so on by listening. Listening to real language
input and really understanding it. Eventually, they'll be confident enough that they will begin to speak and
produce language, as well as understand it. Did any of you learn any of my words in my invented language
of [FOREIGN]? Did anyone understand that I asked my students to turn to page 44? Oh, very good! Or
should I say, [FOREIGN].
Well, ideally we should teach whoever wants to learn a language. However, our main goal is to help
learners develop the desire to learn the language for the joy of learning and not for external motivations.
Also, those who learn languages faster will generally do better in this approach. I hope you saw how my
approach attempts to create some mystery in learning and give its learners a chance to become curious.
Who can become curious? Just about anyone.
To teach effectively, we need lots of physical objects and realia. Things that students already know and are
familiar with, like objects in a classroom. We also use observable actions to teach verbs such as jump, sit or
open your book. Sometimes these verbs or objects are combined with chunks of language such as common
phrases or greetings. So that learners can begin to understand all aspects of verbal communication in the
target language.

Just like children learn their first language, students should be allowed to just listen. And begin to
understand it before they are asked to produce any language. We call this, a silent period, and depending
on the learner, a silent period can be short or long. During the silent period we help students gain
confidence. By giving them language input that is just above their current level of understanding. And using
physical actions to make connections between what they are hearing and what they already know.
A teacher teaches language by combining commands, such as sit down or open your book. In the target
language with physical actions that the students can observe and therefore, follow. We may combine these
into sequences of actions. Sometimes we will have students take on the role of teacher and have them work
with students at a lower level of understanding. This helps students use the language they know and
provide comprehensible input for those they are mentoring.
That's a good question. Students remember the language by connecting what they are already familiar with
to what they are learning. They then have opportunities to hear and use the language they know in very
specific situations. Which helps reinforce
what they've learned and makes their language knowledge more automatic. Thanks for visiting. [MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back. We didn't go back as far this time as we have in other modules and to tell you the
truth, the comprehension approach is still commonly used in many classrooms around the world. This
approach is based on ideas and research in linguistics and specifically, language acquisition in children. The
silent period our teacher mentioned is supposed to mimic the time when children are listening to their
parents and others around them and forming connections in their brain with regards to grammar and
vocabulary in their first language. Thus, there is a greater focus on comprehension and less on production.
[SOUND] Silent period? I'll bet that makes teaching really fun. Come on, children, you're going to sit
here and listen to me talk at you for an hour and hope that you understand something I am saying. After we
do this for a few months, you'll be able to perhaps understand the language. Oh, I'm so glad, I am not a
teacher using this stupid approach.
[SOUND] Oh, come on. You know perfectly well that it's not like that. First of all, teachers do not just talk
at students, they help their students. Understand what they are saying without translation by repeating
commands and using physical actions and commands. That ways, students learn what those commands
are in the language they're learning. The teacher wants them to feel successful and gain confidence, so they
eventually will begin speaking the language as well. Second, in any given classroom, there are always
learners who're more advanced than others and teachers can have those learners who've already begun
speaking the language take on the role of teacher and work with those who are still in their silent period.
Sometimes, I wish you had a silent period.
I'll have my silent period when you have yours, deal? What you're saying makes no sense. Sure, with young
children learning the first language a silent period may make sense. Children have years to listen and build
up language knowledge and experience before they actually begin really communicating in the language. I
can't imagine adults learning a second language to spend years just listening before they want to start
communicating in the language.
Well, obviously, people don't spend years listening. Part of the time, children spend in their silent period is
building those initial language connections and understanding what grammar and vocabulary are. When
working with students, they already know those things, so they just need to connect what they are learning
to what they already know. That makes things go a lot faster. Teachers can also make classes fun by mixing
actions to make nonsense commands that are fun for the students.
Oh, like you know about fun. That sounds about as fun as bingo nights. I bet you have a lot of fun where
you come from. Why don't you come visit me someday and I'll show you what real fun is.
[SOUND] No, thanks. I don't need your help to have fun.
[SOUND] Well, while they didn't agree, they both made some very good points. What do you think? All in
all, the comprehension approach has given us some very important insights into the language learning
process and what teachers can do to help lower students inhibitions when learning another language. In the
next video, we'll take a look at some of the things teachers still use from the comprehension approach and
how you can apply the principles of this approach in your own classroom if you so choose. See you then.
[MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. In this video, we'll look at some of the underlying principles
of the comprehension approach, and how you can apply them in your classroom. One of the most
