‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes – ZIMSEC Syllabus 7014

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
This chapter deals with the areas where computers are used, what they used for, how they are used,
the advantages and disadvantages of their usage in such areas.

Computer Aided Design (CAD).

This is whereby computers are used in the designing and development of new products in a variety of
applications both at home and on a commercial/industrial basis. Models of infrastructure like bridges
are designed and tested for their strength before building actual structures on the ground. A model is a
computer representation of a real object/process, often involving some formula that determines its
behaviour, e.g. a bridge, house, etc. CAD is used in fields like:
- Aerospace
- Architecture
- Car/vehicle design
- Construction (e.g. Roads, services, surveying, tunnels, bridges, etc.)
- Consumer goods (e.g. kettles, toasters, etc.)
- Digital circuits
- Factory layouts (e.g. Ergonomics)
- Fashion design
- Heating systems
- Interior designs (houses, offices, etc.)
- Lighting systems (e.g. to get lighting effects at a concert)
- Machinery design
- Plant design (chemical, nuclear, etc.)
- Ship building engineering, architectural design, etc.

CAD Requirements
- considerable processor power
- Input devices like:
- Light pen: Used to make alterations on the screen to the drawings. Also used to write directly
on the screen. Can be used again to select commands.
- Tracker balls: used to draw designs and to select menus
- Mouse: adjust drawings
- Graphics tablet: provide interface for drawing on the screen. It also links with the light pen.
- Output Devices like:
- Large high resolution screens
- Graph plotters to draw scale and full size and high quality drawings
- High specification graphics cards
- Some systems support stereoscopic drawings where 3-D spectacles can be worn and the user sees a
3-D image.

Features of the CAD software which are used in design are:

- Can zoom, rotate, scale, and crop images
- Has a library of geometrical shapes that will be used in drawings
- Has inbuilt library of components and templates.
- Have ability for labelling and adding text
- use 2-D and 3-D modelling
- has library of parts which can be used in new drawings
- use colour fill feature
- Validation and verification of designs against original specification
- Ability to link with Computer-Aided Manufacture (CAM)
- Facility to calculate the mass of the actual object once built
- Facility to calculate the cost of producing the article
- Simulation of designs without the need to build a prototype
- Import and export to allow the exchange of data with other software packages
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- Kinematics (i.e. check moving parts in assemblies don’t interfere with each other)

Advantages of Computer Aided Design

- Saves a lot of time spent in drawing and testing objects.
- Saves costs of designing items
- Produces accurate scale diagrams.
- Images are easily manipulated on the screen.
- One can produce drawings in 3-dimensions as in buildings, gardens, bridges, etc.
- Images can be saved on the disk and retrieved at a later date.
- Drawings can be easily scaled up and down.
- It is easier to modify drawings
- A library of parts can be kept for future use
- Ability to do automatic costing of items
- Ability to model the design
- Can do ergonomic study.
NB: Ergonomics: the design and functionality of the computer environment and includes furniture
setup, ventilation, security, space, noise, etc.

Disadvantages of Computer Aided Design

- Can lead to deskilling (skills which were highly valued are taken to be useless or of less value by
the introduction of computers and workers degraded to less important jobs)
- Involves very high training costs to use the packages
- Can move work overseas
- Can lead to unemployment as one CAD operator can do work of 5 manual draftsmen.

Virtual Reality (VR)

It is an artificial 3-D environment created by a computer system. It is the creation of simulated multi-
dimensional representation of real things, e.g. armies fighting against each other. Users wear data
goggles, data gloves, etc when interacting with the system.

Requirements for Virtual Reality (VR)

- Data goggles/helmets – these use display screens and optical systems that send 3-D images to
the eyes.
- Motion sensors: measure the position and orientation of the head; this information is sent back to
a computer which enables it to adjust the image being sent to the user.
- Data gloves, suits containing sensors and joysticks are all used to interface with a virtual
reality system depending on the application.
NB. User wears data goggles, data helmet or data gloves to give a feeling of “being there”. Apart from
feeding sensory input to the user, these devices also monitor user actions e.g. data goggles track eye
movement and respond by sending new video input.

Areas of use for Virtual Reality (VR)

1. Entertainment:
a) Used in films/television as special effects where the studio audience wear VR helmets in a
space simulation.
b) Also used in computer arcade games like Need for Speed.
2. Marketing
a) Used in virtual tours around houses and hotels, kitchen designs, ergonomics, etc.
3. Training: Areas of use include: military training, medical/dental training, teaching personnel
how to use equipment and in general areas where training is dangerous and/or expensive e.g.
flight simulators, car driving simulators, operating devices under water or in outer space, etc.
4. Design: Design of chemical and nuclear plants, ergonomic studies (e.g. factory layouts), helping to
develop devices for handicapped people, etc.
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How to create virtual reality images for use on a computer system

When a virtual tour of a house is shown on a website, the images need to be first created and then
manipulated. The following summarises how this can be done (a similar method/technique could be
used for various applications):
- take photos with, for example, a digital camera
- the photos are taken from a single point (reference point)
- the camera is rotated around the room as a number of photos are taken
- the images are “stitched” together using special imaging software
- photo images are re-sized and re-configured for Internet use
- Use hotspots on the web page to allow a user to move around the house (e.g. from room to
room).
- Integrate plans and maps into the image to allow user to navigate the house.

NB: A hotspot is an area of a graphics object, or a section of text, that activates a function when
selected. Hot spots are particularly common in multimedia applications, where selecting a hot spot
can make the application display a picture, run a video, or open a new window, etc.

Features to see on a virtual tour website of a hotel being advertised on the internet
- hot spots on web page to allow user to move around the hotel
- plans and maps integrated to allow user to navigate the hotel
- ability to move from room to room to navigate whole hotel

Developments such as broadband, large computer memories and compression software have allowed
virtual tours to be offered on the Internet and/or CD/DVD files.

Advantages of using virtual reality

- it is safer to use than testing real objects (if mistakes are made the results would be harmless;
e.g. doing a medical task on a “virtual” patient is much safer in case of mistakes)
- Saves costs since there is no need of building the real thing e.g. testing out a real moon rocket
or building a part of a chemical plant would be very expensive).
- It is possible to do tasks which would normally be impossible (e.g. walking inside a nuclear
reactor, doing a task in outer space, etc.)
- There is a feeling of “being there” which makes the training more realistic
- Allow a number of very realistic scenarios to be tested out e.g. how to deal with an emergency
on a chemical plant which could be made to be really realistic

ROBOTICS
- A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional computer controlled device designed to perform
multiple tasks in industries, replacing human beings; e.g. for spray painting, welding, fixing parts of
a car, etc.
- Robotics refers to the science of developing and the use of computer controlled devices to replace
human beings in manufacturing.

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- Robots can contain embedded processors or be linked to a computer system.

- They are pre-programmed to do a specific task or “taught” to remember instructions from a human
operator carrying out the task manually e.g. teaching a robot to spray a car with paint.
- Robots rely on processors and sensors. The sensors gather information so that the robot knows it is
the right time to do the task (e.g. is a car in position to be sprayed, is there an obstruction to
prevent the robot doing its task, etc.)
- They are capable of doing some pseudo-intelligent tasks (e.g. different sized cars to be painted)
- Robots are mostly used (suitable) in the following areas:
o In very dangerous areas for human beings to work, e.g. fire fighting, nuclear power stations,
underground mining, chemical, nuclear factories, deep in the ocean, in space, etc.
o In areas where heavy items are to be lifted, e.g. for loading containers in ships, in production
lines, etc.
o In areas where the degree of accuracy is of utmost importance, e.g. manufacturing of
computer chips. Thus producing standardised goods.
o Where work is repeatedly executed and boring, like traffic control at road junctions

Features (parts) of a Robot

Robots have the following features (parts/characteristics):
- Actuator (Manipulator): - A moving part which resembles a moving arm used for lifting and
fitting items.
- Transducer: They convert analogue signals to voltage signals.
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- Sensors: capture information and data from the environment in analogue form
- Analogue-Digital Converter(ADC):Convert analogues signals to digital signals
- Microprocessor: Processes data collected from sensors
- Power supply: - Usually electricity through compressors or stepper motors.
- Controlling Computers: - Connected through an interface to give instructions to the robot.
- Have some form of interface (connection points to power supply, human interface, etc.)

Robots can move from one position to another, e.g. when lifting cars into the warehouse and when
going for recharging their batteries.
They keep a record of the distance they have travelled and the angles they have turned through so
that they can return to original position
They can sense (using light sensor) and stop if unwanted object gets on their way.
They need information and programming for them to work. Information is provided by sensors.

Problems that Robots may encounter and the Solutions

- Problem: Robot may run out of paint
Solution: include sensors in paint reservoir to indicate low paint levels
- Problem: something gets in path of robot
Solution: include sensors to detect presence of an object blocking the robot
- Problem: Item may not be in the correct position
Solution: include sensors to ensure item is in the correct position
- Problem: Item is not present
Solution: Include sensors to detect if the item is present

Advantages of Using Robots

- Reduces labour costs as less people will be employed.
- High quality work is produced, which is also of high standard and consistent.
- Reduces cost (price) of goods due to reduced labour costs.
- Increases production volumes of goods since more goods are produced in a very short period of
time.
- Ensures high degree of accuracy when producing goods.
- Robots can operate in the dark thereby saving electricity costs.
- Robots do not take breaks and holidays as they do not get tired.
- Robots can work 24 hours a day; they can work non-stop; they don’t need a break
- Robots reduce accidents at traffic lights.
- Robots improve traffic flow.
- Robots can work in dangerous conditions.
- Create employment as the robots need to be serviced and installed.
- Eliminates human errors involved in the production process.
- Removes the need to do boring, very repetitive tasks leaving humans free to do the more skilled
work such as quality control.

NB: However errors still exists due to:

- Loss of power to the robot.
- Fault in the software (wrongly programmed).
- Occurrences of hardware break down.
- Some robot components can be missing or misplaced.

Disadvantages of Using Robots

- Leads to unemployment as humans are replaced by robots
- Electricity expenses are very high.
- they can find it difficult to deal with “unusual” circumstances e.g. a door is missing from a car
waiting on the paint spraying line
- leads to de-skilling since many tasks are taken over by robots
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the science of developing computer systems that have the ability to
learn from experience and mimic human reasoning in specific areas, as in medical diagnosis, mineral
prospecting, etc. Expert systems are a branch of Artificial Intelligence

EXPERT SYSTEMS
These are computer systems developed to mimic human reasoning and work at the level of an expert
in a particular field, e.g. in medical diagnosis. A good example of an expert system is MYCIN that
diagnose bacterial blood disease and then recommend appropriate antibiotic therapy for patients.
Expert systems are used in the following fields:
- oil or minerals prospecting,
- diagnosing a person’s illness,
- Diagnostics (e.g. finding faults in a car engine, etc.),
- tax and financial calculations,
- complex “thinking” tasks such as chess,
- weather forecasting,
- criminology/forensic science,
- career choices, etc

Components (Elements) of an Expert System

- The diagram below shows some of the components:

- Knowledge Base: a representation of facts (data) in a particular field (e.g. diseases, symptoms,
treatments, etc. as in medical diagnosis)
- Inference procedure (engine): contains reasoning methods used to arrive at a conclusion using
information in the knowledge base. It contains interrogation technique/questions and answers.
- User interfaces: these enable people to form queries, provide information, and interact with the
system.
- Explanation facilities (system): enable the systems to explain or justify their conclusions, and
they also enable developers to check on the operation of the system themselves.
- Rule Base: This is found in the Working Store. It contains inference rules and the inference
engine uses these to draw its conclusions.

The system uses a rule base and an inference engine together to simulate human reasoning when
analysing a problem and arriving at a conclusion. To simulate human processes it is necessary to have
a vast amount of information stored in the knowledge base and the reasoning set out as a set of rules
in the rule base.

Steps Followed When Producing an Expert System

- Gather information from experts in the field.
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- Design the knowledge base.

- Input data into knowledge base.
- Design the rule base.
- Design inference engine
- Design display of results
- Design appropriate user interface

Ways of Improving Expert Systems

- Frequently carrying out researches and making updates.
- Quickly inputting new data into the knowledge base.
- Assigning its control to a number of highly experienced personnel who will monitor and make
updates as soon as possible.

Advantages of Expert Systems

- Provides consistent answers
- Fast identification of solutions to problems by quickly analysing data.
- They produce reliable and accurate results.
- There is no need for an expert to be present since they can act as a prompt to an expert.
- They can deal with complex situations much faster than humans.
- They could be used in hazardous areas (e.g. Oil prospecting).
- They are less likely to make errors.
- They do not forget as humans do.
- Many copies can be made at a low cost.
- Knowledge of several experts is combined.
- Save costs on wages and salaries for staff.

Disadvantages of Expert Systems

- They lack creativity.
- They are unable to learn outside the system.
- They lack sensory experience.
- They take time and are difficult to develop.
- They need to be constantly updated to keep pace with recent developments in the field they are
applied.
- This may be difficult and time consuming to use.
- Data is entered by humans who may make mistakes in doing so. This can lead to incorrect decisions
being made
- lacks common sense in some of the decision making processes
- cannot adapt to changing environments unless the knowledge base is continually updated
- expensive system to develop and set up in the first place
- needs considerable training to ensure system used correctly by operators

DATA LOGGING
The process of automatically collecting data from source at set intervals, over a period of time, for use
at a later stage. A device that automatically collects data from source at set intervals for use at a later
stage is called a data logger.

Features of Data Loggers:

 They contain processor inside them.
 Have Interface: Devices that act as connection point between data loggers and the computer.
 They have own storage facility: For storage of data collected from sensors
 They contain or are connected to sensors that are used for collecting data in analogue form. All
physical properties can be measured with sensors e.g. light, heat, sound, pressure, acidity and
humidity.
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Sensor type Purpose

Mercury Tilt switch Detects if device is tilted, e.g. a vending machine
Light sensor Detects the intensity of light (light level), e.g. so as to turn on
or off street lights. Used also in greenhouses, automatic door,
traffic control, etc
Can detect light reflected from a barcode
Push switch Used to turn on or off interior light, e.g inside a fridge if a door
is opened or closed
Temperature Detects temperature levels in central heating systems,
sensor chemical plants, etc
Infra-red sensor Used in burglar alarms, counting people, detecting heat
sources
Sound sensor Records sound levels from beer halls, houses, etc
Proximity sensor Detects how close to each other are two parts, e.g if a window
is opened; an alarm is raised because the proximity between
the window and the sensor is changed.
Position sensor Senses the angle of an object from a certain point, e.g from a
robot
Pressure/motion senses when someone has walked over an object e.g. used in
sensor burglar alarm systems, automatic doors, counting vehicles, etc
Acoustic sensor Listening to foot steps (in burglar alarms), sound from broken
glass, etc
pH sensor Measures the acidity or alkalinity of objects e.g. of soil and
water, in pollution monitoring, chemical process control, etc
Humidity(moisture) Measures humidity (moisture) levels in air, greenhouses,
sensor irrigation systems, etc
Distance sensor Measure the distance from one point to another
(could be
proximity)
Oxygen sensor Used to monitor pollution levels

 They can be connected to small keyboards or other special reading devices.

 They are connected to an Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC), which converts data signals in
continuously varying form (analogue) collected by sensors into discrete (digital) values that can
be accepted by the computer.

Types of data loggers

a. Data loggers with permanent computer connection
 These take readings and send them to the computer in offices through connection cables or
through wireless connections.
 The time intervals (time between each reading) and the period over which the logging takes
place can vary
 The computer may process the readings instantly and produce graphs
 The readings may also be stored on the disk for processing at a later date
 These are suitable for experiments in laboratories

b. Data loggers with temporary connections

 These are not always connected to the computer, but are connected when necessary
 They are mostly used in monitoring environmental conditions over a period of time
 The time intervals (time between each reading) and the period over which the logging takes
place can vary. The time interval for data logging is the time between readings. The logging
period is the total length of time over which readings are taken.

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 Reading are stored by the data logger and loaded into the computer at a later date for processing
 They can be used in remote areas (not directly connected to the computer): remote data
logging.

Performing the data logging process

This can be illustrated by the diagram below:

- Connect sensor to the interface

- Connect interface to the computer
- Load data logging software (if not loaded already)
- Enter time interval (e.g. 30 seconds)
- Specify total reading time
- Display results as a list on the screen
- Produce graphs for analysis of data. Other graphs can be plotted automatically
- Save data on disk for use at a later date
- Export data to other applications like spread sheet

Benefits of computerised data logging

- Data loggers are a very fast method of data collection than manual methods.
- Data can be processed immediately (real-time)
- Data loggers are very accurate than humans in collecting data.
- Data loggers enable collection of data on events that happen too quickly than human beings
could do.
- They can also record data on events that happen too slowly and boring for human beings to
carry
- Data loggers stored data for a very long period of time.
- Data loggers can work 24 hours a day, thus ensuring continuous data logging process.

MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

Monitoring System: A computer program that keeps track and verifies the operations of a data-
processing system and warn the user if an anomaly occurs, e.g. patient monitoring in hospital,
monitoring key parameters in chemical and nuclear plants, monitoring for intruders in houses using
burglar alarms, etc. In monitoring, there is human intervention. In a monitoring system:
- computer system takes information from the sensors
- processor compares the data with stored values
- warns/informs the user of status either by read outs or alarms

Control system
- It is a system in which one or more computers are used to monitor and regulate the operations of
non-computer equipment like in oil refineries.

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- Control systems involve monitoring and logging of physical quantities, provide an analysis of
performance and allows some user interaction.
- Feedback is an essential element as well as timing.
- Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. in oil refining, chemical processing, traffic lights
(controlling the sequence of lights to maintain optimum traffic flow), chemical and nuclear plants
(opening and closing valves, safety systems, etc.), etc.
- In computer control:
 computer system takes information from the sensors
 compares the data with stored values
 sends signals to devices to open/close, on/off etc.
 output from system can affect next input (feedback)

Components of Computer Control

- A computer (or microprocessor).
- Sensors to enable the computer to detect quantities such as temperature or pressure.
- Motor: Devices which actually turns on or off other devices, e.g power supply, windows, vents,
water pipes
- Devices for the computer to turn on and off.
- An interface to connect the sensors and devices to the computer.
- software to read data from the sensors and turn the devices on and off

Automated Systems: -
- These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and lack the ability to collect
and analyse data as in digital cameras.
- They do not allow for or act on user interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras, watches.
- Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.

NB: Embedded Computers: –

- Refers to use of microprocessors in non-computer equipment like in cameras, washing machines,
watches, etc. They do not have mouse, monitor and keyboards.
- These are normally dedicated for a specific task they are designed for. Embedded computers are
also found in household items like camera, microwave, washing machine, video recorder, fridge,
sewing machine, air conditioning, electronic toys, rice cooker dish washer, Televisions, alarms,
clock, radio, DVD players, etc.

How monitoring and/or control is done

- Sensors gather information from the application being monitored or controlled in analogue form.
- The Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) translates the analogue data into digital form that can be
understood by the microprocessor.
- The microprocessor compares the incoming data with the data values already stored in memory.
-If it is a monitoring system the computer system will warn the user in the form of a sound (e.g. a
siren if a burglar alarm, a loud beeping sound if monitoring patients in a hospital)
- If it is a control system, the computer will send a signal to a device to switch on or off (e.g. if
controlling a central heating system, if temperature > set temperature a heater will be switched off
and/or a cooling fan switched on; if the temperature is below the set point then the heating will be
switched on and/or a cooling fan switched off). The digital signal will be converted to analogue form
using a DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter). Actuators are usually employed to operate devices like
valves, heaters, etc.
- The computer/microprocessor system will continually monitor the data coming from the sensors
- In chemical and nuclear plants, there is often a combination of monitoring and control taking place.
Information from sensors is often displayed on a control panel where operators can see key values
and alarm conditions (e.g. if a system monitors temperatures and 1100C is the normal temperature
and 1200C is the alarm temperature, the control panel will show normal, present and alarm values in
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the form of read outs – either the computer will automatically take action if necessary or the operator
will take action (override the system if necessary)

Differences between Control and Automated systems

Control Systems Automated Systems
Can have several tasks Dedicated to one task
Can collect and analyse data lack the ability to collect and analyse data
Allows user intervention They do not allow for or act on user intervention
Has an element of feedback Do not involve feedback
Feedback: The process in which part of the output of a system is returned to its input in order to
regulate its further output.

