Institute Of Engineering

Thapathali Campus

A lab report on Deflection of Beams

Submitted by: Submitted to:

THA076BME007 Department of Mechanical
THA076BME008 Engineering
THA076BME009
THA076BME010
THA076BME011
THA076BME012
1. Title: Deflection of Beams

2. Objective:
a. To observe and determine the load-deflection relationship of beams under
various loads, supports, material conditions and cross-sections.
b. To determine the modulus of elasticity and flexural rigidity of the beam
using beam deflection theory.
c. To verify the theory of pure bending and static equilibrium.

3. Introduction:
Beams have been used since dim antiquity to support loads over empty space, as roof beams
supported by thick columns, or as bridges thrown across water, for example. These beams
are structural members that are only loaded non-axially (transversely) causing them to be
subjected to bending. “A piece is said to be in bending if the forces act on a piece of material
in such a way that they tend to induce compressive stresses over one part of a cross section
of the piece and tensile stresses over the remaining part”
The deflections of a beam caused by bending are an engineering concern as they can create
an unstable structure if they are large. People don’t want to work in a building in which the
floor beams deflect an excessive amount, even though it may be in no danger of failing.
Consequently, limits are often placed upon the allowable deflections of a beam, as well as
upon the stresses.
If a beam is supported at two points, and a load is applied anywhere on the beam, the
resulting deformation can be mathematically estimated. But the actual results experienced
varied substantially when compared against the theoretical values. This experimentation
explains how the theoretical and actual values were determined, as well as suggestions for
improving upon the experiment. The percent error should be calculated so as to validate
the experimental results.

4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:

a. Beam apparatus – SM104
b. Test beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminium
c. Dial gauges
d. Load cells
e. Weights: 5 N, 10 N, 20 N
f. Weight hangers
g. Measuring scale

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 h. Vernier calliper
i. Lab manual
j. Stationeries (Calculator, graph papers, copy, pencil)

5. Theory:
The theory of pure bending of a beam shows that when a beam is loaded in such a way that
it bends only in the plane of the applied moment, the stress distribution and curvature of
the beam are related by
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
Where M is the bending moment (Nm)
I is the moment of inertia of the cross-
section of the beam. (m4)
E is the young’s modulus of Elasticity.
(N/m2) R is the radius of curvature (m) σ
is the bending stress at distance y from the
neutral axis (N/m2).

A beam that is initially straight will deflect under load and assume a curve in bending. The
curvature of the beam (1/R) will be given well enough by the second derivative of the
deflection curve z(x) of the beam. Thus, from the theory of pure bending (with z positive
upward deflection),
𝑑2 𝑧 𝑀
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼

If M = M(x) and E, I are constant, this equation is very easily integrated to give z(x).
WL3
z ( x) = a
EL
where W is concentrated load applied to
the beam of length span L and a is a
constant whose value depends upon the
type of loading and supports.

a. Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:

Referring to the loading in figure 1, the left-hand support reaction R1 is first required and
the reactions can be found from the equations of force and moment equilibrium.

R₁ + R₂ = W₁ + W₂
𝑙 𝑙
R₁ x 1 =W₁ ( +a) + W₂ ( + b)
2 2

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Therefore,
1 𝑎 𝑏
R₁ = (W₁ + W₂) + W₁ ( ) - W₂ ( ) ……………… 1
2 𝑙 𝑙
And,
𝑙 𝑎 𝑏
R₂ = (W₁ + W₂) - W₁ ( ) + W₂ ( ) ……………… 2
2 𝑙 𝑙

Figure 1: Supports reaction of the simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

The deflection will be maximum at mid span of a simply supported beam with concentrated
loads as shown in figure 1.
Theoretically,
𝑙 11𝑊𝐿3
If W₁ = W₂= W and a = b = , =
4 384𝐸𝐿

b. Deflection of cantilever beam with concentrated load:

A cantilever beam is that whose one end is fixed and other end is free. The deflection will
be maximum under the load when loaded at the free end of the cantilever beam.

Figure 2: Cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the free end

Referring to the loading in figure 2, Theoretically,

𝑊𝐿3
=
3𝐸𝐿
If EI and L are maintained constant then, z = K₁W
If EI and W are maintained constant then, z = K₁𝐿3
Where K1 and K2 are constants.
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6. Description of testing machine:

The SM104 Beam Apparatus (Figure 6) has many features which extend the range of
experiments to cover virtually all coursework requirements relating to the bending of
beams. The basic unit provides facilities for supporting beams on simple, built in and
sinking supports; applying point loads, and measuring support reactions and beam
deflections.

The main frame of the apparatus consists of an upper cross member carrying graduated
scales and two lower members bolted to tee-legs to form a rigid assembly. The load cells
and cantilever support pillar slide along the lower members and can be clamped firmly in
any position. The load cells are direct readings and each is fitted with a hardened steel knife
edge which can be adjusted by a thumb nut to set the initial level or to simulate a sinking
support. A lead screw in the base of each load cell can be screwed upwards to support the
knife edge and thus convert it to a rigid support when required.