important principles of the comprehension approach is the concept of the silent period.
The silent period refers to the time when a learner is either not confident enough in their speaking ability or
doesn't know enough of the language to begin speaking, and so is mostly silent.
During this time, learners are exposed to as much comprehensible input as possible and are forming
connections in their minds about grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. As they learn more
and begin to understand basic grammar and vocabulary, they will begin speaking and trying to
communicate in the language. The theorist behind the comprehension approach hypothesized that learning
a second language is much like learning a first language. And the silent way, was essential for the learners to
form their own concepts of the language and make those connections before they began speaking.
In addition to the silent period, another important concept is the idea of the effective filter.
Stephen Krashen put forth the idea that students' emotional state can severely affect their ability to make
the necessary connections in their minds, and keep them from learning a language as fast as they would
like. Situations where the students feel high amounts of anxiety or stress or where the effective filter is high,
make it difficult for students to focus on the language because they are more focused on their inadequacies
and limitations than they are on the language itself. By lowering the effective filter, or reducing the stress
and anxiety students feel, you increase their ability to focus on the language, and thus their ability to learn
the language. Giving students a silent period, where they are free to listen and internalize the language
before they are required to speak lowers the effect of filter and helps students acquire the language faster.
Of course, depending on the context you are teaching in, having learners delay the speaking of the language
until they feel they are ready, may have some negative consequences. I don't think the military would have
found this approach effective. And they may have had soldiers arrive in Europe only able to listen, because
they never felt they were ready to begin speaking. Still, there are some techniques found in this approach
that you may find useful in your classroom today.
Using only the target language in the classroom.
Today, many teachers feel that you should not use students native language in the classroom. And many
programs have English only policy, requiring their students to speak only English in the classroom, if that is
the language they are learning. In some situations, where classrooms are heterogeneous, using the native
language of the student is impractical, because most teachers don't speak that many languages, to the
fluency needed. However, it is common in non-English speaking countries to find classes where all the
students speak the same native language. In those situations, it is much more common to find use of the
native language in the classroom. By using only the target language in the class room, teachers can expose
their students to more comprehensible input. And provide more opportunities for their students to practice
in the target language. But you must be careful, strict enforcement of such policies can raise students’
effective filters, and actually make it harder for them to learn the language. Find a happy balance between
using the target language in the classroom and allowing occasional use of the native language, where
necessary and appropriate.
Use of Visual Aids to Convey Meaning.
In the comprehension approach, emphasis is placed on understanding meaning by connecting physical
actions and situations represented in pictures to the language input the students are hearing in the
classroom. For example, if the teacher says, sit down, in the target language while also sitting down, the
students learn the word for sit down. Similarly, they can learn the words for common household objects by
looking at pictures of the objects, while hearing the teacher say the corresponding vocabulary. Sometimes
real objects, also called realia, are brought into the classroom. For example, if you were teaching a unit on
food names, you might bring in real foods, such as fruits and vegetables to use during the lesson. Or you
may have plastic fruits and vegetables you can use instead. By combining physical actions, real objects, and
pictures of objects or situations with comprehensible input, you can help learners make the connection
between these objects or actions, and their corresponding vocabulary in the target language. This is the
very purpose of the total physical response technique we witnessed, on our visit to 1980.
Role Reversal.
Once students have learned enough during their silent period and are ready to begin speaking, you can
have those students assume the role of the teacher. By having them give commands to the other students
and the teacher. This gives them an opportunity to speak using language they already know, and to feel
successful when their classmates execute the commands they were given as expected.
Use of Simple Questions and Dialogues.
Another way to help encourage students to begin speaking, is to use simple questions. And other
situations, where the responses the students need to give are limited. For example, you can use simple yes,
no questions. Or questions where the answer is chosen from a list. You can ask questions about a situation
in a picture. Where the responses are limited to what the students see in the picture. By limiting the
possible responses and vocabulary choices, the students do not need to think as much about what to say
which perhaps, lowers the effective filter and lets them focus on what their currently learning. As students
gain confidence in language skills, you can move on to more advanced language situations.
Well, I hope you have a clear understanding of the Comprehension Approach, and how you can apply it in
your own classroom. In the next video, we will take a look at the other end of the pendulum, and focus on
the Communicative Approach. Which focuses on speaking and production of the language more than just
comprehension. See you then. [MUSIC]