Benefits of monitoring and control systems

- It is safer to use computer control than human beings, e.g. in monitoring temperature in a blast
furnace, monitoring radiation level in a nuclear reactor, etc.
- It is faster to respond to problems that may affect the system, e.g. nuclear reactor can
automatically shut down in response to earthquake
- They don’t get tired, thus computers can work 24/7
- Computer systems do not miss key data that must be entered into the system as humans do.
- Computer control is more reliable than human beings
- computers are more accurate and can take more frequent readings (e.g. if readings need to be
taken every 30 seconds, humans can make mistakes or miss readings or even find it impossible to
take readings at such short time intervals)
- data can be automatically displayed and analysed without the need to enter data manually (which
in itself could introduce errors into the system)
- Data can be automatically stored and used in other programs.
- The results of the system can be automatically stored in a spread-sheet package or a database
package for future reference.

Disadvantages of monitoring and control systems

- High initial costs because computer-controlled devices are more expensive to buy and to set up.
- Fewer workers will be employed leading to a rise in the numbers of the unemployed.
- The software for the control system is very expensive
- If the computer malfunctions the system will not work
- If there is a power cut the system will not work
- The computer can’t react to unexpected events like a human could. It can only respond in the way
it has been programmed to.
- It can cause some concern if total control for a system and the decisions are handed over to a
computer.

COMPUTERS IN GREENHOUSES
- The environment must be kept constant if plants are to grow successfully in greenhouses.
- Temperature and humidity in the air needs to be controlled so that it is kept constant
- Sensors are used to record humidity and temperature levels in analogue form. The analogue signals
are sent to the computer
- The computer will have stored (pre-set) values of minimum acceptable level and maximum
acceptable level for both temperature and humidity
- If the sensor records humidity level below the minimum acceptable level, the computer will send
signal to the actuator to close the windows and switch on the pump for a certain period of time,
which will spray water as a fine mist inside the greenhouse.
- Too much humidity will cause the processor to send signals to the actuator to open windows to
assist ventilation and drying out air.

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- In case of temperature, if the greenhouse becomes too hot, the windows are opened and heater
turned off. If it becomes too cold, windows are closed and heater switched on.

Inputs:
Humidity/moisture (collected from humidity/moisture sensor),
Temperature (all in analogue form; collected from temperature sensor)

Processing:
- detecting temperature/humidity level
- Processors compares pre-set values in the computer with data collected from sensors
- Processor instructs actuator to take action if values exceed or are less than
minimum/maximum pre-set values
Outputs:
- Windows open or closed (digital form)
- Heater on or off (digital)
- Pump for water supply on or off (digital)

MINERAL AND OIL PROSPECTING

An Expert System called prospector asks the user to enter geological formations of a particular area
such as rock and soil type and then gives advice on the possible mineral deposits that can be found in
that area.
Inputs
Geological data such as rock and soil type
Processing
Draws conclusions from rules and facts using geological data entered and the mineral data stored in
the knowledge base
Output
Possible mineral deposits that can be found in that area

COMPUTERISED TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Input:
- Data is read from sensors(light sensor, motion/pressure sensor, weight sensor, sound sensor,
etc)
- Data is read from camera images
Processing:
- Computers analyse data from sensors.
- Computers calculate average traffic flow and speed.
- Computer sends signals to actuators to adjust change of lights and timing
Output:
- Change of lights at junction.
- change timing plan

Advantages of using computerised traffic control systems

- Ensures improved traffic flow control.
- Reduces traffic accidents.
- Keeps delays to a minimum.
- Reduces pollution. cars use less fuel

In case of an emergency, the computerised traffic system may perform any one of the
following:
- Give uninterrupted path through the system of linked traffic lights.
- Give green link – wave for all traffic to pass.
- Turn all lights to red.
- Activate emergency generator.
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- Sound an alarm.

MICROPROCESSOR-CONTROLLED STREETLIGHTS
Input:
- Pre-set values of Sunset time and Sunrise time
- Light level (Light sensor sends measurement of light to microprocessor, ADC converts this to
digital)
Processing:
- Processor compares sunrise time, sunset time and current time.
- If sunrise time = current time or higher, the processor send signal to actuator so that it
switches off lights, else,
- if signal equals sun set time, the processor send signal to actuator so that it switches on light.
- Also the amount of light is compared with pre-set value. If higher – nothing happens, If lower
or equal sends signal to send signal to actuator so that it switches on the streetlights.
Output:
Lights switched on or off

REFRIGERATORS
Inputs:
- temperature level (from temperature sensor/ or entered manually through the number pad),
- Pressure (from pressure sensor/contact switch/push switch) ,
- push switch setting
Processing:
- Analogue data from sensors is converted to digital by the ADC
- Processor controls temperature level by comparing with pre-set values.
- If temperature is higher than pre-set value, the processor sends signal to motor to switch on
compressor
- If not higher, the compressor is switched off by the actuator
- Processor controls the display panel.
- Processor sends signals to display panel and to the motor to switch lights on or off.
Outputs
- Switch on lights if door is opened and off when closed
- Light emitting diodes indicating current temperature of the inside of refrigerator.
- A warning buzzer (sound) if light is left open.
- Cold temperature

AIR CONDITIONERS
Inputs:
- Pre-set temperature level
- Temperature from temperature sensors
- Pressure from pressure sensors: monitors pressure of refrigerant
Processing
- Processor controls temperature.
- Processor sends signal to motor to change fan speed
- If temperature is below pre-set value, the processor gives motor signal so that it switches off
fans
- If temperature is above pre-set value, the processor gives motor signal so that it switches on
fans
- Processor controls timing and the display panel
Output
- Cool temperatures in the room
- Fans switched off or on depending on the situation

DIGITAL CAMERA:
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Input:
- Light mode( night or day mode)
- Film speed
- Colour setting
Processing:
- Processor sends signal to automatically adjust film speed,
- Processor positions the end of film,
- Processor sends signal to adjust distance from object,
- Processor sends signal to adjusts light.
- Processor sends signal to save image on the memory card
Output
- Sound to indicate that the film/picture has been taken
- Image/film captured and stored
- Light flashed to indicate film/picture is taken

SPEED CAMERAS:
These are used on roads to take photographs of cars which have exceeded the speed limit. Some of
these cameras use microprocessor controlled chips to store information.
The advantages of speed cameras with microprocessor controlled chips are that:
- Data and images can be transferred automatically which will be faster.
- Image can be viewed straight away.
- Can store considerably more data and photos.
- Can store other information (apart from photo image) e.g. road conditions.
- Chips can be re-used.

Inputs
- Maximum speed (speed limits)
- Road condition

Processing:
Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as a speeding car approaches a
camera include:
- Sense and record speed of vehicle.
- Compare speed of vehicle with stored value(s) and decide whether photograph should be
taken.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length, focus image, adjust shutter speed and set exposure.
Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as the photograph is being taken
include:
- Log the time.
- Log the date.
- Log the speed.
- Record the road conditions.
- Operate ―flash.
- Operate shutter.
- Instructs storage of the image.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length and focus image.
Outputs
- Video/pictures of cars captured
- Alarms of over-speeding cars

SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS FOR HOUSE BREAKERS

The interaction between sensors and microprocessor in a surveillance system is as follows:
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- sensors around the house would gather information

- e.g. has a light beam been broken
- has pressure pad detected excess pressure
- has infra-red beam detected excess heat
- has acoustic sensor detected any noise such as breaking glass
- data translated into digital using an ADC (analogue to digital converter)
- microprocessor/computer will compare signal from sensor with stored information
- e.g. signal that light beam is broken
pressure > stored “normal” value
heat level > stored “normal” value
acoustic level > “stored” normal value
- if any values are outside normal range, microprocessor/computer sends a signal to an alarm
and/or flashing light
- system also automatically sends signal to police/security company
- since the house is large, sensors will be in zones; therefore computer will indicate on a control
panel the zone where intruder broke in

MONITORING SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

These are systems designed to monitor critically ill patients or premature babies. Some biosensors
connected to the computer are attached to the patient for tracking and recording vital signs such as
heart beat, blood pressure and brain activity. The biosensors will transmit readings to the central
computer should the situation go beyond a critical warning level and:
- issue a warning on the computer display for nurses on standby
- sound a warning siren, beep or sound to alert medical staff
- flash a light to draw attention of medical staff

Patients in intensive care are monitored through sensors. The sensors measure and give feedback
pertaining to: blood pressure, temperature level, weight, pulse rate, etc
The computer is pre-set with normal range of values. It compares these with feedback from sensors.
Computers record patients’ medical data over some time for later analysis. Data recorded includes:
- Taking measurements on patients, for instance: blood pressure, temperature level, weight,
pulse rate etc. This relieves nurses of some duties that will be boring, making them faster and
more reliable.
- There are however some hospital tasks that are more suitable for human beings to perform
than computers. These include dressing patients, bathing patients, etc

In hospitals, computers also perform the following:

- Used to hold data for children‘s immunisation processes.
- Monitoring of patients during surgery as they control body scanners and sensors.
- For Stock control : For hospital blood stocks, food stocks, drug stocks, etc
- For patient Booking system : For out-patients and in-patients to see the doctor
- For keeping Personnel records : For keeping and management of employee records

MICROWAVE COOKERS
Function by switching a microwave unit on for a sufficient time to either defreeze frozen food or cook
it. It is used to cook food quickly by using waves (similar to radio waves) to heat the food.
Inputs:
Modern cookers have sensors attached to a microprocessor for detecting as inputs:
Weight of food
Temperature of food
Some cookers will also have additional sensors for detecting:
Amount of steam produced during cooking
Amount of alcohol produced

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Processing:
- The microprocessor continually monitors sensor readings and by referring to a programmed
in-built database of food types.
- The microprocessor determines time needed to cook or defreeze food.
- IF a temperature in the food indicates the food is cooked OR the time set on the oven clock is
reached THEN microwaves are not produced
Output: Heat for cooking, Light indicating that food is cooked, power turned off if food is cooked,

SIMULATION AND MODELLING

Modelling
A model is a representation of a real-life process/object which consists of a set of equations which
describes the behavior the process or object.
Modeling is the creation of a programmed simulation of a situation/process in order to predict future
trends.
It involves the use of mathematical formulas and calculations to predict what is likely to happen
based on data recorded.
In modeling, we use the computer to solve equations so that we can carry out simulation.
An equation for part of an economic model could be:
Unemployment = people able to work – people working.
You can develop and evaluate your own models or use the models that have already been set up to
simulate a real life situations

3-D Models can be built using CAD, e.g for planning stores.

Advantages of modeling
- No equipment is damaged
- People are not put in any danger
- Expensive prototypes don't need to be built
- Time can be sped up or slowed down
- Models can be run and re-run over and over
- Modifications can easily be made and re-tested quickly

Disadvantages of Modeling
- The results depend on how good the model is and how much data was used to create it in the
first place.
- Models and simulations can't ever completely re-create real-life situations.
- Not every possible situation may have been included in the model.
- The equipment and software are expensive to purchase.
- Staff need to be trained how to use the software and equipment.

SIMULATION

Simulation is the study of the behaviour of a system using models in order to predict future real life
events, like population growth, flight simulator, etc. It involves feeding values into a model to see how
the model behaves.

In simulation, past and present data, as well as models are analysed in order to predict the future.
Simulation is used in the following areas:
- Training (e.g. pilots, drivers, medical doctors, etc.)
- running/testing chemical plants and nuclear plants
- trying out equipment to be used under sea or in outer space
- crash testing cars
- financial simulations (e.g. stock market predictions based on various scenarios)

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- population growth (i.e. predict how the world’s population will increase based on a number of
different scenarios)
- queues (e.g. simulating queues at supermarket checkouts)
- weather forecasting

Advantages of simulation
- saves cost (rather than doing the real thing)
- safer (scenarios tried out on the simulation first before used in reality)
- possible to try out various scenarios in advance
- Some environments make simulations the only way to carry out a task beforehand (e.g. outer
space, under sea, chemical processes, nuclear reactors, etc.)
- faster (no need to build and test real system, so it is possible to get results more quickly)

FLIGHT SIMULATOR
- Flight simulators are used to train pilots how to fly aircraft.
- They can also be used to test new aircraft before they are actually flown for the first time.
- Flight simulators are expensive to buy but are much cheaper than actual aircraft.
A landing simulation with ice on the runway, thick fog and only one of the four engines working would
really test the pilot’s ability
Flight simulators enable pilots to experience turbulence, snowstorms, thunderstorms, fog, etc, without
leaving the ground.

Simulation at Road Junction

The following is a series of traffic lights at two busy junctions:

In this simulation it is necessary to consider

- In this simulation it is necessary to consider:
- how and what data is gathered
- how the simulation is done
- how the system would work in real life
- why simulations are done

How data is gathered

To make this as realistic as possible, data needs to be gathered over a long period of time. This can be
done by sensors in/near the road, using cameras or manual data collection. Data gathered includes:
- number of vehicles passing in all directions at each junction
- number of vehicles passing in all directions at each junction at a particular time of the day
- Number of cars build up at a junction before lights change
- is it a week day or weekend or public holiday
- how long it takes to clear vehicles at a junction
- other data (e.g. pedestrian crossings)
- time taken for largest/slowest vehicle to pass through a junction
- other factors (e.g. filtering of traffic to the right or left)

How simulation is done

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The data is entered into the computer and the simulation is run. The following scenarios may be tried
out:
- timing of lights is varied to see how the traffic flow is affected
- build up number of vehicles stopped at a junction and change timing of lights to see how it
affects the traffic flow
- increase/decrease traffic flow in all directions to see how the traffic is affected
- try out the impact of accidents
- consider passage of emergency vehicles
- effect of adding in pedestrian crossings
- once the simulation is run, the timing of the lights is determined and how they interact so that
the maximum traffic flow is achieved;
- fault scenarios (e.g. an accident) and their impact are considered

How the system works in real time

- Sensors in/near the road gather data (these can be light/infra-red sensors, induction loops,
pressure sensors, etc.)
- the data is usually number of vehicles passing a particular point
- the data is sent to a control box or computer system
- the gathered data is compared to data stored in the system (the stored data is based on
simulation runs, how the number of vehicles at a junction at a particular time of day affects the
traffic flow, etc.)
- the control box or computer “decides” what course of action to take and sends signals to the
traffic lights to change timing if necessary
- as with any system involving sensors, ADC and DAC interfaces may be needed

SIMULATION IN WEATHER FORECASTING

Another example of simulation is predicting weather (i.e. a weather forecaster).

How and what data is collected

- Super computers are used since they control satellites in orbit.
- sensors measure the following variables in analogue form
o pressure,
o temperature,
o relative humidity,
o wind speed and
o wind direction
- sensors are placed in weather balloons and/or weather stations
- information is also got from satellites
- pilots also send in information regarding weather conditions during long flights
- The data collected by the data loggers will be in analogue form and the ADC device converts
this to discrete values (digital) for the computer to accept.

How the simulation is done

- Data and information from the sensors/satellites is sent to computer for processing
- This data is compared to information stored on files which contain known weather patterns
from the past
- predictions are made based on these comparisons
- Calculations are made to produce expected minimum and maximum temperatures, pressure,
moisture content, rainfall patterns, etc
- the computer produces weather maps showing isobars, temperatures, etc.
- computer can show graphically how weather (e.g. cloud formations) will change with time (i.e.
predict weather patterns) – this is often presented as a computer generated video showing

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how clouds build up, how temperature and pressure changes over, for example, the next 7
days, wind speeds etc.
- it is also possible to do statistical analysis and predict the percentage probability that certain
weather conditions will occur.

How future environment/climate changes can be predicted

- Weather forecasting uses the concept of simulation and modelling i.e. predicting the weather
by studying a mathematical weather model.
- The measurements are then entered into a mathematical weather model which then makes
complex calculations to come up with the weather reports.
- based on changes in weather patterns, the processor carries out a statistical prediction
- model is able to change parameters to see how future climate can be affected
- there is need to review a lot of previous data over a number of years to check if changes are
genuine , for example 20 years, predictions compared to actual climate conditions to
validate/further refine the model
- can make use of spread sheets and statistical software packages for other calculations

Output:
- Information obtained is displayed on the computer screen ready for presentation on
televisions
- Information can be printed documents.
- Tables and graphs are produced
- Rainfall maps and isobars are produced.
- Expected minimum and maximum temperatures are produced
- Areas of pressure change with time so it is possible to predict rainfall, strong winds, etc. in
advance
- Show how the clouds patterns will change with time so it is possible to predict rainfall
Advantages of this automatic weather forecasting system include:
- Computer can take readings during weekends and public holidays without the presence of human
beings.
- Computer readings are more accurate.
- Readings can be taken more frequently.
- Readings can be taken any time of day or night.
- Graphs can be produced more easily.
- Readings can be taken more reliably.
- Humans can be more productive if not collecting data.

SIMULATING QUEUING IN A SUPERMARKET

Collecting data for the model:
- Sensors count number of people at checkouts points at each time of day and each day of the
week
- count how many people build up at the checkouts on either is it a weekday, weekend or bank
holiday
- determine how long it take to serve a customer

Carrying out the simulation

- number of checkouts opened and see how flow of people affected
- Build up number of customers at checkout, open extra checkouts and see how it affects time to
be served, etc.
- Increase/decrease number of customers and observe the affect
- Once simulation is run, number of checkouts needed is determined and interaction with
customers is determined so that optimum throughput is achieved
- Look at fault scenarios (breakdown of equipment etc.)

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Embedded web technology (EWT)

- This is a new technology that uses the Internet in real time to control/interact with a device which
contains an embedded microprocessor.
- The user needs to be authorised to do this and can control a device anywhere using a web browser
(e.g. from a computer or even a mobile phone which is web-enabled).
- Example: An oven contains an embedded processor. The owner can use a web ready mobile phone
anywhere to control the oven remotely.
- By accessing a web site one is able to send instructions to control the oven.
- It is possible to control any device in this way if it contains an embedded processor e.g. television,
DVD player/recorder, washing machine, scientific experiments in remote areas such as outer space

GLOBAL POSITIONING SATELLITES (GPS)

GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine the latitude and
longitude (position) of a receiver on earth by computing the time difference for signals from different
satellites to reach the receiver.

- GPS systems are used to determine the exact location of a car, airplane, ship or any form of
transport which travels from one place to another.
- In vehicles these systems are called Satellite Navigation Systems (sat nav).
- Satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth.
- Computers in vehicles (e.g. car, airplane or ship) receive and interpret these signals.
- Positioning depends on very accurate timing – atomic clocks are used because of their accuracy to
within a fraction of a second per day.
- Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.
- The computer in the vehicle calculates its location based on the information from at least three
satellites as shown below:

- In motor vehicles the system is called satellite navigation (sat nav).

