Portable Water Filter

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

It’s really important to ensure your drinking water is free from water-
borne contaminants such as viruses, cysts and bacteria – and many of the myths
we grew up with could put families in danger when drinking water outdoors.
Clear water is not clean water – viruses and bacteria are microscopic so when it
comes to wild water, the stuff you can’t see is what you need to be concerned
about. In the outdoors, you also need to consider herbicides and pesticides in the
water, while urban travellers should remember that tap water could contain
nasty bacteria that may cause stomach bugs or worse
Typically, enthusiasts fear using chemical treatments on the go or the
inconvenience of carrying heavy and expensive pumping equipment to ensure
that they remove all types of viruses, cysts and bacteria. With a lightweight,
portable filtration device Clean and safe water is just seconds away. A couple of
pumps…it couldn’t be easier.
Not all filters are made equal, so for complete peace of mind make sure to look
for a water filtration solution that remove cysts and smaller viruses, as well as
bacteria, as these can make you very ill.
Water may not be safe to drink, cook or clean with after an emergency such as a
flood. During and after flooding, water can become contaminated with
microorganisms—such as bacteria, sewage, heating oil, agricultural or industrial
waste, chemicals, and other substances that can cause serious illness
Here we introduce the solution for that the name of our product is portable
water filter this is quite easy to carry to anywhere at wild. Here micro filtration
is used with the help of actually carbon the foul smell the water is removed.
These are consist of microfiber filter and a active carbon chamber. A hand
pump is used to take raw water from the source.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

From WHO

WHO produces international norms on water quality and human health in

the form of guidelines that are used as the basis for regulation and standard
setting world-wide.
The Guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) promote the protection of
public health by advocating for the development of locally relevant standards
and regulations (health based targets), adoption of preventive risk management
approaches covering catchment to consumer (Water Safety Plans) and
independent surveillance to ensure that Water Safety Plans are being
implemented and effective and that national standards are being met.

Study of one way valve by IJERT,

This valve can prevent liquid over flow from liquid tanks and also
controls the liquid flow direction, this document describes the phenomena
effecting water valve operation by analysing various water valve designs and
introduces CWTT(control water transfer technology) a revolutionary, well
tested, concept in water and water hammer alleviation. This paper presents
method of controlling the water flow in one direction. A valve is fitted in the
pipe to control the water to flow in one direction only.
The findings of the Subcommittee on Adsorption of the National
Research Council’s Safe Drinking Water Committee, which studied the efficacy
of granular activated carbon (GAC) and related adsorbents in the treatment of
drinking water. Some attention is given to an examination of the potential health
effects related to the use of these adsorbents, but detailed toxicological and
epidemiological implications resulting from the presence of organic compounds
in drinking water are considered in separate chapters of Drinking Water and
Health, Volume 3. The development of standards for GAC and the economic
aspects of its use was not a part of this study.

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CHAPTER 3
CLASSIFICATION OF WATER FILTER

Traditionally there has been no specific method of classifying various

purification techniques. Each of the water treatment methods were separately
described as in Gadgil (1998). However over the years some
compartmentalization can be found. Some of the broad types as classified in
Sobsey (2002) are Thermal and Ultraviolet forms of treatment, Physical
filtration and sedimentation and Chemical Purification methods. Of late a new
category of treatment options involving membranes have been formed (Loo et
al., 2012). So in this study a separate category for membrane based purification
methods has been created. Apart from this a separate section for novel purifiers
which are in their early stages of deployment and which use innovative or
integrated methods of purification. So with this scheme in place, the
classification is as follows.

Thermal or light based treatment techniques

 Boiling
 Thermal pasteurization
 Solar Disinfection (SODIS)
 Solar distillation
 Ultraviolet (UV) treatment

Physical Removal Methods

 Sedimentation or Clarification
 Paper, Fabric and Fiber Filters
 Bio sand filter

Chemical treatment techniques

 Chlorination
 Combined flocculation and disinfection
 Adsorption

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Membrane based treatment methods

 Microfiltration (MF)
 Ultrafiltration (UF) and Nano filtration (NF)
 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
 Forward Osmosis (FO)

Novel Purifiers
 Plant Xylem Filtration
 Integrated Purification
 Biopolymer reinforced Nano composites
 Other novel filters

Figure 3.1 Hierarchical chart depicting the classification scheme of the study

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3.2 Description of Purifier Alternatives

3.2.1 Thermal or light based treatment techniques
3.2.1.1 Boiling
Boiling is perhaps the earliest mode of household water purification.
(Sobsey, 2002). The microbial contaminants are neutralized even before the
water reaches 100oC at mean sea level. However it is recommended to continue
boiling for one minute for ensuring complete boiling. It is advisable to store
boiled water in the vessel in which it was boiled and consume it within 24 hours
of boiling. There have not been many epidemiological studies which have found
the health implications because of boiling water. Although boiling is
widespread in Asia, it has not been easily adopted in other regions except during
crises. (Lantagne and Clasen, 2009).
Even those waterborne pathogens which might be unaffected by free
chlorine and microfiltration like protozoan cysts and viruses can be neutralized
by boiling (Sobsey, 2002). Boiling has also been shown being effective against
faecal coliforms and thermotolerant coliforms (Loo et al., 2012). Boiling has a
drawback of not providing residual protection which implies storage of boiled
water in clean containers with protective opening becomes crucial. Chemicals
and radionuclides cannot be removed by boiling water only biological
contamination can be targeted. Boiling becomes feasible only if fuel is easily
available at reasonable prices. As per anecdotal evidences nearly half of China’s
people depend on boiling water using biomass-fuelled stoves.
Despite relying on expensive fuel (when bought) and causing huge air
pollution, it is the only available water treatment technique to the non-affluent
group of people in developing nations (Gadgil, 1998). Heating water up to
boiling point is not essential for microbial disinfection, instead holding water at
70oC for about 6 minutes can be sufficient. But due to the inaccessible
thermometry for many users boiling at 100oC (at mean sea level) for a minute is
the safest option. However as the altitude rises by every 100 m, World Health
Organization prescribes increasing the boiling time by one minute (Gadgil,
1998).Nearly 35 litres (or kg) of water would be required for a family of five. If
boiling is done with fuel wood then it would require 12 kg of fuel wood. This is
due to the low efficiency of fuel wood cookstove at 12% which necessitates that
one-third mass of fuel wood for unit mass of water boiled. It is mostly the
women in developing countries who take the responsibility of bringing
fuelwood for daily use which creates a huge workload for them with other