The Communicative Approach
[MUSIC] Hello, nice to see you again at Teach English Now. Today we're going to take a look at the final
approach. It's called the communicative approach. This approach came about in the 1970s and early 80s and
focused on the overall goal of using language to communicate meaning. People began to realize that
effective communication required more than just a knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. And that there
were many different ways to communicate similar meanings. So it made little sense to teach only one way.
Additionally, the world was becoming smaller. And people were encountering situations where they needed
to speak a foreign language more frequently for work or for travel. These people didn't have the luxury
of time required by the comprehension approach. And needed to learn to communicate effectively in the
target language. So are you ready for our last time travel experience? We are heading back to 1980 again.
This time to look at the communicative approach. Let's go. [SOUND]
Well, hello. Welcome to my classroom, I'm glad you're here. A little bird told me you have six questions you
want to ask me about language teaching using the communicative approach. Well, as you can tell,
I like using games in class, so I thought we'd play a little game. I'm going to throw one of these
bean bags to one of you and whoever catches gets to ask me the first question. Sounds good? Great, here
we go. All right, great, all right, what's your question?
I'm a fun loving guy who loves cultures and meeting people from all over the world. To me, language is a
way to get to know different people. I want to learn your language so I can communicate with you and learn
more about you. I have always been fascinated by other cultures, and that fascination has led me into
teaching. Of course, now that I am a teacher I want you to learn my language, so you can communicate with
me and learn more about me. Really it's all about connecting people together, in order to create
opportunities for them to interact and grow closer together. It's about learning other cultures through
language. Language is a portal, it's a gateway. It's a way to understand someone and create a global society
of friends. Okay, can I have that bean bag back? Great thanks, all right let's try this again. Here we go! All
right, what's your question?
Well, really we should teach everyone, anyone who wants to learn. I mean, I have taught in Korea, Russia,
South America. The world has changed, in fact, it's shrinking. And we can actually play a part in helping to
globalize the world. Language teachers in that sense are something else. I guess you could say that I'm an
idealist because I really think I can change the world, don't you?
There are different ways to learn a language. Nobody is the same, right? Some people learn languages
through video and audio, others need to touch real objects and see pictures. Some others need games for
the classroom to be exciting and fun. Again, everyone's different, people learn a language when they care
about it. And if I care about students often they will care about me. I am always interested in using new
strategies and new techniques. And so I love to stay up on the latest in technology and teacher strategy. I
read a lot of blogs and even a few journals to make sure my techniques are well accepted. Sometimes
though, I feel like I don't really have enough time to learn what's out there. Kind of under a lot of pressure.
All right, give me that back, thanks. Okay, who's going to ask the next question, let's see. Oh, dropped that
one. A teacher should make learning fun and interesting. I've been teaching for a long time. In fact, I've
been teaching for almost three whole years. What I have learned is that the teacher can use games, high
interest topics, field trips, mobile devices, and websites. Whatever it takes to keep students engaged and
interacting in the language. Teachers need to know about lots of different things as well. I have been asked
to teach pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, speaking, listening, reading, writing, and culture. I help
students prepare for tests like the toefl, toeic, and ielts. I teach college students, military,
aviators, adults, children, whoever. A teacher needs to know a lot, and use that to help students learn
language. Hey, I'm always finding ideas from other people. I just wish I knew which ones were best. It seems
like, for me, there's almost too much to choose from. Okay, there's one more question, right? Why don't
you ask it? You help people remember a language by making your lessons memorable. You choose things
they are interested in, and use those to help them learn a language. You make it fun, if students are having