- The on board computer contains pre-stored road maps.
- The vehicle’s exact location, based on satellite positioning, can be shown on the map; the driver can
then be given verbal directions e.g. “turn left into Josiah Tongogara Road” OR a screen output
showing the vehicle moving on the map
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How satellite navigation systems can be used to calculate a vehicle’s position

- satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth
- computers in the bus receive and interpret these signals
- the satellite relies on very accurate timing (atomic clocks)
- each satellite transmits data indicating position and time
- computer in bus calculates its position based on received satellite data
- at least three satellites are used to give the vehicle’s exact position

How the drivers uses the satellite navigation system:

- the computer has a number of pre-stored maps
- bus location shown on appropriate map
- directions are given verbally or on-screen output (on a map)

Advantages
- It is far safer since a driver of a vehicle doesn’t have to consult maps whilst driving.
- it also removes error (e.g. going the wrong way down a one-way street).
- Sat nav systems can also give additional information such as position of speed cameras, estimate
time of arrival, etc.
- GPS can monitor a vehicle’s position if it has broken down or has been stolen (vehicle tracking
system).
- In airplanes GPS can pinpoint its exact location in case of an accident which enables search teams to
quickly respond to the incident.

Disadvantages
- maps may not up to date therefore instructed to turn into a road which no longer exists
- road closures due to accidents or road works may cause problems to a sat nav system
- signal loss can cause problems with GPS systems
- potential interferences from external sources (major problem on aircraft)
- incorrect start and end point entered into system can cause problems

THE INTERNET
Internet stands for INTERnational NETwork and it is a global (world-wide) connection of computer
networks. On the internet, one is able to access data stored on a server in any part of the world as long
as it is connected to the internet itself. The internet can be accessed from anywhere. It is also available
to anyone. No one controls the internet as computers in different countries are connected yet the
countries have different laws. However, each country may regulate internet usage in its own territory.

Definition of Terms
Information Superhighway (ISH): A global network of computers for moving huge amounts of
information via satellite and cable connection. Information found on ISH includes home shopping,
entertainment, news, software downloads and help, online banking, stock market dealing, jobs,
(vacancies), university placements, etc.
Information Technology (IT): - The use of computers in information handling and communication.
Information Age: A period beginning in the last quarter of the 20th century when information
became easily accessible through publications and through the manipulation of information by
computers and computer networks.
Global Village: the use of the internet to access information from any part of the world.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The use of computers and related method as a
tool for information communication, for instance through e-mails, cell phones, etc.
Web page: a document or page on the internet that contains information about an organisation
Website:-a collection of web pages at the same domain, often with a common name and maintained
and provide information of a single organisation, e.g. www.zimpapers.co.zw .
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It is a page/pages on the internet that contains information about an organisation

Hyperlink :- an area of a page, usually text or image, that contains a links to another web page. It is
usually underlined or has a different colour to show that it can link the user to another site.
Home page: A web page that loads first (by default) when one logs on to the internet. It then provides
links to other sites on the internet.

Hardware Requirements for an Internet Connection

- Modem (MOdulator DEModulator):- a device that converts analogue data to digital form and vice
versa, often for internet connection using a telephone line. Alternatively one may acquire a GPRS
(general packet radio service) modem.
- Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
transmission, etc.
- Network cards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the network, has an
interface where network cables are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for an Internet Connection

These are: Communication Software, web browser and Network operating system
(a) Communication Software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol. Allows
devices to connect to the internet even if they have different manufacturer standards by use of pre-set
rules or international standards.
(b) Web Browser: refers to software used for opening web pages on the internet, for example
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, etc.
- Web browsers are used view web pages from the World Wide Web (www).
- A web page is a site on the internet that provides information about an organisation.
- The World Wide Web (www) is a vast repository of data stored on websites on the internet.
- Web pages can be created using any of the following software:
 HTML (editor),
 word processing package,
 desktop publishing software,
 web publishing software,
 Presentation software.

Web Developing Software Features:

- Feature for changing the background colour or background image on a page.
- Feature for formatting text (size, font, colour, bold, italic, underline etc.) or frames.
- Able to work with tables.
- Features for inserting graphics/pictures/sound clip/video clip/animations.
- Features for working with links/creating buttons/list box.
- Features for switching to a browser to check the appearance of a page.
- Use templates.

Website features
The following are the general features of a good website
- shopping basket
- offer security when using credit/debit cards
- search facility for artist, tile, item, etc
- drop down boxes to choose categories
- help facilities
- currency converters for international customers
- date/sales confirmation by automatic email
- saved customer details/customised pages
- ability to track status of orders
- ability to listen to/view/see video/see product, etc
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- recognise customer as soon as they log on

- buttons to navigate to other web pages

When designing web pages it is necessary to supply the correct spacing for customer information
(and/or use drop down menus), buttons to navigate to other web pages, etc

(c) Network operating system: manages the network and offers security to internet users.

NB: internet account: a unique personal identifier given by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). An
ISP is an organisation that links users to the internet, for example, Mweb, Ecoweb, Africaonline, Yahoo,
Google Inc, etc.

Advantages of the Internet as a Source of Information

- Can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
- Information on the internet is up-to-date.
- Multimedia can be used.
- Huge amounts of information can be accessed; e.g., magazines, encyclopaedia, dictionaries,
newspapers, textbooks, etc.
- Search engines are available to assist in finding information.
- Using emails you can access experts from all over the world on certain subjects.

Disadvantages of the Internet as a Source of Information

- Equipment and connections needed are very expensive (computers, modems (ISDN adapters)
ISP, telephone).
- One needs knowledge to perform searches effectively.
- Problem of hackers.
- Breaches of copyrights are very common.
- Rampant spread of rumours on the internet.
- Spread of pornography to young people.
- Leads to loss of privacy.
- Some people become internet addicted and tend to interact with computers more than with
human beings.
- Credit card fraud is rampant.
- Cultural erosion and replacement of local culture by a global culture

Searching information from the internet

- Search Engines: These are programs used to search data, information and other websites from
the internet, e.g. Google, Yahoo, etc. however, it requires good skill from the user to efficiently
use search engines in searching data from the internet.
- Hits: these are many irrelevant (unwanted) results that can be displayed by the search engine
if the search engine is not used efficiently.
- To avoid hits when a search condition is entered, inclusion of statements such as AND (+) and
OR will help narrow down the search. E.g. ZIMSEC+syllabus.

Internet and Security

Security is concerned with protection of data from unauthorised access and from deliberate or
accidental loss.
Below are some of the security concerns and some suggestions on how they can be rectified /
prevented.

Security Solutions / safeguards

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Problem
Hacking - Use of passwords and (usernames) ids to prevent illegal access to files.
- Locking the computer itself or locking the computer room.
- Encryption stops the information from being read even if access has
been gained to a file but won’t stop hacking!!
- Installing firewalls
Viruses - Use ant-virus software like AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, etc,
- Use firewalls to prevent viruses from entering a computer.
- Do not open emails/attachments from “unknown” sources;
- Only load software from disks/cds which are originals
Corruption/Loss
of Data due to
the following
ways: - Prevention of viruses is as given above
- viruses
- hackers - Prevention of hackers is as given above
- Accidental damage to data can be prevented by: keeping back-up
- accidental files or use the Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) method;
damage to data - use of passwords and ids can also help by restricting access in the
first place
- protection against hardware faults could be through keeping back-
ups or use Grandfather-Father-Son;
- hardware faults
- use of UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), in case of power loss
- Running parallel systems also help
- Software faults can be solved by keeping back-up files or

- Can also be solved by using Grandfather-Father-Son would help

- software faults
- Incorrect computer operation can be solved by: backing up files
would guard against problems caused by incorrect shutting down
of the system
- incorrect
computer
Operation

Definition of terms (in the table above)

Hacking: Obtaining unauthorised access to protected and secure computer systems or network,
usually using intelligent methods like cracking the password.
Hacker: A person who gains unauthorised access to protected and secure computer systems or
network, usually using intelligent methods like cracking the password
Virus: A computer virus is a program which replicates itself, damages or corrupts files and memory of
the computer, for example, the Love Bug virus which attacked computers in 2000.
Anti-Virus: These are programs that detect and remove (clean) computer viruses and reduce the risk
of computers being attacked by viruses, e.g. Norton Antivirus, MacAfee, Avira, Avast, AVG, etc.
Encryption: data encryption is the scrambling of data before sending, for security reasons, so that it is
not readable unless it is decrypted using.
Back-up file: A duplicate (copy) of the original file that is created and stored at different location with
the original file, for security reason.
Grandfather-Father-Son files: Also called file generations: these are three versions of files that are
kept at an organisation and are created as a result of sequential file updating.
UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply (A device with rechargeable batteries that provide continuous
supply of electricity to computers for a given period of time if there is power cut.
Parallel systems: Refers to the running of two different systems but doing the same job in the same
organisation. Each system will have its own files.
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Password: A password is a secret group of alphanumeric characters used to protect a document or

file from unauthorised access
PIN: Personal Identification Number- a secret number used by individual account holders to access
bank account and get service at the ATM, phone, Point of Sale terminal (POS) using debit cards, etc.
Firewall: Hardware and associated software used to protect networked private computer systems
from unauthorised access by preventing outside data/users from entering the system while at the
same time preventing internal data from leaving the system.

NB: Note
- Viruses do not only infect computers, they can also affect mobile phones, MP3 players etc. –
any device which can download files from a source such as the internet is potentially at risk.
- Backing up may allow files that have become lost/corrupted (due to hacking or viruses) to be
reinstated; however, this would not recover the system nor would it prevent hacking/viruses
affecting a system in the first place.
- Problems like spam, pop-ups, cookies, etc. are more of a nuisance (they can also slow down the
operation of a computer). These can however be blocked (or made inactive) by using suitable
software.
When using the Internet, security can be enhanced using encryption.
Credit and debit card transactions can also be protected by a special type of password control.
For example, if a user chooses the password COMPUTE34 to protect their credit card, when they buy
something over the internet the card issuer will ask the user an additional question such as: “Please
type in the 2 , 4 and 7 character of your password in the following boxes:
□□□“
The user will then type in O P E and the card purchase will be authorised. This additional protection is
used as well as encryption.
Some of the new systems allows user slots the card into the side of the keyboard and is required to
type in a PIN before the Internet can be accessed. This gives an additional level of security since it is
necessary to have the card, know the PIN associated with the card AND also know the user’s log in id
and password!!!

People’s fear of the Internet

People’s worries about the risks when using the Internet include:
- Encountering offensive websites while searching for goods or services, e.g pornographic sites, sites
with hate language, etc.
- downloading viruses during a transaction
- being deceived by a bogus website and paying for counterfeit or non-existent goods
- interception of shopping account, card payment or banking account information making them
vulnerable to unauthorised access to their accounts (‘hacking’) or fraudulent transactions
- Browser ‘cookie’ files identifying their computer to a web server, enabling a trader to ‘retarget’
them.
- receiving unsolicited email after they have been required to supply a valid email address in order
to register for an account
- Erosion of local culture by global culture.

Services Provided by the Internet

1. Electronic Mail (E-Mail): A form of communication in which written/typed messages are send
electronically over networked computers. In-order to send and receive e-mails, the following is
needed.
(a) An internet connection
(b) An E-mail Address for both the sender and receiver:
- This is a unique identifier of the storage location of a person’s mailbox.
- An e-mail address is made up of two parts that are separated by the “@” symbol, for example,
[email protected].

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- The first part (kapondenit) is the username and is used to identify the name of the person or
organisation that has the mailbox. The username is unique.
- The second part (gmail) is the domain name and is used to identify the server where the
person has a mailbox.
- The other part (the one after the dot (.) indicates the domain type e. g
o . com – commercial organisation
o . edu – educational organisation
o . org – non-profit making organisation, etc
- An e-mail address should be known by many people so that they will know the address where
to send the emails.
- Every mailbox is protected from illegal access by use of password.
- A password is a secret group of alphanumeric characters used to protect a document from
unauthorised access.
- NB. When creating an e-mail, one is requested to enter the password twice in order to verify if
it is the one you intend to use.
- Mailbox: - An electronic folder used to store electronic mails. It contains the inbox; which
contains incoming mails; and the outbox; which is used to save outgoing messages.

Process of sending e-mail

- the user first logs on to email address,
- the sender composes the message and attaches a file (if required)
- The user then sends it by clicking on the send button.
- The message is transmitted to the sender’s ISP/central host server.
- The message is stored on a central host computer of the sender.
- The mail server examines the address of the message
- The message is transmitted to the recipient’s ISP mail server
- The message is stored in the recipient’s electronic mail box.
- The addressee logs in to a local computer and receives the mail

Reading/retrieving the message

- the recipient logs on to their mail server
- the message is then retrieved from the inbox and sent to the recipient’s computer
- the recipient reads own message (can be printed if there is need)

Advantages of e-mails as compared to ordinary mails

 It is very fast in sending messages (can be delivered promptly while ordinary mails can take
days to reach their destination).
 It is very cheap to send e-mails since there is no need for envelopes, stamps, paper and pen,
which are needed in conventional mail.
 They are reliable since e-mails rarely get lost.
 E-mails are time independent as they can be send any time of the day other than conventional
mails which can be send during the normal working hours.
 E-mails allow multiple addressing, that is, one e-mail message can be send to several recipients
simultaneously without having to retype it.
 E-mails can be saved for future use or reference.
 E-mails are more convenient to use as there is no need to travel to the post office or to shops to
buy stamps and envelopes.
 In e-mails, attachments in form of reports, scanned documents, pictures and curriculum vitae
can easily be attached to the e-mail.
 there are no language problems (systems can translate messages sent)
 - it is possible to read emails whenever you want – there are no issues of time differences as
would be the case with video conferencing. If some delegates lived in the USA and the others
lived in India, for example, the time difference is 10 to 14 hours which could be a problem)
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Disadvantages of e-mail
 Not everyone has equipment to send e-mails.
 Junk mail (spam) is a problem.
 You waste a lot of time looking through mails that are just adverts.
 E-mails are not as secure as traditional mails.
 The system relies on people checking their mails regularly.
 Old people feel left out as they consider themselves too old to learn.
 Equipment used to send and receive e-mails is very expensive as compared to traditional
methods.

However, despite the increase in the use of e-mail, there has been a sharp increase in the amount of
paper used. This is because:
 People print copies for meetings and then destroy them afterwards, but if needed again, print
out another copy.
 Some people find it difficult reading large amounts of text on the screen.
 People often e-mail colleagues rather than use the phone who then print out the document.

2. Teleconferencing: A method of conducting discussion with several people in different locations

using the telephone.

3. Video conferencing: Conducting meetings with several people in different locations and seeing
each other on the screen of networked computers. Video images and audio are seen/heard in real
time on large monitors/through speakers. Delegates do not need to leave their homes or work places
or conference rooms. Video conferencing requires the following:
 A computer with a codec (which converts and compresses analogue data into digital data for
sending down digital lines.)
 Video cameras or Webcam to take video images
 Microphone to speak through.
 Loud Speakers for delegates’ voices to be heard.
 Large and high resolution monitor.
 Internet/WAN/modem to transmit data
 An integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line with a high bandwidth to transmit video
data at fast speed.
 Sound card.
 Video card
 Compression software to compress video and sound
 which converts and compresses analogue data into digital data for sending down digital lines
 requirement for echo cancellation software (this allows talking in real time and keeps
communications synchronised)

How the video conferencing is done

- delegates, while in different locations, speak into central microphone
- webcam takes video images in real time
- delegates hear speech through loud speaker system
- system uses internet/WAN/broadband modem to transmit data
- uses of compression software/CODEC
- use echo cancellation software

Advantages of tele and video conferencing

 It cuts transport cost incurred in travelling to the venue of the meeting.
 Reduces costs involving paying hotel bills and meals for the delegates.

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 Saves time spend in travelling to the venue of the meeting.

 It becomes safer for employees since no travelling is done (no travelling accidents).
 There is no need for delegates to leave home/office.
 It becomes easier for several delegates to take part simultaneously.
 communication links are now much faster therefore images, sound quality etc. are now far
better
 safety reasons (increase in world-wide terrorist activity, frequent travelling, etc. are all risks to
company employees if they have to travel to meetings)
 improvements to the work/general environment (employees can work from home,
 less travel means less stress to employees but also means less pollution, disabled employees
are no longer disadvantaged, etc.
 more economical to have short notice meetings

Disadvantages of video and tele-conferencing

 Communication expenses are very high.
 Hardware and software requirements are expensive.
 People will lack personal contact and will socialize less.
 The hardware and software needed to run video conferencing is very sophisticated and
expensive.
 Confidential documents may need to be seen in their original form, which may be difficult in
this situation
 There is no direct eye contact, which plays a large role in group discussions.
 The quality of video or audio may be low, depending on the bandwidth.
 There may be interruptions due to breakdowns in transmission
 Power cuts may prevent the conference from continuing.

4. View data (videotext) systems: These are interactive systems on which users view data when
they access specialized databases like Prestel. The requirements include:
 the telephone line or cable TV,
 specialized keyboard and
 A Television set.

Information on the database is provided by companies that advertise their products like news,
weather reports, and so on. View data systems have the following advantages:
 they are interactive and
 service is provided for free to the public.

However, its requirements are expensive.

5. Teletext: It is a broadcast service that comes as a television transmission. It is cheaper than the
internet service. However, it is non-interactive.

6. Facsimile (Fax): A method whereby output from a scanned document is send over telephone line
and reproduce on a fax machine on the receiving end. Fax method has the following advantages:
 It is very cheap to send messages.
 It is very easy to use.
 It is a very fast method of sending messages.

However, it has the following disadvantages:

 Its requirements are expensive (fax machine).
 There must be a person at the receiving end to attend to the fax when receiving messages.

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NB: The use of fax, e-mail, view data, teletext, teleconferencing and video conferencing in an office
brings about an electronic (paperless) office.
- An electronic office is an office in which the storage and processing of data as well as
communication are done electronically.
- An electronic office is efficient because:
 Communication is easier and faster.
 Less paperwork is involved.
 Current and up-to-date information is provided.
 Ensures a clean office environment.

However, it is very expensive to setup and maintain an electronic office.

*NB- The use of computers to perform all clerical and office duties is called Office Automation.

- Tele and video conferencing as well as networking bring about tele-commuting (tele-working).
Tele-commuting is carrying out work without leaving home.
- Communication is done through networked computers.
- Requirements for telecommuting includes: modem, very fast communication links (for example
telephone line), computers, internet services, etc.

Benefits of telecommuting
- Easier to concentrate on work in a quiet environment than in a noisy office.
- It saves time spent in travelling to the work place thereby increasing productivity.
- It cut costs involved in travelling to work place.
- The employer saves costs of office space and overheads like water and electricity.
- People can be recruited from a wide geographical area.
- People with disabilities like the handicapped can be employed.
- People in different locations can work as a team.

Disadvantages of tele-commuting
- Workforce not in office is difficult to control.
- Workers would not understand corporate goals and will not be loyal to the organisation.
- Employees feel isolated and miss the environment of an office full of colleagues.
- People may find it difficult to work in teams.
- It is difficult to separate work from home duties while at home.
- Unions find it difficult to mobilise workers for demonstrations and strike.

7. File Transfer : allows users to transfer files from host computers on the internet to their personal
computers.

8. News groups: a global electronic bulletin board system in which users exchange information on
different topics.

9. Entertainment: the internet provides an option for users to download and listen to music,
newspapers, radio stations, etc.

10. Internet Shopping: (Internet buying, electronic commerce, online shopping): The internet
provides a facility for customers to purchase products from the internet without visiting shops. Credit
cards are used in internet buying.

Advantages of buying from the internet

To the customers
- Programs are available to search for the cheapest products on offer.
- Customers have more time to choose.
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- Shopping is done any time of the day, thus providing a 24 hour service.
- A wide choice of products is available.
- Shopping can be done by setting up a file.
- It is very convenient to use as customers do not leave their homes for shopping.
- It cut travelling costs to the shops.
- Customers do shopping without being jostled by crowds.
- There are less cases of impulse buying.
- Product reviews are obtainable before purchase.
- Goods and services usually cheaper on the internet.
- Customer need not to go to shop and therefore save travelling time.