The cantilever support consists of a rigid pillar with a sturdy clamping arrangement to hold
the beams when built-in end conditions are required. Weight hangers and a set of cast iron
weights are supplied for applying static loads. All beam deflections are measured by dial
gauge mounted on magnetic carriers which slide along the upper cross member. The dial
gauge carriers, load cells and weight hangers are all fitted with cursors which register on
the scale located on the upper cross member, thus ensuring easy, accurate positioning.
Specimen specification:
• 3 steels: 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6.4 mm thick (nominal), E steel =207 GN/ m2
• 1 brass: 6.4 mm thick (nominal)
• 1 aluminium: 6.4 mm thick (nominal)
All beams are of nominal dimensions 19 mm wide x 1340 mm long

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7. Precautions:
a. Apply the loads without any jerk.
b. Gently tap the dial gauge before observing the readings and gauge should be
viewed exactly perpendicular to the ruler to avoid parallax error.
c. The load applied should be within the allowed limits for the apparatus so
refer with the instructor.
d. Make sure that beam and load are placed at a proper position.
e. The cross-section of the beam should not be too small as it can deflect large.
f. Note down the readings of the vernier scale carefully.
g. Small weights should be used for thin beams with low value of modulus of
elasticity as the bending should be within the elastic range.
h. Do not let the load handers touch the ground.
i. Ensure that the supports are rigid.
j. Perform the experiment at a location, which is away from any external
disturbance.

8. Experimental Procedure:

Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

a. Choose a suitable reading on the upper scale of the apparatus for the mid-
span of the beam.
b. Set up one of the load cells so that it is 1/4 span to the left of the marker
chosen in step 1. (Do not forget to take account of any offset in the position
cursor).
c. Set up the second load cell 1/4 span to the right of mid-span reading. Lock
the knife edge.
d. Place the beam in position with1/4 span overhang at either side.

e. Place the hanger at mid span so that the loading point is on the centre-line of
the beam.
f. Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross member so that the ball end
rests on the centre-line of the beam immediately above the left-hand support.
Check that the stem is vertical and the bottom O-ring has been moved down the
stem. Adjust the dial gauge to read zero and then lock the bezel in position. Move
the dial gauge to a position above the right-hand support, check that the beam is
parallel to the cross member then adjust the height of the knife edge so that the
dial gauge reads zero.

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 g. Place the dial gauge at mid-span so that the ball end of the plunger rests on
the centre of the set screen. Adjust the dial to read zero and lock the bezel.
h. Apply a load to the hanger and record the beam deflection on dial gauge.

i. Increase the load and record the new dial gauge reading (deflection). Do this
at least five times.
j. Decrease the load by the same steps as in 9 and record the beam deflection
at each step.
k. Repeat the experiment for all the beams.

Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:

a. Set up a load cell at a convenient position near to one side of the frame.

b. Set up the clamp to give a cantilever of convenient length.

c. Pass one end of the beam through the clamp and rest the other end on the
load cell. (It is convenient to lock the knife edge during assembly). Tighten the
clamp and tie up the free end of the beam using a short piece of string.
d. Place the dial gauge near to the clamp and set the zero. Move the dial gauge
to the free end of the cantilever, unlock the knife edge and adjust it so that the
dial gauge returns to zero. Set the pointer of the load cell to zero.
e. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a convenient reading on the load cell.
Record the load and the dial gauge reading.
f. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a number of load increments recording
loads and dial gauge readings.
g. Return the knife edge to its initial position; lock the knife edge; slacken the
clamp and move it to a new position (this is more convenient than moving the
load cell).
h. Repeat the experiment for several lengths of cantilever.

i. Use the steel beams 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6.4 mm thick to vary I.
j. Use the Aluminium, Brass and Steel beams 6 mm thick to varying E value.

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 9. Calculation and Observation Table:
Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:
i. Length of beam (L): - 1350 mm
ii. Width of beam (b): - 6.4 mm
iii. Thickness of beam (h): - 19.42 mm

𝑊1 (N) 𝑊2 (N) 𝑅1 (N) 𝑅2(N) 𝑊1 + R1+R2(N) Z(mm)

𝑊2(N)
5 5 2.6 2.6 10 5.2 1.8

10 10 7.4 7.2 20 14.6 4.8

15 15 12.0 11.8 30 23.8 7.9

20 20 16.6 16.6 40 33.2 11.2

Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:

i. Length of beam (L): - 1350 mm
ii. Width of beam (b): - 6.4 mm
iii. Thickness of beam (h): - 19.42 mm
Length(mm) 200 400 600

Load, W(N) Deflection, z(mm)

5 .1 1.2 3.8

10 .3 2.9 -

15 .5 4.4 -

20 .6 6.1 -

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10. Result Analysis:
Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:
A1. Plotting the graphs of R1 against W1 = W2 = 5 N, 10 N, 15 N, 20N.
18

16

14

12

10
R1

0
5 10 15 20
W

A2. Plotting the graphs of R2 against W1 = W2 = 5 N, 10 N, 15 N, 20N.