fun, hopefully they are engaged. They are motivated with the language, and that will help them to learn.
[MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back to, Teach English Now. What did you think of the communicative approach? Wasn't
the teacher fun and exciting? The communicative approach is so broad that what you see in the classroom
really depends on how you understand, and apply the principles of the communicative approach. So, to be
honest, two communicative classrooms could look very different. This gives teachers using this approach a
lot of freedom in what they do in the classroom and how they help their students acquire language.
>> Broad. Broad! [LAUGH] That's an understatement. It seems to me that the communicative teacher tries
to teach everything, so that what really he ends up teaching [LAUGH], is nothing. With such a broad
approach, how is a teacher supposed to know if he or she is applying the principles correctly? I am a tofu
teacher, pronunciation teacher, grammar teacher, business English teacher. Seriously he's been teaching
three whole years, he won't last five. And if he says he's and expert at everything, you know what that really
means. It means, he's an expert at nothing. He can't even figure out which techniques are actually sound
ones and which ones are just, well as he says just fun. [SOUND]
>> Teachers in the communicative approach don't teach everything. They focus on the goal of using
a language, communication. And they understand that differences among students require different
resources and different techniques, and I'm trying to be nice, so let me agree with you about something.
Gamification and fun techniques have become a staple of the communicative approach, but that doesn't
mean that it takes the place of sound education. Learning should always come before entertainment in a
sound, communicative approach. But the communicative approach, like other learner-centered approaches,
recognizes that students learn better when they are properly motivated, and yes, having a bit of fun.
>> Oh, and they are properly motivated when they get to play a game of Jeopardy. [LAUGH] Right.
>> That is not what I am saying. I am saying that engagement and understanding learners, and yes, perhaps
using games that students are familiar with can often help students participate better. It reduces the
effective filter and allows language learners to engage and understand in the classroom language. Think of it
this way. Just learning vocabulary and grammar doesn't help students communicate. So teachers focus on
aspects of engaging topics and activities to really help the students communicate. That means they may
have to teach multiple ways to use a single phrase or to put their teaching in to particular communicative, in
order to help students learn to communicate better. I love the use of materials that are as close to real
world as possible. Communicative teachers call these authentic materials.
>> Hold on! Sir, when a communicative teacher brings a menu to class, from Japan, that means that
suddenly, you are having an authentic Japanese experience. You can't expect communication in
the classroom to be authentic. The classroom is not the real world. So could you use the materials
in the classroom and then suddenly have it spring into being authentic and besides you can't expect
beginning learners to understand anything from authentic materials unless you are using children's
materials which, by the way, is really boring. And might I add, a bit condescending. Authentic materials just
won't work for everything. Only an idiot would think so.
>> I don't need to respond, I don't need to respond. Just breathe. I am above this. Okay. I suppose you sort
of have a point. For authentic materials to really work they have to be leveled appropriately. But when
things are given to students at the correct level, it truly engages them and helps them want to learn. The
communicative approach allows teachers to see how real language situations and communication principles
can be given to learners through carefully planned games and activities at the level. I would think even you
know that. Oh, I'm sorry. I shouldn't have insulted. I'm trying to do better. I'm so sorry. [SOUND]
>> Glad to see I'm rubbing off on you. Just remember to keep up those insults! We always have room for
one more. [LAUGH] [SOUND]
>> Well, those two sure get heated sometimes. At any rate, I hope you have a chance to look at the
communicative approach from both angles and examine your feelings and beliefs about these principles. In
the next video we'll take a look at the techniques you can apply in your classroom that are based on
the communicative approach. See you then. [MUSIC] [MUSIC]