To businesses/shop managers
- Business is carried out any time of the day (provides a 24 hour shopping service).
- Increases sales due to greater number of customers from all over the world.
- No wastage space for goods is involved.
- Ensures huge saving on overheads like rent, warehousing, employee facilities.
- More goods can be made available.
- It is cheaper to use as there are no leaflets, pamphlets, etc.
- Can reduce the number of shops on the streets.
- Organisations can employ fewer workers thereby cutting labour costs.
- No need to travel to the shop as business can be run from home.

Disadvantages of buying from the internet

To customers
- There are chances of losing money through credit card fraud and hacking.
- Customers lack interaction with others.
- Customers fear of rogue companies (customers may not receive the goods).
- Customers cannot physically see the goods before purchasing.
- Not everyone has a computer and is connected to the internet.
- Not everyone has credit cards.
- Problem of spam (Unwanted e-mail, usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk).
- Customers cannot have the goods immediately.

To businesses
- Increase in cases of industrial espionage.
Industrial espionage involves selling of company secrets by employees to rival companies and the
use of destructive methods by competitors to destroy other organisations.

Effects Of E-Commerce and E-banking To The Community

Positive effects Negative effects

Shops and banks are open 24/7 Close down of shops/banks in city centres
Access to shops and banks is worldwide Increased risk of fraud/hacking
Less pollution since less travelling Less personal service/more impersonal
Disabled people are not disadvantaged Loss of jobs due to closures of
(no need to travel) shops/banks
Busy people can shop/bank when they Less social interaction between people –
want and where they want just sit at home using computer
If you live in a remote area, it is much Less activity for people – leads to a less
easier to access shops/banks healthy/overweight population
Less expensive (cost savings to shop/ Less environmentally friendly since more
bank + more competition – savings are goods sent out by post – waste from
passed on to the customer) packaging significantly increases
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Less money is spent in travelling The gap between the rich and the poor
widens as the rich get savings from shopping
on-line.
Increase in small businesses. Lower profits for companies that do not
engage in e-commerce.
Decline in leisure shopping as goods are deskilling of the work force (e.g CAD has
bought on-line. taken over draftsman skills, word processors
have taken over many office-based duties,
etc.)
A lot of money is wasted by the need to re-train the workforce in the use of new software/computers

Computer systems have allowed companies to set up call centres in other countries where potential
cost savings can be made. This, of course, can lead to job losses in the host country.

Advantage to companies adopting call centres overseas includes:

- if strikes or other problems occur in one country it is possible to transfer work elsewhere
- reduced costs in countries where labour costs are lower
- reduced costs due to incentives/grants by countries keen to set up call centre offices
- round the clock customer support (one of the advantages of time differences is the possibility
of 24/7 cover)

Disadvantages to having call centres overseas:

- language and culture problems
- animosity (hatred/enmity) to overseas call centres (leading to loss of customers)
- need for extensive re-training which is time consuming and expensive
- time differences (can lead to health problems in call centre work force who need to work
unsocial hours to target key markets)
- Technology differences between different countries (does the infrastructure exist to service
high tech equipment?)

THE CASHLESS SOCIETY

This refers to the use of electronic commerce thereby reducing handling of hard cash amongst
individuals. However, it seems impossible to completely have a complete cashless society.

Benefits of A cashless society

- More convenient to pay bills, mortgage loans, gas, phone and electricity bills since these are paid
automatically.
- Customers no longer need to carry large sums of money thereby reducing cases of robbery.
- Customers no longer need to queue on banks to get cash.

Problems of a Cashless Society:

- Credit is normally given only to those who are working and have a steady source of income.
- People will spend more than they can afford thereby getting into debt.
- Wrong information about individuals is kept as more information about people is kept in
computers for their credit rating.
- It is difficult for individuals to track how much they spent.

INTRANET
- Intranet stands for INTernal Restricted Access NETwork. It is a restricted private organisation’s
network that uses internet technologies for the benefits of such an organisation.

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- An intranet is a computer network based on internet technology that is designed to meet the
internal needs for sharing information within a single organisation/company
- Intranet requires password entry.
- Intranet is protected by a firewall.
- Intranet only gives local information relevant to the company/organisation
- It is possible to block access to certain sites using the intranet, e.g Facebook.
- it is not always necessary to have external modems when using intranets
- information for use on intranets is stored on local servers

Many companies use intranets as well as the internet. The main reasons for doing this include:
- it is safer since there is less chance of external hacking or viruses
- it is possible to prevent employees from accessing unwanted web sites
- companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their needs only
- it is easier to keep “sensitive” messages to remain within the company only

Differences between internet and Intranet

Internet Intranet
the INTERNET is INTERnational NETwork an INTRANET is INTernal Restricted Access
NETwork
Internet gives all information including that the intranet only gives local information
which is not relevant to the organisation relevant to the company/organisation
Always need external modems for internet it is not always necessary to have external
connections modems when using intranets
Information on internet saved in different information for use on intranets is stored on
computers local servers
the internet can be accessed from anywhere Intranet is accessed within the range of the
organisation’s network
the internet is available to anyone without whereas the intranet requires password
password restriction entry

Extranet: It is an intranet made available off -site to members or business partners of an organisation.
It is an extension of the intranet giving authorized outsiders controlled access to the intranet.

WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (WIFI) AND BROADBAND

Broadband: a communications network that provides for high quality and high speed voice, data and
video transmission usually over wireless networks or over high bandwidth media like fiber optics and
satellites.

Wireless Communication:
This is a method of networking (linking) computers and computer devices without the use of cabling
(wires), e.g. using Bluetooth, radio, satellite, infra-red, microwave, etc. The devices that can be used in
wireless technology include:
- Mobile phones /cell phone/remote key pad/remote control/ remote keyboard.
- Infra-red mouse.
- Multimedia mobile handsets and notebooks.
- GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) modems.

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- Wireless LAN(or Wi-Fi –Wireless Fidelity: A local area network that uses high frequency radio
signals to transmit and receive data over distances of a few hundred feet; uses Ethernet protocol).
- PDAs (personal digital assistants).

Advantages of wireless communication

- Cheaper as no wires are needed for networking.
- Ensures fast wireless Internet access.
- Wireless LAN is faster than a modem or mobile.
- Wireless LAN enables working at home.
- Users can create and send multimedia messages to mobiles or e-mail while in transit.
- Users can send greetings from mobiles to mobiles/PCs.
- Ensures instant transmission.
- Users can download e-mail and file attachments while on mobile. Users can watch live web cast
on mobile.
- Users can listen to streaming video on mobile.
- Users can watch news, weather, sport, games while travelling.
- Users can access information from mobile anytime.
- Users can send, receive, delete e-mail while travelling.
- Users can view business appointments while out of office on mobile.
- Users can send corporate e-mail while out of office - even behind a firewall on mobile.
- Users can use wireless internet connection from chat rooms for discussions with colleagues
while travelling.

Most areas in the world now offer broadband rather than dial up for connecting to the internet. The
advantages of broadband over dial up include:
- the system is always “on”-no need to dial into ISP every time you want access
- the connection rate/data transfer rate is much higher (for example broadband operates at 11 000
kbps compared to the dial up rate of 60 kbps)
- there is a flat monthly rate with broadband (dial up is charged per hour of usage)
- it is possible to use the telephone at the same as the internet with broadband/the line isn’t tied up
- broadband permits other facilities such as “skype”
- Wireless technology (WiFi) allows connection of a computer to the Internet without the need for
connecting cables. A router (containing a modem and external aerial) is connected to a telephone
line and it is then possible for any computer within range to communicate with the router and
allow Internet access – the link between computer and router is completely wireless.. The main
advantage of doing this is clearly the portability (i.e. can go anywhere within range since no wires
are needed).

Disadvantages of Wireless Technology

- Wireless LAN speeds are slower than Net access at work due to narrow bandwidth.
- Anyone within the Wireless LAN nodes range with an appropriate device can use your Wireless
LAN and broad band link.
- Anyone who walks past your house or WLAN linked into a corporate system can access sensitive
information like credit card details.
- 3G phones are not compatible with 2G phones.
- Signals can be blocked, distorted or will be weak.
- Can lead to health problems from microwaves
- the range can be very limited, e.g. using Bluetooth.
- possible interference from nearby electronic devices
- security issues (i.e. tapping illegally into WiFi networks) is very common
- access speed/transfer rate is often slower using wireless systems

It isn’t just computers that can be linked without wires, various peripheral devices can be linked to a
computer system without the need for a physical, wired connection.
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For example:
- Printers
- Keyboards
- Mouse
- Digital cameras

COMPUTERS IN ENTERTAINMENT
Music
Computers are now used for playing and composing music. Computer hardware and software
advances have changed how music is generated and produced. Software used includes Fruit Loops,
Virtual DJ, etc.
Musical instruments can be connected to a MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface).
MIDI is a type of serial interface built into a piece of electrical equipment so that it can communicate
with the computer. It also converts output signals from the instrument, e.g. guitar, into digital form.
Some of the key reasons for the widespread development of music using computers are:
- the recording process for music is faster
- there is no need for tapes during the recording process
- It is easier to remove or add sounds to a track.
- Sampling of sounds is very easy
- actual musical notes can be generated from the music itself by software
- music samplers and mixers give an almost limitless ability to alter the original tracks recorded
in a studio
- don’t need to understand music notation to write a musical score
- electric instruments (such as guitars and organs) play back through electronic machines
- synthesisers combine simple wave forms to produce more complex sounds
- electric organs can now mimic almost any instrument (including a full orchestra)
- automatic rhythm
- music notes automatically printed out in the correct format
- There are many other software and hardware developments; the above is just a summary of
the more common elements.
- A performance can be directly recorded onto the computer and stored in a MIDI file, which can
be edited later.
- Synthesisers are also used to generate notes and desired sounds from pre-recorded electrical
signals. These signals can be combined with signals from conventional instruments and
recorded to produce songs.
Music can be compressed to produce MP3 (motion picture expert) format.
Music can be played using software like Microsoft Windows Media Player, JetAudio, Nero Show Time,
Real Player, etc.

ANIMATION/CARTOONS IN FILMS AND VIDEO/TELEVISION

Computer Graphics
These are computer generated images designed by graphic artists for producing logos, news inserts,
cartoons, animations, etc. The artists use graphic software like Microsoft Paint. 3-D images can also be
produced using graphics packages.

Image processing: The images can be darkened, sharpened, changed colour, cropped, etc.

Animation
- Animation consists of displaying a rapid succession of 2-D or 3-D graphics arrangements to create
the illusion of movement. It is used for web presentations and advertisements and for film.
- Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via computer hardware and software.
- For 3-D animation, objects are designed on a computer and a 3-D skeleton is produced.
- The limbs, mouth, eyes, etc. are moved by the animator using key frames. A frame can just be a
picture/graphic image.
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- A start and end of frame is produced.

- Software is used to produce animation between the different frames automatically.
- The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer –
this is called TWEENING or MORPHING. The animation is finally RENDERED (i.e. turned into a
realistic image).
- Computer animation uses a technique called avars (animation variable) which control all
movement of the animated character.
- Finally, surfaces are added requiring a process called rendering (i.e. turned into a realistic image).
- avars can be set manually using a joystick. Software produces a level of quality for movie animation
that would take many years to produce by hand and would employ several cartoonists/animators.
- This all saves considerable time and money to the film and television producers.

- Avatars are another example of animation. These are often used to represent people either in 3-D
(as used in computer games) and in 2-D (as used in internet message boards).
- Some avatars are animated consisting of a sequence of images played one after the other.
- Ultimately, animators want to create a human image which moves and interacts with its
background in such a way that the viewers can’t tell if a particular scene is computer generated or
produced by real actions in front of an actual movie camera.
- Sounds can be added to the animation to produce advertisements, cartoons and films.
- Computers with large hard disk and powerful processors are needed, as well as high resolution
monitors
- Special effects in many modern films (televisions) all use computer animation to produce fantasy
worlds.

COMPUTER BASED TRAINING (CBT)

- CBT makes use of a computer system to train people in a number of applications.
- It makes use of multimedia and self-assessment with minimum input needed from a human trainer.
- The advantages of training people using computer systems (such as CBT) include:
 trainees can work at their own speed
 trainees can learn when they want
 it is possible to re-run sections of the training program if necessary
 possible to come back at any time/pause training program at any point
 user gets immediate assessment of performance
 possible to include multi-media elements in the training package
 no need to have a teacher/classroom – potential cost savings therefore possible
 it is easier to keep up to date/amend

AUTOMATIC STOCK CONTROL SYSTEM IN A SUPERMARKET

At the POS terminal, the hardware required includes:
(a) Input Hardware:
- barcode reader (automatically enter details of goods purchased into the computer by
scanning them),
- keyboard (manually typing in product code if the barcode reader fails to do so),
- mouse (selecting item by clicking)
- touch screen: for selecting menu and entering data into the computer
- swiping machine: for entering PIN and swiping debit cards
(b) Output Devices:
- printer (producing receipts),
- monitor (VDU) -displays item details and items that are being purchased by the client, amount
paid and change

(c) Communication devices

- Network Cables: connecting the VDU to the main computer in the manager’s office
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- Telephone line/high distance communication link: for online linkage of the POS terminal
and the bank.

Procedure of automatic stock control

- bar codes are attached to all goods/items sold by the supermarket as a means of identification
- each bar code is associated with a stock file on a computer database
- the customer takes their basket/trolley to the POS terminal
- the bar code on the product is scanned at the point of sale (POS) terminal using the barcode
reader
- if the bar code can’t be read, the POS operator has to key in the bar code number manually
using a keyboard/key pad
- the bar code is searched from the database
- once the bar code is identified/found, the appropriate file/record is accessed
- the price of the good/item is found and sent back to the POS
- the stock level of the item is reduced by 1
- if the stock level is less than or equal to the re-order/minimum stock level then the system
automatically re-orders goods/items from the suppliers
- this procedure is repeated until all the items in the customer’s basket/trolley have scanned
- when all items/goods have been scanned, the customer is given an itemised bill showing a list
(with prices) of everything they have bought
- the computer also updates the files containing the daily takings
- if the customer has a loyalty card, the system automatically updates their points total
- when new goods arrive, the bar codes are used to update the stock files
- some newer supermarkets now allow customers to scan their own basket/trolley and pay for
the items/goods using credit card or cash (essentially the stock control system is the same for
both methods)

The POS terminals can also be connected to the main server in banks like CABS, Barclays, etc. This
enables customers to purchase goods electronically without the burden of carrying cash around. This
is called Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS). Customers can also be given cash
back at the EFTPOS after purchasing goods using debit cards.
After purchasing the goods, a receipt is produced. The receipt will have the following details:
- date of purchase,
- time purchased,
- shop attendant,
- item (s) bought,
- quantity bought,
- unit price,
- total price,
- amount tendered,
- change,
- cashier name
- etc.

Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to supermarket workers

- no need to remember (memorise) price of goods
- their work load is reduced
- ensures accurate calculation of customer change
- ensures better working environment which means less stress
- fast means of entering data which is less manual

Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to customers

- customers are served quickly
- customers are assured that their change is correctly calculated
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- customers can get cash back if the POS is linked to banks

- no need for customers to carry cash around once the system is linked to banks thereby reduces
theft of their cash

Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to supermarket managers

- It is automatic and more accurate to control stock.
- Automatic updating of stock file is ensured.
- Automatic reordering of stock items is involved.
- Less staff and wages needed.
- Sales statistics are always available.
- Faster throughput is ensured.
- Itemised receipts are produced quickly.
- The system records every transaction.
- The system records staff work rates.
- Less pilfering by staff as it is easier to identify pilfering.
- Fewer errors are produced. Faster calculations are made.
- There is no need to remember prices of goods.
- Manager is freed from the task of manually counting the stock items and placing some orders.

NB. The system updates the master file when an item is sold. It first searches the master file. Using the
barcode number (or product code) it decrease the number in stock and increase the quantity sold

*NB:
POS –Point of Sale terminal: the point where customers pay for goods purchased in shops, either by
cash or otherwise.
Difference between Electronic Point Of Sale (EPOS) and Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of
Sale (EFTPOS).
EPOS terminal only involves scanning of goods electronically by use of barcodes and by keyboard
entry. EFTPOS involves electronic scanning of goods at point of sale by use of scanners and barcodes
(and use of keyboard) and has an added feature of allowing customers to transfer money from one
account to another, usually to the account of the shop where the goods are being bought. Customers
can also get cash-back at the EFTPOS terminal in shops.

CAM(COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURE)
This is automated manufacturing process where computers are used to regulate (control) and
monitor the production process in industries.
CAM uses some industrial robots or computer-controlled sensors for detecting:
Excessive heat
Faults
Acceleration forces
CAM works well with CAD systems. Machinery is programmed automatically
A real CAD/CAM system enables any engineering component to be designed and manufactured using
numerically controlled machine tools. The computer make some calculations for defining the tool path
and generates the instructions necessary to produce the part. A machine tool such as a lathe is
controlled by a computer which sends it instructions to select tools and to use them to make metal
components.
CAM and CAD system systems are integrated. Data from CAD system is converted to a set of
instructions for the processor controlling the CAM equipment. Once a part has been designed using
the CAD software, the other processes are automatic. The following are involved:
(a) Conversion of data into a set of machine tool instructions;
(b) Operation of the CAM system:
a. Selection of tools, e.g. cutter, drills, etc.
b. Selection of speed e.g. for drills
c. Movement of the tool to machine the part being manufactured.
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CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV)

- Closed-circuit television is the use of one or more video cameras to produce video signals that are
not broadcast, but displayed on a monitor screen. The images may be recorded.
- The camera may be remotely controlled by an operator or by a computer that receives data from
sensors signalling an event of interest in a particular area.
- The computer’s software could react by tilting and zooming the CCTV camera onto the area
protected by the sensor and starting to record the camera’s video stream.
- Mostly used in shops to record all transactions, e.g. capturing video of customers. It can be easy to
identify shoplifters and thus reducing theft of goods in shops.
- CCTV is now being used even to record street events. This has been triggered by rise in terrorist
activities especially in Western countries and the United States.

URL: Uniform Resource Locator: This is a unique address that identifies a website/page on the
internet, e.g. http://www.econet.co.zw. This only identifies one (unique) web page for Econet Wireless
which is found in Zimbabwe (.zw). Thus a URL is a unique address for each web page. A typical URL
looks like:

http://www.google.co.zw/computing/student.html.
This address has some a number of parts:
http:// - protocol
www. - host computer
google.co.zw – Domain name and country
computing – folder
student. – Document name
.html – document type (HTML type of document in this case)

"http" (HyperText Transfer Protocol) and a domain name (such as ."co.uk"). Other domain names are
as follows:

.zw Zimbabwe

.za South Africa

.zm Zambia

.bw Botswana, etc

Phishing is a way of fooling someone into handing over the security details for their bank account.
The phisher sends an email that looks as if it comes from the recipient’s bank and contains a link to a
website controlled by the phisher. It can be prevented by not clicking on the link and instead going to
the bank’s website directly.

Spam is unwanted email, often advertising products or services. It can be prevented by using an anti-
spam filter, which is oft en provided automatically by an ISP.

Pharming is an attack by hacking. It intercepts a browser request and redirects it to another website
on which the attacker attempts to steal authentication credentials or debit or credit card details, as in
a phishing attack. It can be discouraged by changing the password on a router (especially a wireless
router) so that the hacker cannot redirect the DNS information.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Definition of Terms
a. Network: A connection of computers for them to share data, files and resources like a printer.
b. Data communication: The process of transferring data through networked computers

Advantages of Networking
- Expensive peripherals like printers and scanners can be shared between users.
- Messages can be sent easily and faster between users whether on WAN or LAN.
- Avoids duplication of information as users can access the same file on the network.
- Network software can be purchased cheaply than buying individual packages for each computer.
- It is possible to access data or programs from any terminal or workstation.
- Data and programs can be stored centrally making it easier to maintain and backup.
- Users can be easily prevented from accessing files not intended for them.
- Allows sharing of files, software and data held in computers.
- Allows emails to be send between users.