18

16

14

12

10
R2

0
5 10 15 20
W

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A3. Plotting the graphs of (R1 +R2) against (W1 +W2)
35

30

25

20
(R1 +R2)

15

10

0
10 20 30 40
(W1 +W2)

A4. Plotting the graphs of maximum deflection (z) against W

12

10

8
z(mm)

0
5 10 15 20
W

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Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:
B1. Plot graphs of z against W for each length of beam.

4
z

0
5 10 15 20
W

200 400

B2. Plot graphs of z against L3 for each load.

16

14

12

10
z(mm)

0
0.008 0.064
L3

5 10 15 20

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11. Discussion and Conclusion
a) Discuss the verification of equation 1 and equation 2. Discuss the obtained graph
from the experiment and compare it with the theoretical graph.

➢ Equations 1 and 2 give us,

1 𝑎 𝑏
R₁ = (W₁ + W₂) + W₁ ( ) - W₂ ( ) ……………… 1
2 𝑙 𝑙
And,
𝑙 𝑎 𝑏
R₂ = (W₁ + W₂) - W₁ ( ) + W₂ ( ) ……………… 2
2 𝑙 𝑙
These equations were proved using static equilibrium. As we know, under static
equilibrium, net horizontal and net vertical force are zero. So,
R₁ + R₂ = W₁ + W₂
Also the moment taken about any point is also zero. Thus both equation 1 and 2 were
verified.
Theoretically speaking, graph between R₁ VS W, R2 VS W and R₁ + R₂ VS W₁ + W₂ should
have the slope of 1because under theoretical condition R₁ = R₂ = W₁ = W₂. But during the
experiment, it was not observed. As seen in graph A1, A2, and A3, the values of R₁, R₂ ,
W₁ , W₂ were not equal to each other and the slope was less than 1.

b) How would you calculate and use the occurred errors? Discuss the factors that can
be affected to the experimental results. Give the overall conclusion based on the
experimental results.

➢ The theory of pure bending of a beam shows that when a beam is loaded in such a
way that it bends only in the plane of the applied moment, the stress distribution and
curvature of the beam are related by
𝑀 𝐸
=
𝐼 𝑅

These assumptions need not be always valid. Deviations from these assumptions are
observed more often than not. As such the deflection values obtained on the basis of this
theory will contain errors. The objective of this study is to minimize or remove this error.
Using simple geometric relations, it can be determined that
𝑑2𝑦
M =𝐸𝐼( )
𝑑𝑥 2

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 this basic equation is used to determine deflection of beams. The above equations can be
used to calculate the deflection of the beam theoretically. As mentioned earlier, the aim of
this study is to compare the theoretical results with the experimental results and to estimate
the error by formulating an error function. This function will give us the error at different
loads and at different locations on the beam. The key point to understand is that, a part of
the error obtained will arise out of human error and (or) experimental error and the other
part will be due to the fact that the assumptions made in the bending theory are not strictly
valid in reality. Thus, the deflection values obtained from the bending theory inherently
contain an error arising out of the invalidity of the assumptions made in bending theory.
Some conclusions drawn after experimental results include:
• The experimental deflection values are generally greater than the theoretical deflection
values.
• The error is maximum at the center i.e., where the load is maximum. The maximum error
obtained in case of central loading.
• The error may be small, but the error increases with an increase in the value of the applied
load. Thus, at higher values of loads (of the order of kNs), which are observed in real life
problems, the error percentage will play a significant role.

c) What is meant by the “stiffness” of a beam? How would you calculate the
young’s modulus of the beam? Calculate its theoretical and experimental value of
simply supported beams for different beam thickness.

➢ In structural engineering, beam stiffness is a beam’s ability to resist deflection, or

bending, when a bending moment is applied. A bending moment results when a
force is applied somewhere in the middle of a beam fixed at one or both ends. It will
also occur if a torque is applied to the beam, although this is less common in real-
world applications. Beam stiffness is affected by both the material of the beam and
the shape of the beam’s cross section.
Young’s modulus is a numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of
a solid undergoing tension or compression in only one direction, as in the case of
a metal rod that after being stretched or compressed lengthwise returns to its original
length. Young’s modulus is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in
length when under lengthwise tension or compression. Sometimes referred to as the
modulus of elasticity, young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the
strain. Stress and strain may be described as follows in the case of a metal bar under tension.
If a beam of cross-sectional area A is pulled by a force F at each end, the beam stretches
from its original length L0 to a new length Ln. (Simultaneously the cross section decreases.)
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The stress is the quotient of the tensile force divided by the cross-sectional area, or F/A.
The strain or relative deformation is the change in length, Ln − L0, divided by the original
(𝐿𝑛 − 𝐿𝑜 )
length, or . (Strain is dimensionless.)
𝐿𝑜