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household chores. This puts huge pressure on natural vegetation to cater to

increasing demand for firewood. Also, 440 g of carbon in the form of CO2 and
650 g of carbon equivalent in terms of non-CO2 greenhouse gases is released
for every kg of firewood burnt in a biomass coookstove. (Gadgil, 1998). There
is also the possibility of burning associated with boiling predominantly among
children. This apart there are obvious respiratory troubles due to fumes from
poorly-ventilated indoor burning in firewood or charcoal cook stoves.
The materials required for boiling except firewood (if purchased) is
available to almost all households. Boiling is effective against inactivating
waterborne pathogens even in turbid water. Although the taste of water after
boiling may be protested, it has been socio-culturally accepted by significant
population especially in Asia
Simple interventions like using a wax indicator to know if the water
temperature has reached 70oC in rural Kenya has considerably reduced the
occurrences of diarrhoea compared with a control group. As repeatedly
emphasized the cost of boiling could be as high as US$1.66 to US$2.11 per
person in India depending on the fuel used from firewood to liquefied petroleum
gas (Clasen, 2009).
3.2.1.2 Solar Disinfection (SODIS)
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a technique where water is filled in
transparent bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and kept under
solar radiation for disinfection (Figure 3.2). The heat energy and the ultraviolet
radiations help in mitigating microbial contamination. (Sobsey et al., 2008).
There is a pre-requisite for SODIS that filtration or sedimentation of turbid
water (more than 30 NTU) before solar radiation treatment. Nephalometric
turbidity unit (NTU) is a measure of turbidity which is determined by measuring
the scattering of light. All filters have design limits on the amount of Total
suspended Solids (in mg/L) and turbidity they can handle beyond which the
inlet water is to be pre-treated with coagulating agents.
The filtered water can then be placed in 1 or 2 L transparent bottles which
can then be kept in sunlight for six or more hours after vigorous shaking for
aeration. (Peter-Varbanets et al.,
2009) Under non-availability of other purification techniques especially during
crises, SODIS can turn out to be a simple alternative. Rather than other
transparent plastics, PET bottles are favoured due to their non-leaching
properties (Sobsey, 2002)/ Training drives on SODIS can be promoted. SODIS
is suitable for little volumes of low turbid (< 30 NTU) water of less than 10 L.

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There is also quite a deal of work involved in SODIS and in terms of

practicality can cater only to drinking water. (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009).
SODIS is generally applicable for regions which receive solar radiation of high
intensity. However solar collectors, additives like vinegar and lemon juice can
be used to boost up efficiency in areas of low solar radiation intensity (Loo et
al., 2010). One of the major advantages is that there is no recurring maintenance
cost involved although PET bottles are required. Limitations are that treatment
time is long with little yield and inability to treat water with high turbidity.
There is documented evidence of microbial disinfection. SODIS is partly
acceptable despite simple usage due to limited yield. Storage is expected to be
safe if water is retained in PET bottles. Lack of visible improvement in water
quality. The method is appropriate when the users are trained about proper
application of SODIS (Lantagne and Clasen 2009).
3.2.1.4 Solar distillation
Just like the hydrologic cycle of water, solar distillation uses the principle
of evaporation and condensation. One of the simple mode of solar distillation is
using solar stills. (Flendrig et al., 2009). It can remove non-volatile
contaminants and operates under intense solar radiation.
The technique is still not widespread due to the little yield, high
investment cost and people’s commitment to use such systems. Solar still is
composed of a container of which stores dirty water while a transparent cover
acts as an agent that aids condensation (Flendrig et al., 2009). (Figure 3.3). The
operational cost though is quite low at US$ 0.0024-0.02 per litre of water (Loo
et al., 2012). But solar stills have not been quite successful in terms of removing
volatile impurities like pesticides. Solar stills have advantages of desalination
capability, simple construction and maintenance. However large area would be
required due to poor thermal efficiency and there might be disturbances in
operation due to weather changes. There have been various prototypes which
have discharge rates ranging from 0.5 L/d to 3 L/d (Flendrig et al., 2009; Loo et
al, 2012). This technique still demands further detailed probing to make
accessible solar distillation at low cost to the user.

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Figure 3.2 Conceptual sketch of a solar distillation unit.

3.2.1.5 Ultraviolet (UV) treatment

Ultra Violet irradiation in the germicidal wavelength range even at low
dosage limits has the capacity to deactivate Crypto Giardia lamblia cysts and
Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by more than 3 LRV. (Berg, 2010). UV
systems require power in the form of mechanical or electrical means which
increases the dependence on civic utilities (Berg, 2010). Ultra Violet systems
fail to perform effectively under high turbidity and a prefilter before UV
treatment helps in clearing turbidity . UV purifiers require periodic cleaning and
replacement which increases the operational cost. (Gadgil, 1998). UV purifiers
also do not provide any residual protection.
Aquaguard Compact: Aquaguard Compact is a common water purifier
found in households which is priced at Rs. 9000 (Figure 3.4). It incorporates a
clarifier, activated carbon block, unspecified mineral guard and an UV treater.
Municipal feed water upto 15 NTU turbidity and 200 mg/L TDS can be purified
at a rate of 60 L/hour. It depends on electricity and on-line input water pressure
in the range 0.4 to 2.0 kg/cm2. The UV lamp has a lifetime of 5000 burning
hours and consumes 8 watts of power for operation (Aquaguard, 28.10.2014)

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3.2.2 Physical Removal Methods

3.2.2.1 Sedimentation or Clarification
Clarifiers help in separating suspended solid particles from liquids
through the process of sedimentation. Traditionally, clarification has been
undertaken using alum, iron, lime, Strychnos potatorum (clearing nut or Nirmali
tree) and Moringa oleifera (drumstick) seeds (Figure 3.5), Guar gum and
Jatropha curcas (Ndabigengesere and Narasiah, 1998; Sobsey 2002) for
reducing turbidity and to remove microbes.

Figure 3.3 Moringa oleifera tree and dried seeds.