Disadvantages of Networking
- Sophisticated equipment is needed, which may be expensive to buy.
- Security of data can be a problem due to hacking.
- Wiring can be expensive both to buy and to install; wiring can be sunk on the ground to avoid
trailing cables.
- If a server breaks down, the whole network becomes unusable.
- Networks need experienced network managers, who will be highly paid to keep the network
running.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
- Computer networks are grouped into Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks
(WAN).
- However we also have WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks), MAN (Metropolitan Area
Networks) and PAN (Personal Area Networks); and these are described below.

1. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

This is the connection of computers over a very small geographical area, like in a single room, for user
to share files, data, software and hardware like printers. Other LANs can link different departments
(e.g. Sales, Accounts, Warehousing, Despatch, etc) within an organisation’s complex. A LAN is usually
owned by one organisation. However, if an organisation uses internet service within its restricted
private Local Area Network, such a network is called an Intranet (private network).
NB: Intranet is a private organisation’s network that uses internet technologies for the benefits of
such an organisation.
Extranet: an extension of the intranet giving authorized outsiders controlled/limited access to the
intranet.

REQUIREMENTS FOR A LAN CONNECTION

A. Hardware Requirements
1. Host computer / Server: This is the main computer that control and manage other computers on
the network.
2. Terminals: These are computers that are on the network and are linked to the host computer. If
the terminal has its own processing and storage capabilities, it is called an intelligent terminal.
However, if the terminal does not have its own processing and storage facilities and relies on the host
computer for it to work, it is called a dump terminal.
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3. Network cables: These act as pathway for data from one computer to another. Cables can be
coaxial, fibre optics, twisted pair, etc.
4. Hub: a device used as a connection point for devices and computers on a Local Area Network.
Usually used when connecting computers to a star network.
5. Network cards for each computer/terminal: - a device that identifies computers to the network,
where network cables are plugged on the computer

NB: A bridge can also be connected to link a Local Area Network to another network and is an
optional requirement.

However, some networks are now using wireless technology and these are called Wireless Local
Area Networks (WLAN). WLAN uses radio signals and therefore no cabling is required.
The diagram below shows the structure of a LAN that can be connected to another network.

Software Requirements For A LAN Connection

a. Communication software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules followed by devices when they are communicating.
b. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A network similar to a LAN, but usually extends to a larger geographical area, usually the whole city
and is owned by a consortium of users. The network is only accessed by a group of users as defined by
the organisation, e.g students of a certain university. It enables users to do researches, share files,
libraries, local email and video conferencing.

3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

Refers to the connection of computers over a large geographical area, often over 1 km, e.g. covering
the whole district, province or different countries. Internet is also part of WAN. WANs can also be
wireless.

Hardware Requirements for a WAN

a. Modem (Modulator Demodulator):- a device that converts analogue data from the telephone line
to digital data that can be understood by the computer and vice versa; often for internet connection
using a telephone line. They can be used as gateway for connecting LAN to a WAN
b. Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
transmission, etc.
c. Network cards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the network, where
network cables are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for a WAN

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i. Communication Software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol.

ii. Web Browser: refers to software used for opening web pages on the internet, for example
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
iii. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network)

This a very much limited network, usually used by one person. This can also be Wireless Personal
Area Network (WPAN), for example connection through Bluetooth. Bluetooth connects different
devices, usually over a short distance.

A PAN enables user to transfer files from a laptop to a PDA, camera or Personal Computer.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONFIGURATION)
This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. Common network topologies are Ring, bus, star
and mesh network topologies.

1. Ring Network:
- Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when transferring data.
- Data/information travels in one direction only.
- Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.
- As data passes from one computer to another in the ring, each computer removes any data relevant
to itself and adds any data it wishes to send.
- The diagram below illustrates the physical configuration of a ring network:

Advantages of Ring Network

- Data processing is faster as each computer processes its own processor.
- Has very high data transfer rates.
- Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss
- it is possible to create large networks using this topology
- If one computer breaks down, others will remain working as they have their own processors and
storage facilities.
- Performs better than star network when traffic is very heavy.

Disadvantages of Ring Network

- If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
- a faulty connection between two stations can cause network failure
- Its requirements are expensive, that is buying several computers with processors and storage
facilities.
- It is difficult to link the computers together.
- Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.

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- Only the computer with the token is allowed to send data at a given time. One may not send data
when another node (computer) is still sending its own data.
- System is less secure as token together with data has to pass through other nodes that do not
concern it.

2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for everything.
This network is as shown below:

Advantages of Star Network

- If one terminal breaks down, the network is not disrupted.
- It is cheap in terms of requirements since only the host computer can have a processor and storage
facility.
- It is very easy to install.
- Management of data is easier as this is done centrally.
- It is very fast to process data.
- Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
- No problem of collision of data since each terminal has its own cable to the host computer.
- Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilised.
- More secure than other network topologies
- it is easier to identify faults using this type of topology
- It is easy to expand this type of network
- If one terminal breaks down, others will remain working.

Disadvantages of a Star Network

- If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be disrupted.
- If the host computer is down, all the terminals will not work as they depend on the host for
processing and storage.
- It requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive.
- Can be slower if overloaded

3. Mesh Network
- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending information to any
other computer on the network.
- No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and forth
between computers.
- Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically
rerouted to other computers—a process known as self-healing

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Advantages of Mesh Network

- If one computer breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one computer breaks down, the network is not disturbed.
- Computers have their own storage and processing capabilities.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

- Expensive to buy computers with their storage and processing facilities.
- Too much cabling is involved, which may be expensive.

4. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:

Computers are connected together through one main cable and all computers all signals transmitted
by any computer connected to the network

Definition of Terms
(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations and other computer
devices like printers.
(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing noise and prevents
data from getting lost.

Advantages of Bus network

- If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one workstation breaks down, the network remains working.
- All computers have processing and storage capabilities.
- It is cheap to install due to less cabling.
- Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
- Requires less cabling than a star network.
- Less expensive network than the other systems

Disadvantages of Bus Network

- Computers cannot send data at the same time nor while there is data being transferred in the bus.
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- Can cause collision of data during transmission.

- It is slow in transferring data.
- Its requirements are expensive, that is computers with their own processors and storage facilities.
- The system will be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point.
- Less secure.
- Performance worsens as new stations added

NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest connection, consisting of
two connected computers.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
A protocol is a set of rules that governs how communication between two devices will occur. Such
devices might be computers themselves, between modems.
A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from one computer to
another across a network. Some of the protocols that we are going to look at are:
i. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol)
TCP: It ensures that data is transmitted accurately
IP: It ensures that data is transmitted to its correct address (IP address). Every device on the
internet has its IP address. It also ensures that packets are rearranged to the original message
on arrival of their destination.
ii. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and transferring
multimedia web pages over the internet. It is used for transferring data across the internet,
usually between servers and computers on the internet. It is based on the client –server
relationship. It uses TCP/IP to transmit data and messages
iii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another. It is often used to download
software from the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol in doing this. However, FTP has no
security to data as the data is not encrypted prior to its transmission.
iv. TELNET
This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to another computer and
use its software and data, usually on a LAN and on the Internet. It allows users to access data
stored on servers from their terminals. Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and
allows sharing of data and files. Telnet has security problems especially on the internet.
v. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls. Thus it is a way of
ha+ving phone conversations using the internet as a way of communication. By VoIP,
international and long distance calls are of the same price as local calls and sometimes are for
free. However, the system does not offer emergency calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Systems Analysis is the detailed investigating the current system to determine is problems,
requirements and the best way of solving the problems.
System: A groups of elements working together to achieve a common goal. Systems are of two types:
Physical system: refers to tangible systems like schools, firm, shop, etc
Conceptual systems: these exist in mind or paper and cannot be touched. They just represent a
physical system.
This chapter is concerned with the development and maintenance of system like stock control, patient
monitoring, banking and payroll which are part of physical systems.

The systems analyst

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This is a person who identifies problems of the existing system and recommends the best solution to
such a problem. The duties of a systems analyst are:
 Identifies the problems of the current system.
 Liaises with system users and determine their requirements.
 Finds out facts important to the design of the new system.
 Determines the human and computer procedures that will make up the system.
 Participates in the process of system implementation.

By performing such duties the systems analyst acts as:

i. A consultant: can be called or hired to identify problems in a system
ii. A supporting expert: draws together professional expertise concerning computer hardware
and software and their uses in business.
iii.An agent of change: bring new ideas into the organisation

Qualities of a systems analyst

 Must have good oral and written communication skills for all managerial levels of an
organisation.
 Must be able to work as a team.
 Must be well educated, with at least a degree.
 Must be well experienced in computers and at top managerial levels.
 Must have good managerial skills.
 Must be a problem solver and see problems as challenges.
 Must be self-motivated. Must be well disciplined.
 Must be able to work under pressure and meet deadlines.

INITIATION (ORIGINATION) OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Changes to a system can be triggered by many factors, some of which are:
i. System users: they may be dissatisfied with the current system since they are the ones who operate
it. They will the sent requests to have a new system or some modification to the existing one.
ii. Top management: they may issue directives in order to meet new organisational objectives. It can
also be due to change in management (new manager), new requirements, etc.
iii. The need for improved operating efficiency: Errors in the existing systems may be intolerable,
especially to customers.
iv. Changes in technology: new hardware and software may force organisations to change their ways
of operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force organisations to
change their systems
vi. The user can change his mind

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

This refers to the stages through which a system develops from ‘birth’ to ‘death’, i.e. from the moment
the system is incepted until it is modified or replaced with a new one.
Can also be referred to as the Waterfall Model
The stages, in their order, include:
 Problem identification,
 Fact Finding
 feasibility study,
 analysis,
 design,
 Development and testing
 Documentation and user training
 implementation,
 Evaluation/review/maintenance.
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Below is a diagram that indicates the SDLC stages

Problem
Identification

Evaluation
Fact Finding

Implementation

Feasibility Study

Documentation &
User Training
Analysis

Development &
Testing
Design

Below is an explanation of each of the stages listed above:

1. Problem identification/Recognition/Definition/Realisation:
This is where the problems of the current system are stated.
These might have been realised by system users or by managers. The system might be producing
wrong results.
This includes the general statement of the problems being experienced by the system.

2. Fact Finding/Data Collection/Investigation

This is the stage whereby the analyst collect data from users, management and the stakeholders,
about the current system. Each data collection procedure is appropriate for a given situation, not in all
cases. A number of data collection techniques are employed, including the following: Questionnaire,
interview, Record inspection and Observation.
Some automatic data collection procedures may be used also.

Data Collection Procedures

Terms used in data gathering include:
a. Interviewer: The person who asks questions in order to solicit information
b. Interviewee (respondent): interviewee is a person who is asked questions and is expected to give
information to the interviewer.
c. Population: The average number of people in an area where a research is to be carried out.
d. Sample: Fraction of the population who actually take part in the research.

i. Interview:

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This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in order to obtain
information. Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most common ones are face to face.
Interviews are done when you want to collect information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
 The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
 Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
 Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to determine if the
respondent is telling the truth.
 Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s language could be
used.
 First-hand information is collected.
 The researcher can probe to get more information.

Disadvantages of Interviews
 It is impossible to remain anonymous on the part of the interviewee.
 It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
 It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the interview.
 Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to disappointments.
 Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.

ii. Record/Document inspection:

 A fact finding method which involves scrutinising system documents in order to solicit
information.
Record inspection has the following advantages:
 Accurate information is collected from system records.
 First-hand information is obtained

Disadvantages of record inspection

 It is time consuming to go through all system records.
 Manual files can be tiresome to go through and some of the data may be illegible.
 Confidential files are not given to the researcher

iii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by filling on the spaces
provided. Questionnaires are used when collecting information from a widely spaced population
sample and when collecting information from many people. A questionnaire contains open-ended and
closed questions. Open-ended questions are gap filling questions which require the respondent to
express his or her own view. Closed questions are guided questions where the respondent just
chooses Yes or No, True or False, or by just putting a tick on given options. Questionnaires can be
distributed personally or by post.

Advantages of questionnaires
 Questions are very simple and faster to answer.
 It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
 Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
 Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging respondents to give accurate
information.
 They are cheap to use when collecting data from a very large sample

Disadvantages of questionnaires
 Some questions are left blank.
 Some questionnaires may not be returned at all.

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 Biased information can be collected as people may lie.

 Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
 It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
 They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
 Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
 It is difficult to prepare a good questionnaire

iv. Observations:
It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by the researcher. The
researcher can even take part in operating the system. It is used when the researcher wants to see for
himself how the system operates.
Advantages of observations
 First-hand information is collected.
 Accurate information can be obtained.
 Areas of interest can be observed.
 The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting insight on how the
system operates.
 the analyst obtains reliable data
 it is possible to see exactly what is being done

Disadvantages of observations
 People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore inaccurate
information can be collected.
 The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
 It is time consuming to collect the required information.
 The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
 if workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they may not do this when being
watched!!

3. Feasibility Study:
It involves an evaluation of proposals to determine if it possible to construct a new system or just
modification of the existing one. Feasibility can be measured by making the following considerations:
Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits of the new system will out-weigh the
estimated cost involved in developing, purchasing, assembling requirements, installing and
maintenance of the new system. The cost-benefits analysis is carried out. Benefits can be tangible and
quantifiable, e.g. profits in terms of monetary values, fewer processing errors, increased production,
increased response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible, e.g. improved customer goodwill,
employee moral, job satisfaction, better service to the community, etc.
Technical feasibility: determines if the organisation can obtain software, equipment and personnel
to develop, install and operate the system and even to maintain it.
Social feasibility: a measure of the system’s acceptance by the general public; if it will meet the
norms and values of the society.
Legal feasibility: This is determining if the system can conform to the laws and statutes of the
country. This is done by considering government legislation, e.g. Data processing system must comply
with the local Data Protection Acts
Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices and procedures are
adequate to support the system, e.g. effects on social lives of those affected by the system, can it work
well with existing hardware, etc
Operational feasibility assessment focuses on the degree to which the proposed system fits in with the
existing business environment and objectives with regard to development schedule, delivery date,
corporate culture, and existing business processes

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After carrying out the feasibility study, a feasibility study report must be produced and it contains the
following information:
- A brief description of the business.
- Advantages and problems of the existing system.
- Objectives of the new system.
- Evaluation of the alternative solutions.
- Development timetable.
- Management summary.
- Terms of reference.
- Proposed solution.

4. Analysis stage:
This is the in-depth study of the system to determine how data flows within the system.
Analysis tools used includes:
- Decision trees
- Decision tables
It involves use of flowcharts, data flow diagrams, structure diagrams, decision trees, and others, to
describe the operations of the system in detail. The analysis stage determines whether
computerisation will take place or not. The analysis stage also specifies the hardware and software
requirements of the new/proposed system, the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed
solution, etc.
Analysis stage also involves identification of the following:
- Alternative solutions: other solutions, not considering the chosen one
- Specification requirements: other system requirements like hardware, software, personnel, etc
- Carrying out the Cost-benefit analysis: weighing out costs of developing the new system versus
the benefits that will be realised.

Dataflow Diagrams
These are diagrams that show how data moves between external sources, through processes and data
stores of a particular system. Dataflow diagrams use the following symbols:

5. Design Stage:
This stage is concerned with the design of the new computer based solution as specified by the
analysis stage. Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing of data entry forms, input methods (e.g. by filling forms, use of
barcodes, etc) and the user interface.
Output Design: Includes design of reports, data output formats, screen displays and other printed
documents like receipts, etc

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File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also involves determining
how data is to be stored and accessed, the media to be used for storage and the mode of file
organisation. Fields in each files ca be designed, their length and data type, e.g.

File Name: Student File

Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random

File Structure:

It also involves specifying how data is to be sorted and updated.

Program Design: Involves design of systems flowcharts, structure diagrams, dataflow diagrams,
algorithms, etc. Selection of appropriate hardware: Specify the input hardware, output hardware,
processing hardware and speed, storage media, RAM size, etc. Selection of appropriate software:
specifying the type of operating system, programming language or database package and other
application packages to be used.
Design of test plan and strategy, Design of the user manual, Design of the technical documentation
In general, design stage involves the following:
 design the data capture forms/input forms
 design the screen layouts
 design output forms and reports
 produce systems flowcharts and/or pseudocode
 select/design any validation rules that need to be used
 design a testing strategy/plan
 file structures/tables need to be designed/agreed
 select/design the hardware requirements for the new system
 select/design the software requirements
 produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
 select the most appropriate data verification method(s)
 interface design(Command-line, GUI, form-based, menu-driven, etc

6. Development and Testing

The computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and they are tested to
determine if the run as expected.

Computer environment being prepared: electrical wires, network cables are installed, furniture, air
conditioning are in place. The computers are installed and tested.
It also involves the construction and assembling of the technical components that are needed for the
new system to operate. This includes preparation of the computer room environment, coding of the
computer program using a specific programming language, testing of the coded program,

Testing strategies
- standard (normal) data testing: testing of data within the given range (should be accepted)
- abnormal data testing: testing of data outside the given range (should be rejected)
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- extreme (boundary) data testing: testing of the minimum and maximum values in the given
range (should be accepted)

7. DOCUMENTATION AND USER TRAINING

Documentation refers to the careful and disciplined recording of information on the development,
operation and maintenance of a system. Documentation is in two main types: user documentation and
technical documentation

(a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system users on how to load, operate, navigate
and exit a program (system). User documentation contains the following:
 System/program name.
 Storage location.
 System password.
 Instruction on how to install the program.
 Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
o How to quit the program
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do print outs
o how to sort data
o how to do a search
o how to add, delete or amend records
o print layouts (output)
o screen layouts (input)
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o how to log in/log out

(b) Technical Documentation: This is a manual for programmers which aid them in modifying the
system and in correcting program errors. The following are found in technical documentation:
 Algorithms of the program,
 Program testing procedures and test data,
 Sample of expected system results,
 Program structure showing modules and their relationships,
 System flowcharts,
 Programming language used,
 Program code,
 program listings,
 File structures.
 Validation rules
 Output formats
 Bugs in the system
 Hardware requirements
 Software requirements

User training:
Once a new system is put in place, existing employees are trained on how to operate the new system,
otherwise new employees are recruited.
User training: users are trained on how to enter data, search records, edit fields, produce reports,
handling errors, etc.
User training can be in the following forms:
i. On the job training: Users are trained at their organisation by hired trainers. This has the following
advantages:
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 Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
 Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
 This is cheaper for the organisation.
 Enough practice is gained on how to operate the system.

Disadvantages of on the job training

 Distractions occur in a noisy office.
 Instructional methods are often poor.
 The need to keep up output may lead to hasty teaching

ii. Classroom training: Users are send to other colleges and institutions which offer courses on the
subject matter. This could be expensive to organisations since employees take study leave while being
paid at the same time. Employees can also be trained on aspects that they will not apply when they
finish the course. The gap between what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too wide.

Considerations when training users:

1. All staff need training that is relevant to their work using the computers. However, others may
find it difficult to learn the new system and may resist.
2. Age problem of trainees-older workers takes long to conceptualise concepts
3. Reluctance of employees to learn (use new system)
4. Computer based system means training on the computer
5. Regular updates means new training each time an upgrade is made
6. The type of training should be chosen carefully as it is important
7. Course type with trainer
o It may restrict learning times
o Can be intimidating to other employees
o Difficult to satisfy all trainees’ demands
o Gives human contact

8. Implementation/ Conversion (Installation/Changeover)

This also involves putting the new computer system into operation, that is, changing from the old
system to the new one. It involves file conversion, which is the changing of old data files into the
current format. Different changeover methods can be used, and these include:

a. Parallel Run: This involves using of both the old and new system concurrently until the new
system proves to be efficient. It involves operating the new and old systems simultaneously until
management is confident that the new system will perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using
the old system while others use the old system but doing the same type of job.
Advantages of parallel run
 Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
 If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old one.
 There is enough time given to determine if the new system produces expected results.
 Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.