[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. In this video, we're going to take a closer look at what we
have learned from the communicative approach, and give you some ideas on how you can apply the
principals of this approach in your classroom. In truth, we are still learning from the communicative
approach. Some people might say that we have moved on to a different approach that is similar to the
communicative approach in some way, and pulls from the other approaches we have discussed as needed
to fit the purpose, content and technique of each of the specific teaching contexts. We have, in a way,
swung the pendulum more toward the middle of all of the approaches, taking from each as we need to.
That being said, however, most teachers today still align themselves with the commutative approach. And it
forms the basis of many teacher's philosophy of language teaching. As you saw in video four, the purpose of
the communicative approach is to connect people together through language. And many teachers would
say, that this is their main purpose for teaching language. The content for this approach then is anything
that will help people connect through language, books magazines, movies, news papers, advertisements,
even restaurant menus. And the techniques used are just as broad, like the demo mentioned in our last
video, the communicative approach is so broad that perhaps, one of its biggest problems is that no one can
definitively say, what it's techniques and practices are? Furthermore, there is so much information today
that it is hard to know where to look. And yet one more difficulty is that teachers are given not only many
different strategies, but many different groups with different purposes, different learning styles and
teachers are expected to be experts of all of these different contexts. So some people feel the
communicative approach really doesn't have clear boundaries. And those within it, don't have a clear
concept of what to do within their classrooms. Still, teachers today are obviously doing something in their
classrooms, or this approach wouldn't exist today. So let's take a look at some of the common techniques
that fall under the communicative approach. Keeping in mind that there may be many others we don't
mention and that any activity or exercise that gets your students communicating in the target language,
maybe considered part of this broad understanding of the communicative approach.
Authentic Materials.
One of the biggest problem in any educational setting is getting students to take what they learned in the
classroom and apply it in the real world. And the same holds true for language teaching. How many
students actually transfer the knowledge they gained during classroom practice and activities, to language
situations they face outside the classroom. In order to aid in this transfer of language skills, teachers in the
communicative approach try to make the language practice in the classroom as close to the real world as
possible. Sure, you can write a reading passage for your students that includes all of the vocabulary words
they've been studying. But how natural will the language be? Thus, teachers try to find authentic
materials that incorporate the vocabulary and grammar they are teaching. Or base their vocabulary and
grammar instruction on the authentic materials they have available to them. As the angel mentioned in our
last video, however, sometimes teachers may have to adapt authentic materials to fit the level of their
students, or find authentic materials that don't have a lot of language in them. But that can be used for
communicative activities, like restaurant menus or newspaper, weather reports.
Sequencing Activities.
An integral part of communication is understanding queues in the language. How do you know when it is
okay to respond to someone or when someone is finished with their idea? To help learners understand and
use these types of communication cues, teachers give students dialogues or paragraphs with the sentences
mixed up. And have them put the sentences or utterances back in the correct order. For grammar
instruction, you may do this with single sentences. Having the students put the words back
in order, to understand how the sentence is arranged according to a particular grammatical principal. These
types of activities, help students understand that language is not a bunch of words and sentences just
thrown together, but a group of ideas connected for purpose and how those ideas flow together.
Language Games.
Let's face it, learners are more engaged when they are having fun, but we don't want teachers to play
games just because they're having fun. I'm sure basketball is a fun game, but how does it help someone
learn language. When you play games in your classroom, make sure they are for the purpose of teaching
language. As well as having fun. For example, structure the game so that students have to work in teams
and communicate with each other in the target language. This helps students increase their engagement
and give them opportunities to practice the language as well. In some games, the focus of the game
may be the language itself. For example, you may give students a set of cards with words on them and they
have to put the words together to form a variety of sentences. Or cards with pictures and the students
have to use the pictures to tell a story. In other games, you may just be reviewing principles already covered
in class. The desperate structure of the game provides communicative opportunities for the students.
Information Gap.
One of the important tenets of the communicative approach is that the communication must be for specific
purpose. If there is no reason for the communication, then it isn't real communication. Many times, people
communicate to get information from another person, using information gap. This is an activity that we've
already introduced to you. But is certainly something that communicative teachers use today. Role Plays.
Another important communicative activity is
The Role Play.
Students are given a specific communicative context, such as ordering in a restaurant, and are each given
specific roles, such as waiter, customer, manager or chef. The students must communicate with each other
in the given context, acting out the role they've been given. For lower level students, the teacher may give
them specific language to use, like a written dialogue, whereas, more advanced students may be asked to
create the language themselves on the spot. As with information gaps, it focus, is more on the
communication and being understood by their fellow students, than on the language itself and any errors
they might make.
Thanks for watching Teach English Now. In our next video, we'll summarize the main points from both the
comprehension approach, and the communicative approach. And then, compare them to help you finish
filling out the diagram. We'll see you then. [MUSIC]
Bringing the Communicative Approach to a