Clearing nut (Strychnos potatorum) (Figure 3.6) is reported to have reduced

microbial Contamination by 50% and 95% for plate count bacteria and
turbidity respectively. (Sobsey 2002).

Figure 3.4 Strychnos potatorum (clearing nut) seeds.

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Aluminium salts (alum) and Iron salts cause coagulation of colloidal

particles and microbes. Under careful monitoring, aluminium and iron salts can
remove 90%-99% of microbial contamination through flocculation and
sedimentation. A reduction in cholera transmission was also reported due to the
usage of potash alum (Khan et al., 1984).Clarification using modular clarifiers
can also be done batch or continuous mode. (Dorea, 2009). Clarifiers not only
treat turbidity but also assist in removing nearly 2 LRV of faecal coliforms.
Clarifiers also have a high treating capacity rate of 10m3/hour, therefore help in
improved access to potable water at the community level. (Dorea, 2009)

3.2.2.2 Paper, Fabric and Fiber Filters

Paper and cloth filters are generally ineffective in removal of microbial
content because they have pore sizes larger than the diameters of bacteria, and
viruses (Sobsey, 2002). Still waterborne pathogens which are relatively larger in
diameter including Vibrio cholera can be filtered between 95% - 99% (Sobsey,
2002). Paper filters and fabric filters made using polyester or nylon preferably
in multiple layers can remove Cyclops and zooplankton. (Agrawal and Bhalwar,
2009).
Bactericidal papers impregnated with silver nano particles were developed
which can remove up to 6 LRV of Escherichia coli and 3 LRV of Enterococcus
faecalis The disinfection is not because of the adsorbent plotting paper but by
inactivation of bacteria by silver nano particles (Loo et al., 2012).

3.2.2.3 Biosand filter

A Biosand filter (BSF) is a modified version of the of the erstwhile slow
sand filter suitable for a household. BSF is made of containers (approximately
0.3m L * 0.3m B * 0.9m H) packed with sand where a bioactive layer is
allowed to form a few centimetres below the top surface of sand (Figure 3.7).
The biologically active layer referred to as smutzdecke consists of food chains
of small micro-organisms like bacteria and protozoa which restricts the passage
of disease causing microbes (Sobsey, 2002). When the filter gets choked, the
top layer can be removed, and after a few days as the bioactive layer remerges,
the filter can be used once again. The infiltration rate of water through the filter
is around 0.1 to 0.2 m/hour which gives a discharge of around 20 L/hour. BSF
requires infrequent maintenance and occupies some definite space. As per

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laboratory tests, BSF is competent in removing more than 95% of turbidity,

more than 3 log Removal Value (LRV) of protozoa, about 2 LRV of bacteria.
However, it has poor efficiency in virus removal i.e., around 1 LRV of viruses.
(PeterVarbanets et al, 2009). Iron oxide coated sand used in Biosand filter fared
better in terms of removal of bacteria of more than 3 LRV (Ahammed and
Davra, 2011). A biosand filter takes a long time before it can be used a filter.
This is due to filter ripening time involved in formation of the bio-active layer.
Hence, it is rather difficult to deploy and operate quickly during acute
emergencies. However once constructed with an one-time investment, it is quite
easy to use despite low rate of operation. Local materials like sand are sufficient
and no chemicals are used required. There are four mechanisms through which
the microbial content is reduced by the bio-active layer viz. mechanical
trapping, predation, adsorption and natural

death. The usage of BSF is extremely simple wherein users pour water into the
filter and get filtered water at the outlet. A diffuser plate is placed on the top of
sand layer to avoid disruption of schmutzdecke layer. Also shallow water of
depth 5 – 6 cm is maintained above the sand to encourage growth of the
biolayer (Lantagne and Clasen, 2009).
Proper storage of filtered water would become essential as there is no residual
protection offered unlike chlorine treatment. Also the bio-active layer may not
function effectively at low temperatures, low nutrient content and low dissolved
oxygen in incoming water. Regular maintenance in the form of scraping 5 to 10
cm from top of sand bed. This sand layer is cleaned and replaced. The replaced
sand again takes time for filter ripening hence multiple units of filter are
suggested (Sobsey, 2002)

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Figure 3.5 Biosand Filter.

3.2.3 Chemical treatment techniques

3.2.3.1 Chlorination

Chlorination is a simple and most affordable technique already in

widespread usage. The chlorine demand of water is the amount of chlorine that
reacts with metals and organic matter in water. The chlorine which remains
after satisfying chlorine demand is total chlorine. Further the total chlorine
comprises of combined and free chlorine. While the combined chlorine gets
consumed due to reaction with nitrates, it is only the free chlorine which is
available for microbial disinfection. So the presence of residual chlorine ensures
that the water is almost free from pathogens. The aspect residual protection
offers some buffer against the contaminants that might be present in storage
vessels. However there may not be any visible improvement the quality of
water.

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The problem of taste and odour is a major issue with free chlorine deployment.
The purification is affected due to the presence of high pH, high turbidity and
low temperature. Therefore, other pre treatment techniques are recommended
before using chlorination. Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and mycobacteria
species Cryptosporidium are unaffected by chlorination (Sobsey, 2002).
Chlorination as a method is easily scalable from a few litres to thousands of
litres. Free chlorine in the form of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution is the
common method of purification (Figure 3.8). However sodium
dichloroisocyanurate (NaC3N3O3Cl2 or NaDCC) in the form of tablets has
been found to be having several advantages over NaOCl like easy packaging,
safety, stability for a longer period, lower investment and lesser weight. (Berg,
2010)
Chlorine has the advantage of allowing quick deployment during
calamities. A major limitation of free chlorine is the generation of Disinfection
by-products (DBPs). Chlorination is competent in removing more nearly 3 LRV
of enteric bacteria at doses of 2 mg/L and contact times of about half an hour at
20oC, 1 NTU and pH of 7 (Gadgil, 1998).
The various methods of point of use chlorination are liquid NaOCl, solid
NaDCC, solid calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) or bleaching powder.
Bleaching powder is not preferred due to the additives like abrasives, detergents
and fragrances which might be present. If the inlet water has less than 0.25
mg/L of total organic carbon content, then, a residual free chlorine of 0.25 mg/L
is considered sufficient for a temperature of 20oC incoming water.