Disadvantages of Parallel run

 Running two systems at the same time is very expensive.
 Running two systems simultaneously is demanding to employees.
 It may be difficult to reach a decision when comparing the two systems.
 There is duplication of tasks which in turn stresses employees

ii. Abrupt (Direct) changeover: Involves stopping using the old system on a certain day and the new
system takes over on the next morning. This is suitable for control systems like in chemical plants and
for traffic lights.
Advantages of Direct Changeover
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 Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.

 Faster and more efficient to implement.
 There is minimum duplication of tasks.
 Enough resources can be allocated to make sure that the new system operates successfully.

Disadvantages of Direct Changeover

 It will be difficult to revert to the old system if the new system fails.

iii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the old system is gradually removed while the new
system is gradually moved in at the same time. This can be done by computerising only one
department in an organisation this month, then the next department in two months’ time, and so on
until the whole system is computerised.

Advantages of phased conversion

 Avoids the risk of system failure.
 Saves costs since the new system is applied in phases.
 It could be easier to revert to the old system if the new system fails since only one department
will be affected.

Disadvantages of phased conversion

 It could be very expensive since the organisation will be running two systems but in different
departments.

iv. Pilot conversion: This is whereby a program is tested in one organisation (or department), and is
applied to the whole organisation if it passes the pilot stage. It serves as a model for other
departments. A pilot program can then be applied in phases, directly or using the parallel run method.

NB: before making system live, the following must have taken place:
- Production of user documentation and technical documentation
- Installation of hardware and software
- fully testing the new system
- training the staff to use the new system

9. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing system. Certain
sections of the system will be modified with time.
Maintenance can be to Perfect the system, to Correct some errors or to make it adapt to changing
needs, e.g change in government laws. Maintenance involves the following:
 update hardware as new items come on the market or the company changes in any way which
requires new devices to be added/updated
 update software if necessary if company structure changes or legislation is introduced which
affects how the company operates

Evaluation involves the following:

- compare final solution with the original requirement
- identify any limitations in the system
- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate the user’s responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from the old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system

Assessing the effectiveness of the new system:

- compare final solution with original requirements

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- identify any limitations in the system

- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate user responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system
- effectiveness of the hardware
- effectiveness of the software

Systems analysis tools

(a) Gantt Charts
These are diagrams used to show the time taken for each stage of the systems development life cycle.
Gant charts show the following information:
- all stages/tasks to be done during SDLC
- the critical path(s)
- number of days to do tasks
- progress on tasks as % complete
- progress versus expected time to do work
- how tasks are all linked together

(b) PROJECT EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE (PERT) Diagrams

PERT chart is a type of chart used for project management; it represents each task of a project and
how tasks are all linked together in sequence and task dependencies (i.e. which tasks need to be
complete before others can start).

(C) System Flowcharts

A systems flowchart is a diagram used to show how all the components in a system link together (e.g.
input, storage, output, processing, etc.). They are very different to normal flowcharts since they don’t
go into detail of how something is actually done – they are a general overview. It shows the overview
of the system, tasks carried out by the system, whether manual or computer, devices, output media
and files used, etc.
Common symbols for designing systems flowcharts are as follows:

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*NB: Meanings
of these symbols are not universal and mean a different thing to others. Some symbols are borrowed
from program flowcharts.

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Below is a systems flowchart for a payroll Below is a systems flowchart that is used
processing system that uses batch to update a stock master file when stock
processing items are purchased.

Review Questions
1. (a) A systems analyst was brought in to computerise a paper -based car sales system. What
methods could be used to gather data about the existing system? Give reasons for your choice.
(b) What would need to be done before the new computerised system become ‘Live’?
(c) Why would PILOT and PARALLEL change over methods be suitable in this application?
2. A program is written to input daily temperatures. Name three types of test data that could be
used. Give examples of each type of test data which could be used and discuss the outputs you
would expect to get.
3. Name five tasks that would be carried out at the DESIGN stage in systems analysis.
4. Name four methods used to change over from a manual system to a new computerised system.
Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of these four methods.
5. Describe how the effectiveness of a new computer system can be assessed
6. What tools exist to help the analyst draw up an action plan and ensure that the project is
completed on time and to budget?
7. What information would a systems analyst need to gather to decide on what hardware is
required for a new computerised system?
8. State 5 items that need to be included in the User guide and 5 items of the technical guide of a
newly developed computer system.
9. Choose 6 symbols used in systems flowcharts and explain what each means.

DATA CAPTURE / COLLECTION

Data capturing can be either automatic or manual.
Manual methods are slow in entering data and are also prone to errors, e.g. typing 2.3 instead of 3.2.
Manual data capturing techniques includes the following:
- keyboards/keypads to type in data
- touch screens to select data/options
Automatic data capturing techniques are more accurate and faster but are more expensive and
involves use of the following:
(a) Data logging: this technique involves collecting data automatically using sensors; mostly used
when doing scientific experiments or monitoring a control system

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(b) Barcode readers: these take data from printed barcodes and allow automatic stock control in,
for example, supermarkets.
(c) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): this method involves using small electronic devices
containing a microchip and antenna; they work in a similar way to bar codes but can be read
from a distance of 5 metres; often used to track livestock, vehicles, library books and goods
sold in shops.
(d) Biometrics: this involves obtaining data and identifying characteristics automatically in
security systems e.g. use of finger prints, palm prints, facial images and iris prints
(e) Magnetic Strips: these contain information/data stored on magnetic material often on the
back of a credit/debit card; the information is automatically read by swiping the magnetic
stripe past a reading head (reading device).
(f) Optical character recognition (OCR): information on paper is automatically read by a scanner
and is then analysed/processed by OCR software and stored in an electronic format.
(g) Voice recognition: these systems recognise spoken words e.g. for disabled people who can’t use
keyboards where they speak commands instead of having to type
(h) Smart cards: these contain embedded microchips and receive power from the card readers; the
microchip is made up of RAM, ROM and 16-bit processor and the stored data is
automatically read by the card reader; used in credit cards, security cards, loyalty cards, etc.
(i) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): OMR technology scans a printed form and reads pre-defined
positions (where specific fields have been filled in e.g. ●─● or ▄); the system records where
marks have been made so can automatically determine responses to, for example, a
questionnaire.

DATA ENTRY ERRORS

Data can be entered incorrectly into the computer and this can have the following effects:
- A company can be prosecuted under the Data Protection Act if incorrect information causes a
person or organisation some loss.
- Wrong decisions can be made by managers due to wrong information given.
- Customers may be angry if they are sent wrong bills.

Types of Errors
1. Transcription Errors: These are mistakes due to misreading or mistyping of data, e.g., confusing
the number 5 with the letter S, 0 (zero) instead of the letter O, etc. This can also be caused by bad
handwriting.
2. Transposition Errors: These are mistakes caused by swapping 2 letters or digits, e.g. typing ‘ot’
instead of ‘to’, 5721 instead of 7521. Transposition errors occur mostly when typing at very high
speeds.

Avoiding Data Entry Errors

The following procedures can be used to avoid / reduce data entry errors:
1. Verification: Involves checking whether what has been entered into the computer is similar to
what is on the input document. Verification is done manually by the user of the computer. Verification
is carried out to determine errors that cannot be detected by the computer. Verification can be done
in two forms:
(a) Double entry:
 In this method, data is entered twice (using two different people); the data is only accepted if
both versions are similar.
 Double entry is often used to verify passwords by asking them to be typed in again by the same
person twice.
(b) Visual Checking
 This is checking for errors by comparing entered data with the original document (NOTE: this is
not the same as proof reading!!). If the entered data is similar with the source document, then it
has been entered correctly.
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2. Validation: A process done by the computer to detect if data entered is valid, correct, complete,
sensible and reasonable. For instance the height of a person entered as 12 metres is incorrect, is not
sensible, neither is it reasonable, and therefore the computer should reject this. Validation is a process
of checking if data satisfies certain criteria when input i.e. falls within accepted boundaries. Validation
is done by the computer.

Types of Validation Checks on Data

(a) Character type check: A validation check for detecting if the correct characters have been
entered, for example can detect and reject alphabetic letters where numbers are needed. The
computer should also reject if a digit is entered where a name is needed, e.g. John5 is wrong since
there is a wrong character in the name, i.e., 5.
(b) Range Checks: Are validation checks performed on data to make sure they lie in a specified range.
For example, you are required to enter a number between 5 and 20, and you enter 51, the computer
should automatically reject this since it lies outside the required range.
(c) Limit Check: this is similar to a range check except only ONE of the limits (boundaries) is checked
e.g. input data must be > 10.
(d) Presence checks: check that data is actually present and not missed out e.g. in Student form,
somebody’s Student Surname may been left out yet it is a required field name. The computer does not
allow the user to continue until an entry has been made in a required field name.
(e) Length checks: These are validation checks used to determine if data entered is of the required
number of characters. For example, if a student number has 5 digits, the computer should reject if a
number with 4 or less digits or even more digits is entered.
(f) Format Check: this checks that data is in a specified format (template) e.g. date should be in the
form dd/mm/yyyy.
(g) Consistence (Cross Field) Check: this checks if fields correspond with the other, e.g. if one enters
‘MR’ on Title field, the Sex field must contain ‘Male’ or ‘M’. If one enters the title as Mr and then on
sex enters Female, there is no correspondence on the two fields and therefore the computer must
reject this.
(h) Spell Checkers: These are validation checks that determine if accurate text has been entered
especially in word processing. Spell checkers use custom dictionaries to check spelling mistakes in
documents. If a word is typed in, it is checked if it is in the custom dictionary, if not, it is treated as an
error. Spell checkers cannot be used in case of names of people, places, computer jargon, new slang
words, etc.
(i) Control Total: this is a meaningful total obtained by adding together all data in a table, e.g. prices
of goods to give a total. If the total does not tally, then other elements may have been left out. This
total is meaningful since it may be used to deduce if the organisation is making profit or not.
(j) Hash Total: It is a meaningless total, obtained by adding together all digits in a field like serial
numbers of a product to give a total that is used for validation purposes only. The total obtained is
not, and cannot be used to deduce any other meaning. Thus in this case, the total obtained by adding
product serial numbers cannot be used for any other purpose.
(k) Check Sum: A validation check of adding together the digits in a block to give a number that will
be transmitted together with the data. It is used to check whether errors have occurred in
transmission or storage. Checksum can also imply hash total and control total.
(l) Data Type check: This is used to check if data entered is of the correct data type. For example,
Quantity of Items bought is an integer data type, therefore it must reject fractions. Thus the correct
data type is considered in this situation. Data types includes Boolean, integers, char, etc.
(m) Parity Bits: A parity bit is an extra bit (1 or 0) that is appended to the left of a byte to make it
even or odd depending on the method of parity checking being used. It is used in checking for errors
in a group of bits transferred within or between computers. Parity bits are also used to determine if a
block of data has been correctly transmitted over a communication channel. It works in the following
way:

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Using Odd Parity: The letter C is transmitted as 1000011. Since there are three 1s in this byte, a 0 is
added to the left so that the total for 1s is odd, thus making it 01000011. The first 0 (underlined) is
used as the parity bit.
Using even parity: In even parity, a 1 would be appended to the left of the byte so that the total
number of ones is even, thus making it 1 1000011

(n) Check Digits: A check digit is an extra digit appended to the right -end of an original number for
error checking purposes and is calculated from the original block of data using modulus 11.
*NB: - Check digits are used where data is entered automatically as in using barcode readers
and are important for checking for transposition errors (swapped digits)

Calculating Check Digits

Using the Modulus 11 method: Suppose a product number has been entered as: 151211323; the
following procedures will be used to calculate its check digit.

We have 9 digits. Working from the right, the first digit is multiplied by 2, second number by 3, third
number by 4 and so on. We start at 2 because position 1 is for the check digit. The results are added
together, e.g.
(1x10) + (5x9) + (1x8) + (2x7) + (1x6) + (1x5) + (3x4) + (2x3) + (3x2) = 112
The total (112) is divided by 11 and the remainder is noted; e.g., 112 divided by 11 = 10 remainder 2.
The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit: 11 – 2 = 9
9 becomes the check digit. Therefore the number will be transmitted as 1512113239
*NB: -
(1) If the check digit found is 10, an X is used as the check digit.
(2) If, upon dividing the total by 11 and the remainder is 0, then 0 is the check digit. This is obtained
as, 11-0=11. Divide 11 by 11 and take the remainder, which is 1 remainder 0, thus 0 becomes the
check digit.

(3) Check digits are used to detect where digits have been swapped

NB: thus the procedure of calculating check digits is summarised as follows:

- Allocate weights for digits from right going to the left, starting as 2.
- Multiply each digit with its weight and add them.
- Divide the total by its modulus (11 in our case) and get the remainder.
- Subtract the remainder from the modulus (11)
- The result will be the check digit.
- However, some authors go further by saying that, divide the answer (obtained after
subtracting from 11) by its modulus (11) and take the remainder. The remainder is the check
digit.

Proving whether the given check digit is correct or not.

This is done using two methods, which are:

(1). Remove the given check digit, calculate your own check digit. If they are similar, then the
check digit is correct. If they are not similar, then the given check digit is wrong.

(2) Re-calculate without removing the given check digit using the example given below:

Example:

The ISBN to check is given as with X as the check digit:

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0-1315-2447–X

Remember X means 10, so 10 is the check digit in the example above.

Here, the check digit is on position 1. So the numbers and their positions is as follows:

Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Digit 0 1 3 1 5 2 4 4 7 X

Multiply each digit with its position and add the results, thus giving:

(10x0)+(9x1)+(8x3)+(7x1)+(6x5)+(5x2)+(4x4)+(3x4)+(2x7)+(1x10) = 132

Divide 132 by modulus (11) and get the remainder. This gives us 12 remainder 0.

Therefore the check digit is correct.

NB: If the remainder obtained is 0, then the check digit is correct, if not, then the check digit is
wrong.

Questions

1. Describe 4 methods of automatic data capture, giving an application of each method

2. A record contains the following fields:
- Title (Mr/Mrs/Miss) and Sex (Male or Female)
- Date of birth (written in the form dd/mm/yyyy)
- Pay Number (which is made up of 8 digits)
- Telephone Number
- Pay
Give a different validation check for each of the above fields and explain why it is used.
3. (a) Which of the following numbers have the correct check digit?
(i) 0 – 5 5 5 – 2 1 6 2 2 – 5
(ii) 0 – 1 2 1 – 9 0 0 2 1 – X
(b) Calculate the check digit for the following number:
0 1 5 0 2 4 6 2 2 ………
(c) Discuss the types of errors that check digits can identify.

4. (a) Give 2 different ways of carrying out verification checks.

(b) Give 2 examples of situations where verification would be used.

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SOFTWARE
Software refers to a set of instructions written in computer language that tell a computer to perform a
specific task, like adding a set of numbers. Without software, a computer will be useless. Software is
grouped into systems software and application software. The diagram below illustrates
branches/groups of software:

Systems Software: Refers to programs that control and manages the performance of all computer
systems. Systems software comprises of: (a) operating systems (b) Utility programs (c) Translators

1) Operating System: - refers to the programs that supervise, control and manage the performance of
the computer hardware and software in accordance with set objectives, for example, Windows 7.
Examples of operating systems include: Windows 95/98/2000/XP/ VISTA/ Windows 7/Windows 8,
Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), Unix, Linux, OS/2, Ubuntu, etc.
The operating system is loaded onto the computer by the bootstrap loader. Programs stored on ROM
chip runs first and this checks if all hardware components are working normally. It also checks the
CPU and the Basic Input output System (BIOS) for errors. If there are no errors, the BIOS will activate
the disc drive. The operating system is then found and the computer can boot. Booting refers to the
process of loading the Operating system into memory so that it takes control over hardware and
software resources of the computer.

Functions of the operating systems:

- Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.
- Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
- Device management/Input-Output management: Operating system manages hardware
components of the computer
- Handling of interrupts
- Manage software resources of the computer
- Memory management : Manages memory resources of a computer
- Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.
- Scheduling of tasks
- Loading and running of programs
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- Provides a log of users for the computer.

- Handling of errors and correcting them where possible. (error handling and reporting)
- Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
- Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the computer.
- Used for spooling
- Maintain user accounts
- Booting and properly shutting down the computer.
- File management

NB: Household equipment like refrigerator do not have an operating system since the processor has
one task to perform, no multiple devices and tasks to handle, hence they are cheap.

Features (characteristics) of operating systems:

- Must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
- Must be efficient, that is should be able to use resources fully ensuring good job processing,
response time, turnaround time, etc.
- Must be maintainable.
- Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.

*NB: Response time – the time that elapses from the moment an instruction is given to the computer
and the time that instruction is carried out.

Turn around time – the time taken from the moment a document is produced by a computer and the
moment it is used as an input document to that computer again.

Turn Around Document: a document produced by the computer and later used as an input
document to the same computer, e.g. electricity bill

NB. Most operating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to quickly coordinate
computer activities since they will not be converted as they are already in machine language or less
time is needed for conversion if the operating system is written in assembly language. The following
must be considered when buying an operating system:
- Hardware type and computer design e.g. windows operating system works well on IBM
compatible machines.
- Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
- Method of communicating with the computer, that is, use of few or many peripherals and
terminals.
- Method of operating the computer e.g. multi-access, multi-programming, etc

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating Systems: These are operating systems that allow one computer user at a
time in an interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.
Advantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are cheap to buy.
- They are interactive, that is, they allow a two way communication between the user and the
computer in a conversational mode.
- They ensure better security to data since they only allow one user at a time.
- They provide simple command language.
Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are very slow in processing data.
- Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
- The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
- Commands are difficult to master.
NB- Control Programs: These are programs that monitor hardware operation on the computer.
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- Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and manage hardware and
software elements of the computer

2. Time sharing operating systems: This type of operating system allows many users to use the
same processor at a time, using the round robin method by use of time slices. In Round Robin, each
user is given a fraction of a second (time slice) to use the processor so that all users seem not to be
sharing the processor.
*NB: - Time slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task (or computer) is given control
of the microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment. A computer's processor is
allocated to an application, usually measured in milliseconds. Time slice is also called quantum.
Multitasking: It is the concurrent execution of two or more programs on the same computer by use of
time slices, doing the same job. For example, copying a graph from Microsoft Excel to Microsoft Word.
Thus the two programs will be running concurrently, doing a related or same job.

3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems: It is when many online users access one processor
at the same time to make use of multi-programming.

4. Multi-programming: This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed (run) at
the same time on one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while typing a
document. Programs may take turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is using the CPU,
others will be using the peripherals. It uses interrupts to pass control from one program to another.

5. Multiprocessing: A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or more
processors but sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.

6. Batch Processing System: - A system in which data is collected over a long period of time, put in
groups and processed at one go, without user interaction from start to finish, as in payroll processing.
Jobs can be entered at a remote terminal, that is, on a terminal far away from the host computer. Thus
batch processing promotes Remote Job Entry (RJE): which is the entering of data into the computer
through a terminal far away from the host computer.
- For instance, a central computer can process batches of cheques collected from different branches,
mostly during the night. If there are errors, the results will also be wrong. Batch processing is very
cheap to operate and easy to run. Users can also perform some other tasks while batch processing
takes place.
- In batch processing, there is minimum or no human intervention during data processing period. It is
used where large amounts of data is processed and where processing does not need to be done
immediately, e.g. in Payroll processing, water billing, electricity billing, telephone billing, clearance of
cheques, etc).

Advantages of batch processing are as follows:

- It is less expensive to use.
- jobs can be processed when computer resources are less busy (e.g. during the evening or at
night);
- Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
- Users do not need to be specialists in computers. It allows remote job entry.

Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:

- Batch processing systems are not interactive.
- Data is processed after a long period of time.
- No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing.

b. Translators: - These are programs that convert source code to object code. Translators are in two
forms, which are interpreters , assemblers and compilers. These will be covered in more detail
under Programming Languages.
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c. Utility Programs:
These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed tasks in a computer
system. Utilities include the following:

i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for example
Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, MacAfee, etc.

ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a specific ordered
sequence, for instance in ascending or descending order of a given key.

iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.

iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to output
devices and to other storage devices like the hard drive.

v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the computer.

vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one peripheral device
to another.

vii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of files,
memory, users and peripherals.

viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to update
them.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
This refers to programs and their documentation, designed to perform a specific task for the user in
daily life, like payroll processing, word processing, etc.
Integrated Package (Application suite) - a collection of application programs purchased as one
package, for example Microsoft Office 2010. It is a collection of a word processor, spreadsheet,
database and presentation packages bought as one package, for example, Microsoft Office 2010.

Advantages of Integrated Packages are:

- It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a time.
- Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Programs are designed in a similar way, making it easier to learn others if you are able to use
one of them.
- Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a database using
Microsoft Access.
- Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.

Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:

- The user is forced to buy the incorporated packages even if he/she needs only one of them.
- They are not tailored for individual user requirements.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their use.
- The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners).
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- Most of the need regular updating, which may be expensive.

- They have many features that the users might never use yet they buy them.

Methods of Acquiring Software

1. Off-the-Shelf/Generic: This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft Word from
software vendors. Generalised (generic) software refers to application programs designed for use in
a number of organisations without problems, for example Microsoft Word. A software vendor is an
organisation that specialises in selling generic software.
Advantages of generic (Off-the-shelf) software:
- Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages as development costs are spread over
many users.
- the package is available immediately – no need to wait for development period
- Allows large scale sales which bring in considerable revenue which can be used to enable a lot
of development to be done.
- They are immediately available in shops.
- They are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Documentation is always provided in form of manuals, user guides and tutorials that may be in
soft or hardcopy.
- Training courses can be available from other end-users.
- Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet.
- Other users of the package can be consulted before purchasing or when a problem occurs.
- Upgrades are always available every year or two.
- It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they also have the
software available to open the file
- sharing of files with other packages is usually easier since they are likely to be compatible (e.g.
Excel and Word)

Disadvantages of Generic Software:

- May not meet the individual needs of an organisation.
- May not run on the organisation’s hardware.
- May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
- Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.
- The software can be very sophisticated and will usually include large sections that you will
never use (e.g. Excel or Word)
- may be very complex to learn because of the complexity caused through having unwanted
features

2. Tailor-made Software (bespoke/user application software): These are programs specifically

designed to meet the unique needs of only one organisation, for example a bank. The organisation
would employ or hire an analyst / programmer who will first asses the needs of the organisation
before designing a program that will solve the problems of the organisation.
Advantages of Tailor-made software
- Easier and more intuitive to use.
- Much better customer support since they will be in direct contact with the software designers.
- Specifically designed for the application and therefore more efficient and will only contain the
features wanted by the user.
- can be customised to interface with all other software within the company thus preventing
software clashes
- easier to use since very specific and the writers of the software can also be involved in the
training of staff which will be geared towards their requirements
- can be modified/updated as the company’s requirements change

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Disadvantages of Tailor-made software:

- It is very expensive to develop.
- They take too long to develop and to implement.
- If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is unstable,
unreliable and full of bugs
- very dependent on the suppliers of the software; if they go out of business there will be little or
no support if problems occur
- less likely to be as well developed/tested as off-the-shelf software
- difficult to tell how good the final software package will be

*NB: A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs.
Software House is an organisation that specialises is developing software; this includes both generic
and tailor-made.
Special Purpose Application Software: - These are programs designed for one specific business
purpose, for example Pastel for accounting purposes.

Advantages of Off-the-Shelf Software Over tailor-made software:

- Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is expensive.
- Off-the-Shelf software has been tried and tested hence free from errors while tailor-made
software may have some errors.
- Off-the-Shelf software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made software takes long
to implement.
- Off-the-Shelf software is used by many organisations; therefore users can share information on
its usage while tailor-made software is only used by one organisation.
- Off-the-Shelf software has regular updates available for download on the internet while tailor-
made software does not.

Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software:

- Tailor-made software is designed to meet the requirements of an organisation while Off-the-
Shelf software might not meet the needs of an individual company.
- Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to off-the-shelf
software which is controlled by the programmers.

TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE:

These include:
1. Word Processing Packages:
These are application packages used for creating, editing and formatting text documents like letters
and reports. Examples of Word Processing packages include Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect,
WordPro, Notepad, etc. Word processing packages have the following advantages over the
typewriter:
- Produces more attractive documents.
- Word processors are less noise than typewriters.
- Documents can be edited and formatted before printing, which reduces spelling and other
typing mistakes on printed documents.
- Typed documents can be stored in the computer for future use.
- Document layout can be viewed on the screen before printing and can be changed easily.
- A word processed document can be printed more than once.
- Other text and diagrams can be added without the need to retype the document.
- Word processors can move some parts of text to another part of the document easily (using
copy/cut and Paste feature).
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- They have the ability to delete words, sentences and paragraphs neatly.
- They are less manual than typewriters.

Features of Word processing Packages

- ability to set the page size and page orientation (portrait/landscape)
- ability to change font style and font size (e.g. arial, courier, times new roman, etc.)
- ability to change margins (top, bottom and sides)
- page format (e.g. paragraphs, columns, etc.)
- importing text, graphics and pictures into the document body from other packages like Microsoft
PowerPoint and Excel.
- inserting and deleting text
- cut and paste/copy and paste (to prevent the need to re-type sections of text or to move/remove
text)
- search and replace words
- word wrap (e.g. auto adjust a line to fit into paragraph alignment such as straight
- file management (create/delete/move/search for files)
- headers and footers and the automatic numbering of pages
- graphics (embed drawings and graphs into the document)
- use macros
- merge (merge text files from one file into another e.g. mail merge)
- ability to send documents to a printer
- carry out a word count on the document
- add and manipulate tables in the main body of the document
- windows (edit 2 or more documents at the same time)
- WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) – preview document to see how it will look when printed
- spell checkers, language check and thesaurus
- Simple translation from one language to another; for example, from English to French.

*NB: Editing: the process of correcting mistakes in a document, for example, spelling mistakes.
Formatting: making a document look more attractive by bolding, underlining, inserting borders, etc

2. Spreadsheet Packages: These are application programs used to manage and analyse statistical,
numeric and financial data, for example Microsoft Office Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, SuperCalc, etc. The
structure of a spreadsheet is as follows:

Features of Spreadsheet packages

- Can format text (Bold, underline, …)
- Can change font size and font type
- Uses functions/ formulae to make calculations on data. The functions can be user-defined or in-
built functions
- Ability to inset boards on cells
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- Can import and export text

- Can create graphs on given data, e.g. column graphs, pie charts, etc
- it is made up of columns and rows; each row is identified by a number and each column is
identified with a letter (or letters)
- can use Autofill feature
- Each cell is identified by its column id and row id e.g. A4, ET300 etc. Cells can be given as cell
ranges, e.g A4: G4.
- a cell may contain a label (text entry such as Surname, Date Of Birth,..) or a value (which can be
a number, a date, a formula, result of a calculation, or currency)
- the cursor identifies the current cell selected; it is possible to click on to a cell and a “+” sign
appears in the bottom right hand corner; by dragging the formula down it is possible to
replicate it in other cells
- etc……

Problems Associated With Spreadsheets:

- capacity (i.e. maximum number of rows and columns) can be limiting when dealing with large
data sets
- security issues in some spreadsheets (i.e. if you can open a spreadsheet you can also change
any part of it; this can lead to fraud
- lack of concurrency; usually only one person can work on a spreadsheet at any given time
(databases are better in this aspect since they can usually be opened by more than one user at
a time)
- because of their structure it is easy to enter an error (whether on purpose or by mistake) by
entering data in the wrong cells or dependencies among cells incorrectly applied

3. Presentation Packages:
- These are programs used for designing slides for a presentation to an audience, for example
Microsoft Office PowerPoint, Lotus Smart Suite, etc.
- Presentation packages include text, pictures, sound, animation, graphics and tables, thus being
multimedia.
- Presentations are colourful and attractive.
- Speakers and projectors are needed.
- Presentation packages have the following features:
 Have Clip art. Can accommodate images and graphics.
 Can use sound, video and animation.
 Incorporate Word Art.
 Have facility to insert charts and graphs.
*NB: Animation: - Creating illusion of moving sequence using a series of still images as done in
movies and cartoons.

4. Database Packages (DBMS): Refers to programs used to create and maintain databases for a
specific application area.
They are used for maintaining and providing interface been users and the database and to interface
the database and other application programs.
Examples of database packages include Microsoft Office Access, Oracle, Dbase IV, MySQL, etc

Properties/features of databases
Most database packages have the following features:
(a) Tables: These are equivalent to files and therefore are used to store data. The data is stored in
rows and columns. Each row in a table is called a record which is made up of a number of
fields (columns in the table). The data type in the fields is usually either text, numeric or
date/time. Most databases contain a number of tables which are usually linked together in
some way.
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(b) Forms: Forms are commonly called data entry screens since they are the user interface which
allows data in the tables to be viewed, entered or edited. Forms permit the control of how
other users interact with the information in the database e.g. only allow certain fields to be
seen or only allow certain operations to be carried out . This subsequently helps the
protection of the information and also ensures it is entered correctly
(c) Reports: Reports are produced as a result of questions such as “date>=01/01/1975”. The data
on report is extracted from queries or tables as per user requirement. They display certain
required data as needed by the user, e.g. after searching or filtering of data. Reports can be
printed out as hardcopy, or viewed on the screen or exported (e.g. to a word processor, an
email message, etc.).
(d) Queries: Queries are questions that request certain data from tables, e.g, Amount <200. It can
also be an instruction to search data which meets a certain criteria from table and display it
on the screen in form of another table created from the original table. Most commonly allow
information to be retrieved from tables. They also allow filtering so only the records
required are seen.
(e) Macros
A macro is a name or key that represents a series of commands or key strokes. Many
applications allow single word or single nominated key on a keyboard to perform a whole
series of actions. Macros can be either written as required and then stored or stored in a
library for future use. Macros can be very sophisticated and save the operator a lot of time.
For example, the name and address in a word processor could be set up by pressing key F1
and the system brings information from a related database

5. Graphics Packages: Refers to programs used to create and edit graphs, diagrams, drawings, charts
and plans for buildings, for example Microsoft Paint, Harvard Graphics, Corel Draw, Real Draw, etc.
Computer graphics are images designed for logos, commercial and news inserts during television
advertisements or transmission.

6. Communication Software: These are programs that allow users to communicate on networked
computers and to log on to the internet, for example TCP/IP software, Client – server software, e-
mails, etc.
*NB: - Log On: to provide a username and password for the user to gain access to a computer or
computer network.

7. Desktop Publishing (DTP) Packages: It is an extension of word processors that incorporates

images and text for creation of attractive and professional documents for publication purposes.
Examples of DTP packages include Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker and QuarkXPress. DTP is used to
create brochures, magazines, wedding cards and newsletters.
Features of DTP include:
- They have a graphic program for inserting graphics in the document.
- They have a page composition program.
- They incorporate columns on one page.
- They have frames for positioning texts and graphics.
- They have templates used for recording document properties like page size, margins, etc.
- They have style sheets used for making consistent main texts, headings and subheadings.

Requirements for DTP:

(a) A Scanner: - for capturing images or hand drawings on paper, for example photographs
(b) High Resolution Monitor with graphics capabilities: - For viewing publication during design
stage.
(c) Colour Printer: For printing high quality and colourful documents.
(d) Digital camera/webcam/cell-phone with a camera: - for taking and storage of photographs
that will be incorporated into the computer.
(e) Keyboard: For typing in text
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(f) Mouse: - For adjusting size of pictures and for drawing purposes.
(g) Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.

Advantages of Desktop Publishing:

- Users have more control over text layout compared to word processors especially over
formatting and layout of text and images.
- Lots of different files can be brought together on the same document.
- Produces colourful and attractive documents for commercial purposes like brochures.

Differences Between DTP and Word Processors

- most word processors force users to work on a document in a linear fashion (i.e. paragraph by
paragraph and page by page); with DTP it is possible to place elements on the page and then
move them around as you wish to create the desired product.
- elements repeated throughout a document (e.g. a company logo) can be placed in master pages
rather than setting up each page individually as would be the case with a word processor.
- Text is usually imported from a word processor or is typed into the document directly using a
frame. This allows you to create the layout first, link the frames together and add the text into
the frames later (e.g. in newsletters and magazines where layouts are created before any of the
actual text becomes available).

8. Authoring Packages (Authorware): Software that can be used to write interactive, hypertext or
multimedia computer programs without the technically demanding task of computer programming.
Also used in multimedia presentations. These programs can be used for developing databases and
material for Computer Aided Instruction (CAI).
Authoring tools require less technical knowledge to master and are usually used for applications that
present a mixture of text, graphics, and audio/music files. Authoring tools usually allow the creation of
the actual required application by linking together objects which can be text, graphics, music file, etc.
By defining the relationship between objects it is possible to produce very useful and eye catching
applications.

(9) Web Browsers: Software used to open web pages on the internet, examples are: Mozilla Firefox,
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari, Opera, etc.

(10) Search Engines: These are packages used for searching data for the user from the internet, e.g.
google, yahoo, etc.

*NB: - Specialist Packages for Business: These are packages for use in a specific business
environment, for example, Pastel for accounting purposes.
*NB: - Install: - to add programs to the computer. Therefore to uninstall is to remove programs from
the computer.

Factors to consider when purchasing an application package:

- Application intended for.
- Easiness of installation.
- Mode of processing (single user, multi user, etc).
- User friendliness.
- Availability of support personnel.
- Availability, readability and clarity of documentation.
- Memory requirements.
- Hardware requirements.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1. Real Time Processing System: - An online system in which individual, discrete transactions are
processed as they occur to influence the activity currently taking place, as in airline reservation.
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Results of the process are produced immediately. The system response quickly and give feedback of a
request. Thus the system is interactive in nature. Such systems include airline reservation systems,
hotel reservations, stock control, etc.

Real Time Processing System can also be called Transaction Processing System (or Real Time
Transaction Processing Systems): this is a real-time (or pseudo-real-time) transaction processing
system whereby only individual items of data need immediate processing e.g., airline reservation,
balance enquiry at an ATM, etc. Response to a query needs to be very fast and once a seat is booked it
needs to marked as “not available” immediately to avoid any risk of double booking.
Using this example of booking seats on a flight, the following sequence of events would take place:
- customer/travel agent contacts the airline
- the customer/travel agents types in the day/time of flight and number of travellers
- the customer/travel agent types in the departure airport and the destination airport
- the airline database is searched and availability of seats checked
- if seats are available on the required day/time then a booking is made
- the database/file is updated immediately to indicate that these seats are no longer available
and prevents double booking from occurring
- if no seats are available a message is sent back to the customer/travel agent
- this uses real time (transaction) processing since the files are updated in real time;
interrogation of files will have access to totally updated information

Transaction processing’s requirements include:

- A large quantity of hardware support.
- Large and fast main storage, over 1 GB.
- Large and fast backing storage like hard drives of about 300 GB.
- Efficient communication equipment like fibre optics, satellites, etc. Efficient, secure and reliable
operating systems.
- However, transaction processing systems are very expensive to run.

2. Real time process control

This is a real-time system which uses sensors and feedback loops (i.e. the output can influence the
next input to the system.). It uses actuators, sensors, DAC, ADC to continuously and automatically
monitor physical quantities like temperature in a system. It differs with real time (transaction)
processing system in that: In real time (transaction) processing system, files are often updated in real
time (e.g. when booking flights on an airplane); but in real time process control, physical quantities
(such as temperature) are continuously monitored and the input is processed sufficiently quickly to
be capable of influencing the data source

3. On-Line System: A system that is directly linked to the host computer for real-time communication
and provides interaction between the user and the job, as in POS terminals in supermarkets. In
networked computers, the terminals must be directly linked to the host computer. Examples include
ATM systems in banks, airline reservation systems. Online systems can just be for information
retrieval. Information retrieval systems are there for users to access certain information promptly as
on the internet. In contrast, offline systems are computer systems that work without being directly
connected to the host computer.

4. Network Systems: - A system in which processing is carried out independently in more than one
location but with shared and controlled access to some common facilities like file storage.

5. Control System: - A system in which one or more computers are used to monitor the operations of
some non-computer equipment like in oil refineries. Control systems involve monitoring and logging
of physical quantities, provide an analysis of performance and allows some user interaction. Feedback

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is an essential element as well as timing. Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. oil refining,
chemical processing, traffic control, etc.

6. Automated Systems: - These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and lack
the ability to collect and analyse data as in digital cameras. They do not allow for or act on user
interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras, watches. Most control systems have embedded
computers systems inside them.

7. Multimedia Systems: - Are computer systems that enable representation of data in a number of
formats like sound, pictures, films, video, etc. Multimedia systems are used in commercial applications
(advertising, journalism, presentations, etc.), entertainment (special effects, video games, fine arts,
etc.), education (CBT training, uses in virtual reality training, etc.). A computer that can be referred to
be a multimedia system should have at least the following:
- a CD – ROM/DVD-ROM drive,
- speakers, large RAM size,
- large disk storage space,
- sound card
- video card and
- multimedia software like Windows Media Player and
- other software like sound drivers.

8. Distributed (decentralised) Systems: A system whereby processing is done independently in

more than one location but with shared and controlled accessed to common facilities, like file storage
as applied in departmental shops. These systems are normally found in departmental shops, bank
branches that will be linked together, etc. Advantages of distributed systems:
- Users feel more involved and responsible and this increase motivation.
- Systems often meet user specific needs and requests for changes are more readily met.
- Costs of physical and electronic movement of data are reduced.
- The total breakdown of information processing disappears.
Disadvantages of distributed systems:
- There is often lack of coordination and control.
- It is difficult to impose standardisation, adequate security measures and sharing of data and
know-how.
- Difficult to obtain integrated information for top management. Duplication of data is rampant.
- Excessive investment in hardware, software and personnel is involved.

9. Centralised systems: This is whereby processing is carried out at one central location for an
organisation with a number of branches. Users in other locations can view data and utilise it but with
limited capabilities. Centralised processing has the following advantages:
- Hardware within the organisation will be compatible and can be linked.
- The organisation gets better deals in terms of maintenance contracts. Employees do not have
to learn new systems when they move from one department (or branch) to another.
- It is easier to coordinate staff training courses using the same software and hardware for all
departments (or branches).
- There is better control over use of unlicensed software.
- Data can be exchanged easily between similar types of hardware and software
Disadvantages of Centralisation:
- Requires high initial capital investment of sophisticated equipment, operating systems, well
developed communication systems and complex application packages.
- Requires highly qualified and experienced personnel to run it.
- A system failure will paralyse the entire system unless expensive backup system is provided.
- Users feel not being fully involved and therefore are not motivated.

The choice of processing depends on:

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- Cost of hardware: online systems are more expensive to install, including installation of
communication systems like telephones and satellites.
- Volume of data involved: batch processing is appropriate where very large data is handled.
- Frequency of data change: banks need online systems for customer data changes more frequently
than in payroll processing systems.

CODING DATA
Data to be entered into the computer can be coded / written in a short way, for example:
In databases, a field for sex can be coded as follows: F for Female, M for Female. In this case the user
just enters F or M and not the whole field as it is. The column for colour can also be coded as B for
Black, R for Red, Y for Yellow, etc.