Predominantly Grammar Translation System
by Jessica Cinco
For years, the majority of Chinese schools have taught English using a combination of the Grammar Translation
Approach and the Reading Approach. English courses are teacher- and textbook-centered, focusing primarily on
learning specific grammar, reading and writing. Lessons are geared towards passing government-created
standardized English tests. Classes often have well over 50 students, who may never even visit any English
speaking country (Anderson, 1993). This reminds me of the painful stories my parents told me of their childhood
Latin classes in the 1950’s, made up of strict teachers, boring material and copious amounts of memorization to
pass standardized tests. As both a language teacher AND student myself, I cringe to think about either teaching in
this manner or having to sit in class and endure this means of instruction. It just isn’t practical….or fun. I’ve seen
the effects of this style of education, when students who’ve been taught English in this manner, whether from
China or other countries, are placed in my English classes at ASU. They are withdrawn and often resent being in
class. My goal is, and always will be, to bring life back into these burned-out language learners.
This past summer, I participated in the Jiangsu Teacher Training Program, in the Jiangsu Province of China,
located just outside of Shanghai. The Jiangsu Provincial Department of Education has been striving to
revolutionize their English education program in public schools since 2004 (JESIE Program, 2016). Every summer,
native-speaking English teachers journey to the Jiangsu Province to help the government conduct a ten-day
English teacher training program for its public school English teachers. This program brings together two amazing
groups of teachers: the Chinese teachers who struggle to prepare massive classes of students who don’t want or
care to learn English to take government-created standardized tests and native English speaking educators
who’ve been utilizing techniques from the Communicative Approach in their own classrooms.
I was placed in Kunshan, an industrial suburb of Shanghai, for the Jiangsu Teacher Training Program this past July
and worked with 22 English teachers from around the city, most of whom didn’t know each other. When I met
the teachers on the first day of this course, on a hot, humid July morning, most of the teachers were not
particularly engaged. They were exhausted, overworked and resentful of the fact they had to spend 2 weeks of
their summer vacation in a teacher training program full of strangers. Could I blame them? Absolutely not. But
my goal was to engage them, rekindle their passion for language education and hopefully send them back to
their own classrooms in the fall with new ideas and techniques for language education.
Throughout the ten-day course, I introduced these teachers to many different methods of language education, all
focused around the ever-broadening Communicative approach. I emphasized the importance of creating
engaging, student-centered classes, fluency over accuracy, and partner and group work. I not only explained, but
also demonstrated through my own teaching style, the importance of making the English classroom a “safe
zone,” a warm, comfortable environment where students feel they are able speak and make mistakes without
being judged or reprimanded. We sang songs, wrote and performed skits, gave presentations, created poems,
used grids to create and organize paragraphs, played language games, had a food day where students brought in
their favorite food and discussed why they liked it and how it was made, and even watched an episode of Friends
so that we could analyze some of the differences between American and Chinese culture. All of these simulated
possible activities and techniques for them to use in their own classes.
At the end of this course, the resentful, withdrawn strangers I met on the first day of class had transformed into
warm, vibrant, vivacious friends eager to return to their classes in the fall. We shared a tearful, loving goodbye,
with promises to keep in touch on the last day of the course.
These incredible teachers provided me with so much positive feedback: they felt like our original group of
“strangers” had melded into a big, happy “family;” they felt comfortable making mistakes and learning from each
other; they had new ideas to introduce to their students; their confidence in themselves and their English
abilities had risen astronomically. My heart was warmed and overjoyed by their responses.
However, they also had one major concern: How can they implement these new, student-centered
Communicative Approach ideas when they still had to administer the reading/writing/grammar-based
standardized tests?
So, here are some questions for you to ponder: What would you do if you were put in this situation? What advice
would you give to these teachers? Have you, or someone you know, been in a similar educational situation? How
was the situation handled? Would you suggest the same solution or a different approach?
References:
Anderson, Jan (1993). Is a communicative approach practical for teaching English in China? Pros and cons.
System, Vol. 21, No. 4.
JESIE Program (2015). Teach in China. Accessed on November 19, 2015 from
http://www.teachinchina.org.au/index.htm
The Language Learning Ecosystem