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Figure 3.6 sodium hypochlorite solution.

3.2.3.2 Combined flocculation and disinfection
Combined methods such as coagulant/flocculant as well as chemical
disinfectant powders are tablets are now available at relatively low prices of
US$ 0.01/L. (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009). The socio-cultural acceptance is still
low due to problems in taste and odour as is the case with free chlorine. There is
also a considerable time involved for sedimentation and disinfection. There are
several commercial products available like the PuR sachet (Figure 3.9),
WaterMaker in granular form (Sobsey et al., 2008). These products combine
calciumhypochlorite (or bleach) with coagulating agents like sodium carbonate,
bentonite, ferric sulphate, poly(acrylamide), chitosan and oxidisers like
potassium permanganate. A PuR sachet of 4g is dissolved in10 L of turbid
water, stirred for 5 minutes and after sedimentation, the water is filtered across a
clean cotton cloth and left undisturbed for 20 minutes for disinfectant to
deactivate the pathogens (CDC, 28.10.2014)
The effectiveness of such combined methods is found to be 7-9 LRV for
bacteria, 3-5 LRVfor protozoa and 2-6 LRV for viruses (Sobsey et al., 2008).
One of the additional advantages of PuR sachets is that it can remove arsenic up
to 1.2 mg/L is acceptable for drinking. (Souter et al., 2003). PuR is easily
deployable during disasters and also has a long shelf life. The ability to treat
turbid water gives it the edge over free chlorine. However it is also dependent
over supply chain, odour and taste problems like chlorination. It has the
additional limitation of multiple treatment steps (Loo et al., 2012).
Apart from residual protection, this method also reduces the heavy metal and
pesticide intensities. Flocculation-disinfection provides visible change in the
water quality and hence acceptable more users. However in comparison to
chlorination, this water treatment technique involves higher relative price per
litre, multiple steps to use, multiple devices like containers, stirrer and cloth
filter apart from the training for proper use (Lantagne and Clasen, 2009).

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Figure 3.7 A combined flocculant-disinfection (PUR)

3.2.3.3 Adsorption

To get rid of chlorine-disinfectant leftovers, particulate and organic

matter adsorbents have Been used but not so much so for mitigating microbial
contamination due to low efficiency (Snyder et al., 1995). The largely popular
adsorbent is activated carbon (AC) in powdered or Granulated form (Snyder et
al., 1995). There is a possibility of removing radionucildes Through AC which
have still not been totally agreed upon.(Loo et al, 2012). AC is not used
Separately but rather in conjunction with disinfection methods like Silver pre-
coating or UV In household purifiers like Aquaguard Compact. Activated
carbon modules can also remove Chlorine and iodine thereby giving a better
taste and odour to potable water. The major Drawback of AC is the rapid
biofilm growth on adsorption sites which prevents adsorption of Bacteria on AC
(Loo et al., 2012). Only conditions like high flow rate and low temperature of
Filter can mitigate biofilm formation. Another limitation is the limited microbial
disinfection And frequent requirement for replacing the AC cartridge (Figure
3.10) which renders it quite Expensive (Peter-Varbanets, 2009).

Figure 3.8 Activated Carbon Cartridge.

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Tata Swach: Swach is water purifier which uses Rice Husk Ash (RHA)
impregnated with silver nano particles (Swach, 28.10.2014). RHA contains
activated silica which helps in reducing turbidity while activated carbon can
adsorb organic and particulate matter. However silver nanoparticles help in
bacterial removal. While Tata Swach is claimed to be effective against certain
bacteria and viruses and claims to meet US EPA standards. However it has no
capability for chemical treatment. The Swach also includes a MF membrane in
the final stage of purification. The Tata Swach Cristella Plus (total 18 L) (Figure
3.11) with a 9 litre storage unit costs Rs. 1700. The bulb or cartridge has a
lifetime of 3000L and costs Rs.550. The flow rate of the filter is 3-4 litres per
hour and the operational cost comes to around 0.18/L (Swach, 28.10.2014).

HUL Pureit Classic: Pureit Classic (Figure 3.11) is a household water purifier
which incorporated several water treatment techniques. The feed water passes
through microfiber filter, activated carbon module, gradual chlorine dispenser
and finally a clarifier. It costs Rs 2600 and has a storage capacity of 9L. The
Germ Kill Kit for 3000 L costs Rs 880 (Pureit, 28.10.2014).

Figure 3.10 Tata Swach Cristella Plus and HUL Pureit Classic.

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Aquasure Xtra Tuff: Aquasure Xtra Tuff is also a similar product with 8 L water
storage capacity and costs Rs 2000. It takes in up to 10 NTU of water and then
passes them throughparticulate filter, sediment filter and carbon block and an
unspecified disinfectant. Each cartridge can purify up to 1500 litres of water and
costs Rs. 450 (Aquasure, 28.10.2014).
3.2.4 Membrane based treatment methods
Membrane purification methods incorporate a semi-permeable
membrane. The filtration process may be operated due to pressure difference
(like microfiltration, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis), osmotic potential (as
in forward osmosis), temperature difference or even electric potential. (Mulder,
2000). In terms of pore sizes of pressure driven membrane filtration process,
microfiltration ranges from 1 micron to 0.1 micron and can retain bacteria
completely but not all viruses. Ultrafiltration filters have pore sizes ranging
from from 0.1 microns to 0.005 microns and can filter out both bacteria and
viruses completely. Further 5nm to 0.5 nm is the range of purification for
nanofiltration and hence it cannot be used for desalination. Reverse osmosis
membrane pore sizes range from 0.5 nm to 0.15 nm and hence can even remove
most of the salts from inlet feed water however it is dependent on high pressure
difference requirement (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009). The following Figure

3.12 shows the approximate ranges of different membrane filtration regimes.

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Figure 3.10 Different membrane purification regimes, the respective pore sizes
and the particles that can be removed.