Thus Young’s modulus may be expressed mathematically as

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝐿𝑜
Young’s modulus = =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴(𝐿𝑛 − 𝐿𝑜 )

A solid material will deform when a load is applied to it. If it returns to its original shape
after the load is removed, this is called elastic deformation. In the range where the ratio
between load and deformation remains constant, the stress-strain curve is linear. In order
to do so we are hanging some weights at the center of the plates placed on knife edges, by
noting the depression we are estimating how much strain we have applied for a given stress.
In non-uniform bending, the beam (meter scale) is supported symmetrically on two knife
edges and loaded at its center. The maximum depression is produced at its center. Since
the load is applied only at a point of the beam, this bending is not uniform throughout the
beam and the bending of the beam is called non-uniform bending. According to the theory
of non-uniform bending, for a bar of thickness and breadth, supported by two knife edges
distance apart, the depression at the midpoint due to load is given by,
𝑀𝑔𝑙3
𝑧=
4𝑌𝑏𝑑 3
Then,
𝑀𝑔𝑙3
𝑌=
4𝑧𝑏𝑑 3
Now we have,
M= 5N
g= 9.81m/s2
l=60cm= 0.6m
z= 1.8mm for 5N= 0.0018m
b= 19.42mm = .01942m
d=6.4mm=.0064m

put all values and the value of Y= 2.89 × 1011 𝑃𝐴.

The experimental value of Y was calculated.

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d) Explain why beam is placed in position with1/4 span overhang at either side?

➢ The beam is placed in a position with ¼ span overhang because it is responsible

for obtaining the minimum value of the maximum bending moment possible in the
experiment. This is necessary as it helps to minimize the value of deflection in the
beam and prevent it from failure which might occur if the value of maximum
allowable bending moment is exceeded. Also if the value of the span exceeds ¼ of
the span, it will cause failure in the beam.

e) Identify and discuss the possible sources of inaccuracies in the experiments.

➢ The possible sources of inaccuracies in this experiment are:

1. Limitation of measuring devices: While taking the readings from the measuring
devices that were used in the experiment like dial gauges, accurate readings were
not possible because of the least count of the devices, especially in the case where
we measured deflection. Also, the sensitivity of the instrument can be a factor for
the errors.
2. Parallax error: Since this experiment involved taking readings from linear
measurement devices, parallax error may have occurred due to which inaccuracies
were introduced in the data. Also, by putting these values to obtain theoretical
results, errors could have propagated by many degrees.
3. Lack of ideal environment: The theoretical values hold true for the beam in a
standard environment where the temperature and pressure are controlled. But any
variations in temperature and pressure can change the value of modulus of
elasticity (E). Since it was not possible to obtain the actual value for E in the
laboratory conditions, the theoretical value we obtained was not accurate.

f) What will happen to the deflection as the span of the beam is increased? Define the
nature of curves and compare with the theoretical one?

➢ As we know that,
𝑀𝑔𝑙3
𝑧=
4𝑌𝑏𝑑 3

As the span of the beam is increased, the deflection will also increase. We can see
from formula that Zmax ∝ L3. Thus even a small increment in the span will
significantly increase the deflection in the beam. From the graph B2, we can see that
the value of z has increased when the value of L has increased. Theoretically, we
were supposed to obtain a curve that corresponds to cubic equation but since we

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 only have plotted two points in the graph due to limitation of data, it seems to be
linear. If we had ample amount of data, then we could have obtained a cubic curve.

g) What does this experiment tell us about the use of beams in structural applications?
Give your engineering point of view.

➢ This experiment tells us that beams can withstand a sufficient amount of load by
distributing the load. If proper analysis is done then we can use beams efficiently
from the structural mechanics viewpoint as well as economical viewpoint. It also
tells us that beams have certain capacity and limitations and those points should be
taken into consideration while designing various structures. It also shows how a
beam of same length and same material can withstand various amounts of load
depending on the placement of supports and also on the types of supports used. For
example, the ¼ of total span was used as overhang on each sides to obtain the
minimum value of the maximum bending moment possible.
The application of beams in building and structural frames is to transfer the floor
loads and masonry wall loads induced on the beam to supporting structures such as
columns and support walls on two ends which are away from each other. Like in
this experiment the load induced at the beam were transferred to the supports located
at the ends of the beams. Based on the magnitude of loads transferred and the span
the beam's depth is decided to reduce deflection and crack width to permissible limit
in tensile zone.

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