This optional reading comes from Dr. Shane Dixon's new (2019) book: The Language Learner Guidebook. In this
fun book, Dr. Dixon reflects on how to best learn a new language and what he has learned from teachers like you
from around the world.
While reading this, consider how the communicative method would encourage the kind of learning that Dr.
Dixon's teachers are experiencing!
Chapter 3-Outside the Lines: The Language Learning Ecosystem Q: So how did those Iraqi teachers
you met in 2010 learn English? A: The same way teachers and students from Peru, Mexico, China,
and Jordan are learning languages right now. Over the next few years, and hundreds of interviews
later, I came to a startling discovery: language learning is happening even in the remote jungles of
Peru, the Sierra Madre mountain ranges in southeast Mexico, and the western edge of the Sichuan
Basin. Even in Syrian refugee camps, language can and is happening…and not only is it happening,
but in a way that the world has never seen before. After returning from Baghdad to my home in
Arizona, I have continued training teachers. These groups can come from just about anywhere in
the world, and, if the cards fall just right, they receive funding to come to the U.S. and experience
American culture (and education) firsthand. In 2015, it was a young group of 195 Mexican
teachers. Early on a Monday morning, they stood in line ready to receive ID cards, vaccinations,
and textbooks. I was selected to lead the program as the educational director, and so I was there in
suit and tie to represent ASU as best I could. While I find it important to have them get to know
what Arizona State is all about, I find it equally important to get to know each of these Mexican
teachers, and so I go down the line trying to learn names. I have a memory trick that I use to
remember as many as possible. “What’s your name?” I ask. “Julio Cesar,” the first teacher says.
“Do you know Julio Cesar Chavez?” I ask. “The fighter?” he replies with his own question and
throws me a jab. I like Julio Cesar. He is immediately friendly. “That’s right. My dad loves boxing. If I
forget your name, will you remind me by throwing that punch?” He agrees and pretends to punch
again. Julio Cesar, I think to myself. Julio Cesar. The fighter. I imagine him in a ring and I am the
announcer. The image makes me smile. “So, how did you learn English?” He tells me that he grew
up listening to the radio, and that he loves heavy metal. He shares some of his favorite songs. He
also mentions Game of Thrones and Prison Break. Down the line, I hear murmurs of agreement. “I
love Prison Break, but not as much as Breaking Bad.” This declaration surprises me. I have not seen
either of these shows. As they continue to share, I get the distinct feeling that this group
understands American pop culture in ways that I do not. “I watch Friends,” one older teacher says.
“Friends? You watch your friends?” says her companion. “No, it’s a TV show, tonta. Just like your
Game of Thrones.” “I watch YouTube videos.” “I read the New York Times.” “I love to play games
online with English-speaking friends.” “I listen to podcasts.” “Podcasts? No one listens to podcasts,
you nerd. I love the Lakers. I watch all their games.” I go down the line and continue to memorize
names. I meet Diana and think of the Roman goddess of the same name, goddess of the hunt. I ask
Diana to pull back an invisible bow and shoot an invisible arrow. She agrees. I meet Magalys, who
shares the name of a Venezuelan friend of mine, a singer. After some discussion, we agree that she
will clasp her hands together as if ready to sing opera. Her eyebrows raise comically and I almost
expect her to belt out a song. I will not be able to forget her now—that is for sure. As I continue
farther and farther down the line, I keep learning and asking questions, trying to remember not
only names and faces, but understanding what each teacher is currently doing to support their
language learning. Can you guess what the next lesson I learned was? While I witnessed this first in
Iraq, these follow up trainings were instructive. No matter if I were with people from Mexico, Peru,
or China, people are beginning to learn language without ever leaving their country. This, I
thought, was something new. This is something worth trying to understand in full. Here are the key
takeaways: There is a shift in how people are learning languages. Languages are learned by tapping
into, and creating, vibrant, often-virtual communities. Anyone can do it. While I will write about
this in more detail later, I have learned that successful adult learners systematically search for
authentic materials and relationships, and because of the explosion of available resources in the
virtual world, this kind of approach can happen just about anywhere. I refer to this approach as the
successful learner’s “language ecosystem.” Here is the hopelessly academic definition: A language
ecosystem describes a holistic environment that encourages and extends the learning and
application of language beyond the classroom through a diverse system of tasks and incentives.
Now let me explain without all the fancy talk: developing an ecosystem means stepping out of the
classroom, making a plan, and above all, exploring. As soon as you see what I mean in the chapters
ahead, you will find language learning is unbelievably fun. Question 2: Am I willing to explore,
online and in my own community?
Video 7: Summary
[MUSIC] Welcome back to Teach English Now. You're almost to the end of the course, hasn't this been an
exciting ride? We hope you've enjoyed traveling back in time with us, and learning about these different
approaches to teaching language. In this video, we'll summarize the main points from our last two
approaches. The comprehension approach and the communicative approach. Remember to fill in any
missing information in your diagram to help you see the bigger picture and consider all the approaches
you've learned about. You'll need that diagram in our last module. Let's consider now the comprehension
approach. In our trip back in time, you saw our teacher using the technique called total physical response,
or TPR, which involves using only the target language combined with physical actions and visual aids to
teach language. The main purpose of this technique, and indeed any of the methods that fall under the
comprehension approach, is to help make meaning clear or to make input comprehensible. As learners have
success in understanding input in the target language during their silent period, they will gain confidence
and eventually begin speaking in the target language as well. Teachers in the comprehension approach
try to help students understand target language input by using physical objects, like desks, chairs, walls,
doors, clocks, etc. They may also use representations of real objects, like plastic fruit or pictures and other
visual aids. Teachers also use observable actions like jumping, sitting, opening the door, ect. They combine
these actions and objects in new and, sometimes nonsense ways to make language input that is fun for
students. They typically use command forms of the language, and may string several commands together to
form a sequence of actions for students to perform. Once students have begun to speak in the target
language, teachers may ask students to give commands, called role reversal, but the main focus of the
comprehension approach, is on understanding input. In the communicative approach there is a focus on
speaking right from the very beginning. Because the purpose of the communicative approach is to help
learners communicate in that target language. Teachers want their learners to love people, cultures, and
places by connecting with them through language and the use of language for meaningful communication.
They teach by using books with high interest themes that have been leveled appropriate for their students.
A lot of these books contains lessons that focus on all four skills. Reading writing, listening and speaking.
Many books also contain additional lessons or components on pronunciation, grammar, presentation skills
etc., that help our students communicate better. Techniques in a communicative approach involve the use
of authentic materials, information gaps, language games and role plays. Activities and exercises put
students in situations where they have opportunities to communicate using the language for meaningful
purposes such as getting information. Well, that's all for now. In our next module we'll summarize what we
have learned from the eight different approaches we have visited. And help you make informed choices
about what your purpose, content, and technique are for your specific language teaching situations.
Drawing from each approach to form your own philosophy of teaching. Thanks for watching Teaching
English Now. [MUSIC]