3.2.4.1 Microfiltration (MF)

One of the simple micro filtration devices which has found widespread
use is the household ceramic filter (CF). A mixture of clay and rice husk/saw
dust (combustible fillers which generate fine voids) is burnt to make ceramic
candle filters having fine pores. (Sobsey et al., 2008). These filters are used to
filter microbes due to the fine pore size. Ceramic filters are fabricated generally
as hollow or solid cylinders with pore size of about 0.2mm. While the ceramic
filters in industrialized countries are sophistically made, those made in
developing nations can be in a candle or a pot form (Figure 3.13)with pore sizes
in the range 0.6–3.0 mm Sobsey et al., 2008). The locally made filters may
hence show varied performance in terms of purifying quality.
There are filters available which have Granulated Activated Carbon layer
(GAC) filled inside the hollow candle. While bacterial and protozoan removal
efficiency is significant (2-6 LRV and 4-6 LRV respectively), there is not
similar impact on viruses (0.5-4 LRV) (Sobsey, 2008). There have been varied
reports on the effect of silver impregnation on ceramic filters. The silver
impregnation is carried out to provide disinfection as well as to prevent biofilm
formation. (Sobsey, 2002).
Materials for making the ceramic filter can be locally sourced. Though
there is no residual Safeguard, there is visible improvement in water quality.
The filter can last long only if Regularly maintained and protected from
breakage (Loo et al., 2012).

Figure 3.11 Ceramic filter system and element in different forms.

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There is portable micro filter Katadyn Mini which has silver impregnated
0.2mm pore CF membrane which has shown high E.coli removal efficiency
(Schlosser et al., 2001). This kind of a purifier has the capability to treat turbid
water but at a high cost of US$250-600 for a total discharge of 20,000 –
1,00,000 L of treated water. To combat the low discharge rate (1-3 L/hour)
(Lantagne and Clasen, 2009) a pedal powered structure with sand filter and
ceramic filter is a possible option (Loo et al., 2012).
From the past few years there have been a few microfiltration products like
‘‘FilterPen’’ which are meant for individual use. In these filters, inlet water is
just sucked through at one end and of the product and purified water is available
at the user’s mouth at the other end. The membrane size used in FilterPen is
around 0.15mm with a surface area of 0.02m2. At a pressure potential of 0.1
bar, the discharge of the Filter pen is around 0.1 L/min. The membrane of
FilterPen is composed of different polymers. The FilterPen has a short lifespan
of catering to 100 L of water over a period of 4 weeks at a rate of 3.5 L/day
(Peter-Varbanets, 2009).
Potters for Peace Ceramic Filter: Potters for Peace is an NGO which has
developed a ceramic water filter that uses clay in combination with combustible
material like rice husk or saw dust (PFP, 28.10.2014). The filter, made in the
form of a pot (Figure 3.14) is burnt up to a temperature of 800oC where rice
husk particles get burnt and fine pores are created. The pores in the range of 0.6
– 3 microns help in ‘straining’ or filtering out some microbes. There is also a
coating of colloidal silver over this pot which helps in further disinfection of up
to 3 to 4 LRV of bacteria like E. coli. The pot with a lid is mounted over a
storage tank fitted with a faucet. The filter has an average life of 2 years and is
inexpensive and can be produced with locally available materials except for
some machines involved in its manufacture. Simple periodic cleaning is the
only maintenance required and no chemicals or electric power is used (PFP,
28.10.2014)

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Figure 3.12 Potters for Peace Ceramic Filter. .

TERAFIL Water Filter: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR) – Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology (IMMT) has built a
low cost water filtration device called Terafil filter (Terafil, 28.10.2014) (Figure
3.15). The filter is useful for both surface and ground water with turbidity of
<500 NTU, Iron <15 ppm and microbial contamination. The filter removes 95-
100% of microbes, 90-95% of soluble Iron and 99% turbidity. While ground
water would become fairly free of microbial contamination, the surface water
would require a mild chlorination of 0.01g/L. The filtration occurs through a
Terafil disc which is made of porous sintered red clay. It is claimed that the
filter improves the colour, taste and odour. The filtration rate can be increased
by applying pressure. The fabrication of the disc is simple and is done with a
mixture of red pottery clay, wood saw dust and river sand without utilising any
chemicals. For the disc production, elementary facilities like Atta Chakki/
Pulveriser, some hand tool equipments, a wood or coal fired kiln are required.
Power supply is not required for the filter operation. The domestic level filter
has a discharge of >1 L/hour with containers of 20L or 30L capacity and can
function for a period of five years. The filter has been deployed in various states
of India under different government schemes. The cost of a Terafil filter with
food grade plastic holder and a Terafil disc of 50 mm thickness and 100 mm
diameter is Rs. 25. Technology transfer of Terafil filter can be done with an one
time license fee payment. The complete filter with 22 L containers can be
purchased at a cost of Rs. 385 (Terafil, 28.10.2014). The disc is prepared using
a dough of the mixture of red pottery clay, wood saw dust and river sand
without utilising any chemicals. The dough is sintered at high temperature in a
furnace. During heating, the wood particles get burnt and clay particles get

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sintered around sand granules creating voids in between. The pores are
separated by thin clay walls having sub-micron sized capillary openings which
act like semi permeable membranes. The advantage of this filter over the
conventional ceramic filters is that since the capillary spaces are sub-micron in
size, the suspended particles and microbes rather get deposited on top of the
filter than inside the core of the filtration disc. If the disc gets clogged over time
and due to turbid water, simple scrubbing is sufficient to remove the sediments.
Also this way the thickness of the filtration disc keeps reducing over the
passage of time. International Advanced Research Centre for Powder
Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI) is now continuing research on what
CSIR-IMMT has developed (Terafil, 28.10.2014). ARCI has already carried out
impregnation of nano silver particles in ceramic water filter candles which have
been able to reduce bacterial contamination from 105 cfu/mL to zero cfu/mL
(ARCI, 29.10.2014).

Figure 3.13 Terafil filter and Terafil Disc

3.2.4.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) and Nanofiltration (NF)

Microbial contamination can be completely tackled by ultrafiltration
membranes. (PeterVarbanets et al., 2009). The pressure required to drive UF
based systems are much lesser compared to that required for Reverse Osmosis
filters. However UF based gadgets are still not widespread. Some of them are in
the form of hollow cylinders and may require pre-treatment. These filters do not
require use of any chemicals. Inlet water quality does not affect the performance
of the filter significantly. Regular backwashing is necessary because of the

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problem of fouling. It is a portable water sucking-purifying product (Figure

3.16) like FilterPen but with a UF membrane (Loo et al., 2012). Personal costs
around Rs. 600 and has a short lifespan of about 700 L of water. However it
effectively treats upto 6 LRV against bacteria, 3 LRV against protozoa and 2
LRV against viruses. (Peter-Verbanets et al., 2009)

3.2.4.3 Reverse osmosis (RO)

RO filters remove all kinds of waterborne impurities even up to
radionuclides and offers one of the safest water treatments (Figure 3.21) (Loo et
al., 2012). The major drawback of RO systems is their huge energy demand and

hence it is recommended only when water quality is very doubtful and fresh
water source is unavailable. Huge water pressure needs to be developed because
there is higher resistance due to the counteracting osmotic pressure across the
membrane (Loo et al., 2012).

Figure 3.14 Reverse Osmosis Purifier.

Generally, there are pre-treatment and post treatment steps other than the
main reverse osmosis filtration in a spirally wound membrane unit (Peter-
Varbanets et al., 2009).
The prefiltration steps are sedimentation, microfiltration and activated
carbon treatment. Postfiltration phases also comprise of activated carbon filters.
Taps fitted with RO systems can work with the inlet water pressure without
requiring electricity. There is a need for frequent replacement of pre and post

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filtration stages every year and RO membrane nearly every 2.5 years. RO filters
are also expensive and their investment cost varies from US$ 200 to US$ 700
depending on the discharge rate while their operational cost is around US$ 85-
135 annually (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009).
Solar radiation can be used through photovoltaic cells to run reverse
osmosis purifiers. This kind of Reverse Osmosis Solar Installation (ROSI) was
tried out in northern Australia. (Loo et al., 2012). ROSI system is capable of
treating highly saline and turbid feed waters. Trained workforce is required to
maintain this complex system.
Mobile RO water treatment systems mounted on large trucks are
available from General Electric for emergencies and on short term contracts.
These systems are electrically powered or by means of gasoline are highly
expensive for general use (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009).

3.2.4.4 Forward Osmosis (FO)

In forward osmosis high level of purification like reverse osmosis can be
obtained without using electrical or mechanical power to generate mechanical
pressure. It works using the principle of osmotic pressure generated by
concentrated sugar solution within a pouch or a bag containing an FO semi-
permeable membrane. Hydro Pack is an example FO filtration especially for
emergencies (HTI, 29.10.2014). Hydro Pack contains a prefilled osmotic agent
which can be consumed. After placing in a water source, the water devoid of
contaminants enters and dilutes the draw solution. This sweet water which is
packed with minerals and nutrients can be directly consumed (Peter-Varbanets
et al., 2009). In a similar product called X Pack (Figure 3.22), there are two
compartments separated by a membrane. One of the compartments is filled with
polluted water while the other compartment has the osmotic gent which after
FO process becomes the sweet drink for consumption (HTI, 29.10.2014).

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Figure 3.15 Forward Osmosis X-Pack.

The HydroPack FO pouch is a versatile product which can purify brackish water
in small quantities. But it generates a low yield, very expensive and suitable
only for individual use. Also instead of pure water it generates a sweetened
drink and this can also be susceptible to developing fast bacterial regeneration
(Loo et al., 2012).

CHAPTER 4
WORKING OF
PORTABLE WATER FILTER

The footvalve is used to suck the water from the water source (raw
water). The footvalve has as a strainer. It strain the larger waste particles from
the water. When the hand pump handle is raised up. The water will enter
through the footvalue. At that time the butterfly value will be open. The priming
should be done in open condition when the water come out through that value.
Only after that the value should close. And after each suction the filtered water
will come out through the opening on the top

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Figure 4.1 The simple line diagram of portable water filtering system

4.1 steps involved in this process

Steps
1. Open the ball valve
2. Pull the handle of the hand pump
3. Repeat it three times until the water comes out through the ball one
4. When the dirty water comes out close the value
5. On the next section the filtered water will come out through the
freshwater collecting area on the top of it
6. When the process is done the priming valve should be open and make the
water flow out which is trapped inside

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Figure 4.2 The portable water filtering system

CHAPTER 5
PARTS OF PORTABLE WATER FILTER

5.1 Microfiltration (MF)

One of the simple micro filtration devices which has found widespread
use is the household ceramic filter (CF). A mixture of clay and rice husk/saw
dust (combustible fillers which generate fine voids) is burnt to make ceramic
candle filters having fine pores. These filters are used to filter microbes due to
the fine pore size. Ceramic filters are fabricated generally as hollow or solid
cylinders with pore size of about 0.2 micrometer. While the ceramic filters in
industrialized countries are sophistically made, those made in developing
nations can be in a candle or a pot form with pore sizes in the range 0.6–3.0

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mm. The locally made filters may hence show varied performance in terms of
purifying quality.

Figure 5.1 The microfiltration fibre

5.2 Active carbon chamber

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form

of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among
many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores
that increase the area available for adsorption (which is not the same
as absorption) or chemical reactions Activation is analogous to
making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and has a
surface area that is much larger than the kernels. Activated is sometimes
replaced by active.

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Due to its high degree of micro porosity, one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area in excess of 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) as determined by
gas adsorption. Charcoal, before activation, has a specific surface area in the
range of 2.0 - 5.0 m2/g. An activation level sufficient for useful application may
be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often
enhances adsorption properties.

Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks;
waste from paper mills has been studied as a source These bulk sources are
converted into charcoal before being 'activated'. When derived from coal it is
referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from coke.

Figure 5.2 The active carbon

5.3 Hand pump

Hand pumps are manually operated pumps; they use human power and
mechanical advantage (Se Hol) to move fluids or air from one place to another.
They are widely used in every country in the world for a variety of industrial,
marine, irrigation and leisure activities. There are many different types of hand
pump available, mainly operating on a piston, diaphragm or rotary vane
principle with a check valve on the entry and exit ports to the chamber operating
in opposing directions. Most hand pumps are either piston pumps or plunger
pumps, and are positive displacement

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Figure 5.3 the manual hand pump

5.4 one way valve

Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the
body, one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various
types of check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are
often part of common household items. Although they are available in a wide
range of sizes and costs, check valves generally are very small, simple, and

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inexpensive. Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a
person or any external control; accordingly, most do not have any valve handle
or stem. The bodies (external shells) of most check valves are made of plastic or
metal.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the

minimum differential upstream pressure between inlet and outlet at which the
valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed for and can therefore
be specified for a specific cracking pressure.