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Welcome back to Teach English Now, and welcome to our second course, Theories of Second Language

Welcome Guide to the Teach English Now! MOOC

-Teach English Now! Team

Video 1: Purpose, Content, and Technique

Video 2: The Time Machine: Visiting 8 Teachers

Video 4: The Pendular Swing of ESL History

Critiquing Questions by LYNN W. ZIMMERMAN

WHY FOCUS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS?

Q/A Activity Worksheet

Why should we teach languages?

How does a learner learn a language?

How should a teacher teach?

How do we help students remember a language?

Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate:

to think about language in terms of a historical lens. Not only is it an older

Video 3: What have we learned?:

Video 4: Back in Time: Direct Approach

1910, here we come.

Video 5: Angel and Devil Debate:

Video 6: What have we learned?:

The Berlitz Method

Mr. A – Here is my card. Are there any letters for me?

Mr. A. – Yes, here is my passport.

Clerk – Sign your name in this register, please.

Mr. A. – Where can I get some postage stamps?

Clerk – Next window.

Clerk – Two cents, if it does not weigh over an ounce.

Mr. A. – And for Chili?*

Clerk – Across the way, right opposite.

1. How do we send a letter to another city?

2. What do we put on the letter to show where it is going?

3. What do we put there to show that the postage is paid?

4. How can Mr. A. prove who he is?

5. Where does Mr. A sign for the letter? (Berlitz, 1906)

Video 1: Back in Time: The Reading

Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate: Reading

Video 3: What have we learned?: Reading

Video 4: Back in Time: The Audio-lingual

Video 5: Angel and Devil Debate: The Audio-

Video 6: What Have We Learned?:

Use of language labs and habit formation drills.

The Navajo Code Talkers

Organizations Navajo Word Translation

Video 1: Back in Time:

Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate:

Video 3: What Have We Learned?:

Video 4: Back in Time:

Video 5: Angel and Devil Debate:

Video 6: What Have We Learned?:

Role Playing in the Classroom

How does a learner learn a language?

Video 2: Angel and Devil Debate:

Video 3: What Have We Learned?:

Video 4: Back in Time:

Video 5: Angel and Devil Debate:

Video 6: What have we learned?:

Bringing the Communicative Approach to a

The Language Learning Ecosystem

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