Figure 5.4 one way plastic valve

5.5 PVC conduit
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC)
and flexible. The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe and in
profile applications such as doors and windows. It is also used in making plastic
bottles, non-food packaging, food-covering sheets and plastic cards (such as
bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the
addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is

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also used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, flooring,

signage, phonograph record inflatable products, and many applications where it
replaces rubber. With cotton or linen, it is used in the production of canvas.

Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but

slightly soluble in tetrahydrofuran.

Figure 5.5 PVC conduit

CHAPTER 6
TERMINOLOGY AND STANDARDS

6.1 Drinking Water Quality Standards

6.1.1 Drinking water
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Macmillan Dictionary says that drinking water is “water that is safe to

drink.” The definition of safe drinking water according to the Joint Management
Programme (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF is “water used for domestic purposes,
drinking, cooking and personal hygiene. Safe drinking water is water with
microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meet WHO guidelines or
national standards on drinking water quality.” Also regarding access of drinking
water the JMP states “Access to drinking water means that the source is less
than 1 kilometre away from its place of use and that it is possible to reliably
obtain at least 20 litres per member of a household per day”; further “Access to
safe drinking water is the proportion of people using improved drinking water
sources: household connection; public standpipe; borehole; protected dug well;
protected spring; rainwater.” It is significant to note that Millennium
Development Goal 7 which is to ensure environmental sustainability has a
Target 7c which asks nations to: "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people
without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation.".

6.1.2 Water Quality specifications

Potable water quality is generally specified under three types namely,

Physical, Chemical and Biological parameters. Physical and chemical
specifications cover criteria like turbidity, Presence of heavy metals and Total
Suspended Solids. The biological parameters are basically A measure of
microbial contamination from bacteria, protozoa and viruses. Four different
Water quality standards are mentioned in the report. They are BIS, WHO,
CPHEEO and CPCB specifications.
6.1.2.1 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Specifications
BIS: 10500-1991 specifications are categorised into Essential Characteristics,
Desirable characteristics and Radioactive Materials

i. Essential Characteristics: Colour, Odour, Taste, Turbidity, pH,

hardness, Iron, Chlorides and Residual free Chlorine.

ii. Ii Desirable Characteristics: Dissolved solids, Magnesium, Copper,

Manganese, Sulphate, Nitrate, Fluoride, Phenolic Compounds,
Mercury, Cadmium, Selenium, Arsenic, Cyanide, Lead, Zinc, Anionic

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detergents, Chromium, Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Mineral

oil and Pesticides.

iii. Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Mineral oil and Pesticides.Radioactive

Materials: Alpha emitters, Beta emitters, Alkalinity, Aluminium and
Boron

See Annexure I for detailed BIS specifications.

6.1.2.2 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Standards
There are five different CPCB guideline values depending on type of
source and application.(Water Quality Standards, 28.10.2014). However
guideline values A and C are concerned with drinking water.
A: Drinking water surface without conventional treatment but after disinfection
C: Drinking water source with conventional treatment followed by are
specified for a total of 19 characteristics for measuring water quality. They are
Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Total Coli form Organisms,
Total Dissolved Solids, Chlorides, Colour, Sodium Absorption Ratio, Boron,
Sulphates, Nitrates, Free Ammonia, Conductivity at 25oC, pH, Arsenic, Iron,
Fluorides, Lead, Copper and Zinc. Refer to Annexure II for detailed CPCB
guidelines.

6.1.2.3 World Health Organization Guideline Values

WHO has stipulated Guidelines values for various categories of chemicals
and contaminants (Water Quality Standards, 28.10.2014). For some naturally
present substances like chloride, hydrogen, etc. guideline values have not been
laid down. The guidelines are as follows:
i. Guideline value for chemicals from industrial resources and human
dwellings that are of health significance in drinking water: Cadmium,
Cyanide and Mercury.
ii. Guideline value for naturally occurring chemicals that are of health
significance in drinking water: Arsenic, Barium, Boron, Chromium,
Fluoride, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium and Uranium.

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iii. Bacteriological quality of drinking water: All water intended for

drinking, Treated water entering the distribution system and Treated
water in the distribution system.
iv. Naturally occurring chemicals for which guideline values have not
been established: Chloride, Hardness, Hydrogen, pH, Sodium,
Sulphate and Total dissolved solids (TDS).
v. Guideline values for pesticides used in water for public health
purposes that are of health significance in drinking water:
Chlorpyrifos, DDT & metabolites and Pyriproxyfen.
vi. Guideline values for chemicals from agricultural activities that are of
significance in drinking water

:Non-pesticides: Nitrates (as NO3-) and Nitrates (as NO2-)

Pesticides used in agriculture: Alachlor; Aldicarb; Aldrin & dieldrin;

Atrazine; Carbofuran; Chlordance; Chlorotoluron; Cyanazine; 2, 4 D
(2,4 dichlrophenoxy acetic acid); 2, 4 DB; 1, 2 dibromo -3
chloropropane; 1,2 dibromopropane; 1,2 dibromopropane (1,2 DCP);
1,3 dibromopropane; Dibromoprop; Dimethoate; Endrin; Fenoprop;
Isoproturon; Lindance; MCPA; Mecoprop; Methoxychlor;
Metolanchor; Pendimethalin; Simazine; 2,4,5 T; Terbuthylazine and
Trifluralin.
Refer to Annexure III for detailed WHO guidelines
6.1.2.4 The Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation
(CPHEEO) Standards for Drinking Water
CPHEEO which comes under Ministry of Urban Development of
Government of India specifies two limits: Acceptable and Cause for Rejection
(Water Quality Standards, 28.10.2014). Acceptable limits are those up to which
it is generally acceptable to the consumers while figures in excess of these
limits though not acceptable may have to be endured in the absence of any
better source. However once the Cause for Rejection limits are exceeded the
water becomes unfit for consumption and will have to be discarded. The
specifications are divided into
i. Physical and chemical standards

ii. Guideline values for bacteriological quality

iii. Biological quality of drinking water

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i. Physical and chemical standards

General Characteristics: Turbidity, Colour, Taste & Odour, pH, Total
Dissolved solids, Total Hardness, Chloride, Sulphates, Fluoride, Nitrates,
Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Magnesium, Copper, Zinc, Phenolic compounds,
Anionic detergents and Mineral Oil.Toxic Materials: Arsenic, Cadmium,
Chromium, Cyanides, Lead, Selenium, Mercury and Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAH).Radio Activity: Gross Alpha activity and Gross Beta
activity.
ii. Guideline values for bacteriological quality
A. Pipe water supplies
 Treated water entering the distribution system
 Untreated water entering the distribution system
 Water in the distribution system
B. Unpiped water supplies

C. Emergency water supplies

iii Biological quality of drinking waterSee Annexure IV for detailed CPHEEO
standards

6.2 Issues Related to Drinking Water Quality

2.2.1 Overview of the Current Situation
Nearly 70% of surface water is contaminated with microbial and
chemical pollutants (Water Pollution, 2013). Even ground water sources are
increasingly getting polluted due to natural and anthropogenic reasons. Water
contamination forms nearly 60% of health related issues caused due to
environment. Nearly 67% of the families in India do not use any purification
methods for drinking water. More than 33% of the ground water sources in rural
areas are polluted (Water Pollution, 2013). Analysis of water quality measures
from 1995 till 2009 by Central Pollution Control Board revealed that microbial
pollution is the chief source of contamination of Indian water bodies. Out of
these samples 36% had biochemical oxygen demand more than the prescribed
limit of 3 mg/L. The chief microbes infecting water sources in India are E. coli,
V. cholerae and Shigella (all bacteria); E. histolytica and Giardia (both
protozoa) and Polio virus, Rota virus and Hepatitis A virus (Water Pollution,
2013).

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6.2.2 Natural Sources of Water Pollution

The natural sources of water pollution which cause health problems are salinity,
fluoride, Arsenic, nitrate and iron. These sources are described below in detail

i. Salinity
The saline water from the sea leaching into ground water in coastal areas is a
natural problem Which has been aggravated by the rapid exploitation of ground
water leading to reversal of Natural hydraulic gradients. Rajasthan is the
foremost state in terms of the percentage of Groundwater salinity affected
habitations to total habitations
ii. Iron
More than 1.1 lakh habitations in India have iron concentrations above the BIS
permissible limit of 1 mg/L. The top five states in terms of percentage of Iron
affected habitations to total habitations is depicted below

iii. Nitrate
Improper management of solid wastes and leaching of fertilizers from farms can
create high Levels of nitrate content particularly in shallow aquifers. The
topmost nitrate affected state in The country is Karnataka where 18.85% of the
total habitations are affected with high nitrate Levels in ground water

CHAPTER 7
COST DETAILS

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The estimate cause to which we have planted is 5000 rupees

Microfiber filter 1300/-

Hand pump 2800/-

Active carbon 200/-

Pipe 150/-

Foot valve 80/-

Other accessories 200/-

Table 7.1 cost of the product

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION REMARKS
8.1 Conclusion
The outlook of this report was to study, describe and contrast different
portable water filter. The drinking water quality standards were described and
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the issues plaguing water quality in India was discussed. Subsequently a

suitable classification mechanism and a comprehensive description of a wide
spectrum of purifiers was covered. A review based on multiple attributes was
carried out to ascertain the appropriate choice for specific situations.
The following are some observations
 It was clear that a wide range of alternatives in terms of products as well
as
 technologies are available in the sector of water purifiers.
 It was found that purifier performance in terms of microbial disinfection
showed a
 strong correlation with respect to the cost of the purifier.
 Sustainability was not high if the non-renewable energy requirement of
the purifier
 was high and if the purifier used chemicals for disinfection.
 It was found that sustainability was low for expensive purification
technologies except
 for chlorine based treatment.
 Purifiers which are easier to use and maintain have found wider
acceptance socially
 with the exception of chlorine based methods because of their bad taste
and odour.

8.2 Discussion

It may also be true that a purifier may be preferred even on a regular basis
rather than just emergency situations. This trend is becoming increasingly
common in Indian household and institutions irrespective of the water quality
which is supplied. However this is not healthy development because this might
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lead to worsening the quality of supply systems. Nevertheless, Point of Use and
Portable water purifiers may find increased application for utilising water from
decentralized sources like rain water harvesting, wells, ponds, etc. This study
has made an attempt to consider as much diversity as possible in the type of
purification methods and products that might be suitable in the framework of
portable water filter. However, the study has a few limitations partly due to the
limited timeframe in which it was carried out.

8.3 Future Scope of Work

Considering all the attributes and alternatives in the review it is difficult to

make a choice right away. However finding out some possible areas for future
work can be determined by analysing different attributes and making out some
patterns. Considering the context of rural and low-income groups in India, it is
probably advisable to work in the future in microfiltration and ultra filtration
regimes. Using components which can be locally sourced and delivering at a
nominal price is suggested. While performance cannot be compromised, the
product should not be totally dependent on electricity or mechanical power
sources. Finally the product should be easy to handle & use and in addition
socio-culturally acceptable so that the product finds widespread dissemination.
To continue with detailed analysis of the review, one can work with actual
products in the market than what is available in the literature. Also more
attributes could be considered to make the review more robust. Importantly, as
very few views were considered from the users of water purifiers regarding the
problem of water treatment, the purification methods they use and their
acceptability of a purifier, future field assessment to ascertain the social
acceptability of products becomes indispensable before any major decisions are
taken.

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Figure 8.1 test result of raw water

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Figure 8.2 test result of filtered water

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CHAPTER 9
REFERENCE

 Navneet Kumar,Nurul Quamar - one way water valve (IJERT) Vol 4

 Aquaguard, 28.10.2014. Aquaguard Compact, Eureka

ForbesPurifiers/http:// www.eurekaforbes.com/Product/Water

 Aquaguard/Essential/Aquaguard .NEERI, "NEERI-Zar" Portable

Instant Water Filter. National

 Environmental Engineering Research Institute

www.neeri.res.in/pdf/NEERIZAR.pdf.

 WHO 2011 Guidelines for drinking water quality 4 th

edition,Connun Quitorland
*149/3 MonthsSubscribe Now

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