Reasons form coding data:

 Codes are quicker to type in, both initially and subsequently.
 Reduces the size of files thereby saving disk storage space.
 Increases the speed of searching and any process performed on data

Features of Codes
 Should be of the same length.
 Must be easy to use.
 Must not be too short in case you will run out of codes.
 Codes are often unique

FILE HANDLING
Types of files
1. Master File: It is a permanent file that is kept up-to-date by applying transactions that occur during
business operations. It contains permanent (static) and semi-permanent data. Static data stored in
database files can include Surname, First names, Date of birth, etc.
2. Transaction Files: These are temporary files that contain data that can change regularly, e.g. on
daily bases and it is used to update the master file. This includes sales per day, student mark in a
weekly test, etc. Transaction files are used to update master files.
3. Reference files: These are files that contain permanent data which is required for referencing
(viewing) purposes only. This includes data on tax bands, formulae, etc. No changes to files are done.
4. Data file: A set of related records (either written or electronic) kept together.

a. FIXED LENGTH RECORDS

These are records that allocate a specific amount of space for data, mostly a specific number of
characters. For instance, a school keeps student records in a fixed length record. The student number
has 6 characters, Surname was assigned 10 characters, First Name is given 10 characters, Date of
Birth has 6 characters, sex has one character and class has 2 characters only in that order in the
computer database file. In total, the length of each record is 35 characters.
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The following student details are to be entered into the computer:

Student Number: 012999, Surname: Kapondeni, First Name: Tungamirirai
Date of Birth: 7th of February 1978, Sex: Male, Class: Form 4A

When entered into the database, the record will appear as follows:

From the table above, it can be noticed that:

- The Sex field is coded to accommodate only the letters M or F. This is shorter and therefore faster to
enter data into the computer and to search records than entering the words Male or Female.
- The Surname Kapondeni is shorter than the allocated 10 spaces. The other spaces will remain idle
(unoccupied).
- The First Name Tungamirirai is too long than the allocated spaces and therefore extra characters will
be cut.

Fixed length records have the following advantages:

 Entering data is faster as records are shorter and less typing is required.
 Easy to search data
 Less data entry errors are encountered.
 It is faster to carry out searches.
 Faster to do validation checks and procedures.
 They are easier for programmers to work with than variable length records.
 They allow an accurate estimate of disk storage requirements. Thus disk storage space can be
easily managed as records occupy a specific number of characters.
 They are very easy to update

However, fixed length records have the following disadvantages:

 Can lead to wastage if disk storage space if used to store variable length data. For example, not
all surnames are of the same length.
 Some spaces may lie idle as data entered will be shorter than the space allocated.
 Some data to be entered may be too long for the space allocated and therefore will be cut.
 Not flexible to work with

b. VARIABLE LENGTH RECORDS

These are records that allow data to occupy the amount of space that it needs. They allow data with
varying (different) number of characters or sizes. The number of fields may also vary. They usually
show where the field or record starts and ends, for example:

NB:- * Indicates the end of field marker, and the ≈ indicates the end of record marker
Variable length records have the following advantages:
 They are more economical in terms of usage of disk storage space as they do not allow spaces
to lie idle.
 Data entered will not be cut but appears as entered no matter how long it is.
 Can accommodate unusual data, not as planned

However, variable length records have the following disadvantages:

 End of field and end of record markers occupy disk storage space that might be used to store
data.

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 Difficult to update (add or delete) as the transaction and master files might have different
lengths.
 Hard to search data in the files

FILE ORGANISATION
Refers to the way in which records in a file are stored, retrieved and updated. This affects the number
of records stored, access speed and updating speed. The most common methods of file organisation
are: Serial File Organisation, Sequential File organisation, indexed – sequential file organisation
and random (direct) file organisation.

1. Serial File Organisation: This is whereby data is recorded one after another as they occur, without
any definite order, as supported by magnetic tapes. Data is stored according to arrival time. Data is
read from the first record until the needed data is found. New records are added to the end of the file.
Serial file organisation is not appropriate for master files since records are not sorted and therefore
are difficult to access and to update. It is faster to find records at the beginning of the file, but takes too
long to find records towards the end of the file. Serial files are suitable for temporary transaction files
since records are not sorted.
Serial files promote Serial Access: whereby records are accessed by reading from the first until
needed record is found in an unordered file, e.g on magnetic tape.

2. Sequential File Organisation: This is whereby records are sorted into a key sequence, that is, in
ascending or descending order of a given key filed as on magnetic tapes. Sequential files organisation
is appropriate for files with a high hit rate like payroll processing. They are suitable for master files
since they are ordered. However, it takes too long to access records towards the end of the file since
the records are accessed by reading from the first record until the required data is found. However,
searching of records at the beginning of files is very fast. Adding of new records is difficult as this is
done by re-entering the data and the new record is inserted at its right position. It is time consuming
to update such records. Suitable for master files since records are sorted. This is used where all
records need processing, e.g payroll.
Sequential Files promote sequential Access: Sequential Access is whereby records are retrieved by
reading from the first record until the needed record is found in an ordered list of records, e.g. on
magnetic tape. Sequential access occurs where records are ordered using a key field.

3. Indexed-Sequential Files: This is whereby records are ordered in sequence based on the value of
the index or disk address as supported by hard disks. This is used for storing master files records
since the records are ordered. It is also suitable for real time processing applications like stock control
as it is fast in accessing records and in updating them. It provides direct access to data as on hard
disks, diskettes and compact disks.

4. Random (Direct/hash/relative) File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored in no

order but accessed according to their disk address or relative position, as supported by hard disks and
compact disks. The address of the record is calculated using the hashing algorithm. It is appropriate
where extremely fast access to data is required as in airline reservation. Updating of records is in situ,
very simple and very fast. Hard disk, compact disks and diskettes promotes random file organisation.
Random File organisation promotes Random/Direct Access to records: Direct access is hereby
records are retrieved randomly by going straight to the needed record by using address of data, as
supported by hard disks, compact disks, memory sticks, etc.

FILE PROCESSING
Refers to any form of activity that can be done using files. This includes: file referencing, sorting,
maintenance and updating.

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1. File Referencing/Interrogation: This involves searching of record and displaying it on the screen
in order to gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process of arranging (organising) records in a specific ordered sequence, like in
ascending or descending order of the key field.
3. Merging Files : This is the process of combining two or more records into one. Below is an example
of how records can be merged:
Record A (sorted) Record B (unsorted)
12 34 71 78 101 103 67 3 90 12
Record C (Merged and sorted for records A and Record B)
3 12 34 67 71 78 90 101 103

4. File maintenance: This is the process of reorganising the structure of records and changing
(adding or removing or editing) fields. This can be due to changes due to addition or deletion of
records.
5. File Updating: Updating is the process of either adding new record, deleting unwanted records or
modifying existing records. It involves making necessary changes to files and records. Mostly master
files are updated and they must be up-to-date (contain accurate and most recent information).
For updating to occur, any one of the following must have occurred:
 A new record has been entered.
 Deletion of an unwanted record.
 An amendment (change) to the existing data has been made, e.g. change in date of birth only.

The most common methods of file updating are: Updating in situ and Updating by copying.

a. Updating by copying
This happens in sequential file updating process. This is done through the following steps:
- A record is read from master file into memory.
- A record is read from transaction file into memory.
- Record keys from each file are compared.
- If record keys are the same, the master file is updated by moving fields form transaction file to
the master file.

In sequential file updating, it is recommended to keep at least three master file versions that will be
used for data recovery in case of a system failure or accidental loss of data. The first master file is
called the Grandfather file, the second master file is called the father file and the third master file is
the son file. This relationship is called the grandfather-father-son version of files. The process of
keeping three versions of master files (grandfather-father-son) as a result of sequential file
updating is called File Generations. Thus the first master file (grandfather file) is called the first
generation file, the second master file (father file) is called the second generation file and the third
master file (son file) is the third generation file. The following diagram illustrates the sequential file
updating process:

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*NB: - Always create data backups

on compact disk or hard disks and
re-run the old master file with the
transaction file if the computer
system fails or if data is lost. This
is a data recovery method that
works well.

*NB:- A backup is a copy of file(s)

on an alternative medium like CD-
ROM which is kept in separate
location in case the original file is
damaged or lost and will be used
for recovery purposes. The
original files could be deleted
accidentally, deleted by hackers,
corrupted by system failure or
could be corrupted by hackers.

b. Updating by overlay (in situ):

In this case, a record is
 accessed directly,
 read into memory,
 updated and then
 written back to its original position (in situ).
This occurs in random and indexed-sequential files, thus on devices like hard discs and memory
sticks.

PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Definition of terms:
- Program: a set of detailed and unambiguous instructions that instructs a computer to perform a
specific task, for example, to add a set of numbers.
- Programming: A process of designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Programmer: A person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Problem: any question or matter involving difficulty or uncertainty and is proposed for solution.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A programming language is a set of symbols in computer language that are used in coding computer
programs. A programming language is a specially written code used for writing application programs
e.g C, Pascal, COBOL, BASIC, C++ and Java.

Programming languages are of the following types:

1. Low Level Languages (LLL): These are programming languages used to write programs in
machine code, that is in zeros and ones or in mneumonic codes. Low level language is in two forms:
Machine Language and Assembly Language.

a. Machine code (language) is the language used to write programs in binary form (zeros and ones).
Machine language has the following advantages:
(i) Programs run faster since they are already in computer language. There is no need for conversion
as programs are in machine language.
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(ii) Programs occupy very small disc storage space by storing just 1s and 0s.

Disadvantages of Machine language:

 They are very difficult to learn.
 They are difficult to understand.
 Very difficult to use and takes too long to find an error in a program.
 It takes too long to develop working programs.
 They are machine dependent (they can only work on type of computer designed for and not
work on other computers)

b. Assembly Language: These are programming languages that use mnemonic codes in coding
programs. Mnemonic codes are abbreviations used in coding assembly language programs, for
example, LDA for Load, ADD for Addition, etc. Mnemonic codes are very close to machine code, hence
are low level language assembly language codes
Advantages of Assembly language:
 One assembly language instruction corresponds to one machine code instruction and therefore
translation is easier and faster.
 Programs run faster since they are close to machine code.
 They occupy very small disk storage space hence are economical to use.
 Easier for a programmer to use than machine language.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

 They are very difficult to learn.
 They are very difficult to understand.
 Takes too long to develop working programs.
 They can be machine dependent.

2. High Level Languages (HLL): These are programming languages that use English-like statements
in coding programs, for example COBOL, Pascal, BASIC, etc. There are so many high level languages
because each language is designed for a specific problem to be solved in our daily lives. For example
BASIC was designed for learning purposes, COBOL for business applications, FORTRAN for scientific
purposes, etc. Below is an example of a BASIC program that accepts two numbers entered through the
keyboard, adds them and display the result on the screen:
INPUT “ENTER FIRST NUMBER.”, A
INPUT “ENTER SECOND NUMBER.”, B
SUM = A + B
PRINT SUM
END

Programs written in High Level Language are first converted to machine code before running.

Advantages of High Level Languages:

 They are easier to understand since they are written in English-like statements which are more
readable.
 They are easier to learn.
 It is easier to work with, that is to correct errors and to test programs.
 They are problem oriented and therefore can be used on any computer (not machine
dependent)

Disadvantages of HLL
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 Takes long to run since they need to be first converted to machine code.
 They occupy a lot of disk storage space as compared to low level languages.

Factors to consider when choosing a programming language

 Nature of the application.
 Availability of needed facilities in the programming language for system implementation.
 Availability of compatible hardware.
 Availability of expertise of the programmers.

TRANSLATORS
These are programs used to convert High level Language programs into machine code, and are in two
types, which are interpreters, compilers and assemblers, which are further explained below:

1. Interpreters
These are programs that convert and run one instruction of a program at a time until the end of the
program, e.g. the BASIC interpreter. They do not produce the machine code version of a program;
hence conversion is repeated when you run the program again.
Functions of Interpreters
 They check syntax error in a program statement.
 They translate an instruction into machine language and run it.
 Allocates storage space to variables.
Advantages of interpreters
 It is easy to find and correct syntax errors in interpreted programs.
 It is very fast to run programs for the first time.
 It is very fast to run small programs.
Disadvantages of interpreters
 They are very slow in running very large programs.
 They do not produce an object code of a source code and hence difficult to use.

2. Compilers
These are programs that convert a high level language program into its machine code equivalent at
one go and then run it, e.g. the COBOL compiler. Once compiled, the program no longer needs
conversion since the machine code version is the one that will be run, until some changes are made to
the program code.
Functions of Compilers
 They check syntax errors in program statements.
 They allocate storage space to variables.
 Translate the whole program into machine code at one go.
 Run an object code of the program.
 Produces a program listing which indicates position of errors in a program.
Advantages of Compilers
 Compiled programs runs faster since the object code is run.
 Compilers indicate the line numbers with syntax errors and therefore assist programmers in
debugging programs.
 They are appropriate even for very large programs.
Disadvantages of Compilers
 Slower than interpreters for running programs for the first time.
 They can cause the computer to crash.
 Difficult to find errors in compiled program.

*NB: Source Code refers to the program written in English-like statements (High Level Language) by
the programmer.
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Object Code refers to a machine code version of a source code. All programs written in source code
must be converted to object code for the computer to understand them.

3. Assemblers: These are programs used to convert assembly language instructions into machine
language. Other uses of assemblers include:
 They generate machine code that is equivalent to assembly language.
 They are used to check the validity of instructions, that is, checking for syntax errors in an
instruction.
 They also assign memory locations to variables.

Difference between High Level Languages and Low Level Languages

High Level Language Low Level Language

1 Written in English like statements Written in 1s and 0s (machine code) or in
mnemonic codes.
2 Easier to work with Difficult to work with
3 Easier to understand Difficult to understand
4 Are problem oriented and can be used Machine oriented
on any computer
5 Slower in execution since they need to Faster in execution since they are in machine
be first converted to machine code code already.
before running
6 Occupy large disk storage space on the Occupy small disk storage space on the
computer computer
7 They are machine independent They are machine dependent

3. Very High Level Languages (VHLL) – 4GLs: These only specify the desired end result and do not
indicate steps that the computer needs to take to make the calculation, e.g. SQL used in relational
databases. 4GLs are flexible and easy to use since no coding is required.
4. Natural Language – Artificial Intelligence and expert systems: These are programs that mimic
human reasoning and learn from experiences.

Programming Language Generations

1. First Generation Languages (1951-58) – Machine language: These used binary form to code
programs. This is the Machine language version. Programming was tedious to do.
2. Second Generation Languages (1959-64) – Assembly Language: Assemblers, compilers and
interpreter became available to represent machine code. This generation saw the use of assembly
language. Programming was simpler and less tedious.
3. Third Generation Languages (1965-70)- High Level Languages: This saw the development of
High Level Languages like BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, etc
4. Fourth Generation Languages (1971) – Very High Level Languages (4GLs): This saw the
development of non-procedural languages like SQL, PARADOX, etc
5. Fifth Generation Languages(1981) - Natural Language, artificial intelligence, expert systems like
PROLOG, LISP.

Procedural Languages: These languages give a precise definition of the steps to be followed by the
computer in order to perform a specific task. Most High Level Languages are procedural languages.

Object Oriented Languages (non-procedural). These languages just specify the constraint and
objects to be produced and do not specify the steps to be followed to perform a task. Very High Level
Programming Languages are procedural languages, e.g. SQL

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TOP-DOWN PROGRAM DESIGN

Refers to the splitting of a program into simpler subtasks called modules which will be easier to solve.
For example, a program can be split into modules to Accept Number, Add, Divide, Subtract and to
Display Results. Modules are also called procedures, routines, sub-routines or functions. The splitting
of a problem into a series of self-contained modules is called modularisation (modular programming).
Advantages of modularisation (modular programming)
 Programmer can concentrate at one task at a time.
 Modules are simpler and easier to understand and to solve.
 Modules are easier to test and to debug.
 Program modification is easier since changes are isolated with specific modules.
 More experienced programmers can be assigned complex modules.
 It saves programming time by sharing tasks.
 A large project will be easier to monitor. It is easier to update (modify) modules
However, it may be difficult to link the modules together.

*NB: Library programs: this refers to a collection of standard programs and subroutines that are
stored and available for immediate use by other modules in the system. Library programs are
referenced by most modules in the systems.
*NB: Stepwise refinement: a technique used in developing the internal working of a module.

ALGORITHMS
A set of instructions describing the steps followed in performing a specific task, for example,
calculating change. Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams.

Advantages of algorithms
- not biased towards any programming language
- easy to convert to a program code or flowchart
- easy to determine logic errors
- has finite steps which lead to a solution

Disadvantages
- time consuming to design, i.e. first convert to flowchart, then to program code
- most people find them difficult to learn

a. Descriptions: These are general statements that are followed in order to complete a specific task.
They are not governed by any programming language. An example is as follows:
Enter temperature in oC
Store the value in box C
Calculate the equivalent temperature in oF
Store the value in box F
Print the value of box C and F
End the program.

b. Pseudocodes: These are English-like statements, closer to programming language that indicate
steps followed in performing a specific task. They are however independent of any programming
language. An example is as follows:
Enter centigrade temperature, C
If C = 0, then stop.
Set F to 32 + (9C/5)
Print C and F
End

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A number of control structures are used in designing Pseudocodes. These includes: simple sequence,
selection and iteration.

i. Simple sequence: This is whereby instructions are executed in the order they appear in a program
without jumping any one of them up to the end of the program. Statements are executed one after
another in the order they are. It is simple and avoids confusion. Example:
Enter first number, A
Enter second number, B
C=A+B
Print C
Stop
ii. Selection Structure:
This allows one to choose the route to follow in order to accomplish a specific task. Selection is
written using the IF ....THEN...ELSE statement or the CASE statement.

IF...THEN ...ELSE statement: A programming structure that allows the user to choose one from at
least two routes of solving a problem. The following Pseudocodes compares two numbers entered
through the keyboard and determines the bigger one.
Enter first Number, A Enter first Number, A Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B Enter second number, B Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN IF A > B THEN IF A>B THEN Print A is
Print A is bigger Print A is bigger bigger
ELSE ENDIF IF A<B THEN Print B is
IF A<B THEN IF A < B THEN bigger
Print B is bigger Print B is bigger IF A=B THEN Print
ELSE ENDIF Numbers are equal
Print Numbers are IF A = B THEN END
equal Print Numbers are
ENDIF equal
ENDIF ENDIF
END END

A B C
The above 3 Pseudocodes produces the same result.

CASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is shorter. For example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)
CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END
iii. Repetition/Iteration/looping:
A control structure that repeatedly executes part of a program or the whole program until a certain
condition is satisfied. Iteration is in the following forms: FOR...NEXT LOOP, REPEAT... UNTIL Loop and
the WHILE...ENDWHILE Loop.

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a. For...Next Loop: A looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body for a specified number
of times. The syntax of the For...Next loop is as follows:

FOR {variable} = {starting value} to {ending value} DO

Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
NEXT {variable}

A group of statements between the looping structures is called the loop body and is the one that is
repeatedly executed.
The For...Next loop is appropriate when the number of repetitions is known well in advance, e.g. five
times. An example of a program that uses the For...Next loop is as follows:
Sum, Average = 0
FOR I = 1 to 5 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
NEXT I
Average = Sum/5
Display Sum, Average
End

b. Repeat...Until Structure: This is a looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body when
the condition set is FALSE until it becomes TRUE. The number of repetitions may not be known in
advance and the loop body is executed at least once. The syntax is as follows:
Repeat
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
Until {Condition}

For example
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number (999 to end)
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Number = 999
Average = Sum / count
Print Sum, count, Average
End
In the above program:
- Count records the number of times the loop body executes.
- 999 is used to stop further data entry through the keyboard and thereby ending the loop. Such
a value that stops further data entry through the keyboard thereby terminating a loop is called
a Rogue value or sentinel.
- The condition here is {Number = 999}. The loop exits when the number 999 is entered. If 999
is part of the number to be entered in this program, then the user has to split it into two
numbers, that is 999 = 990 + 9, therefore can be entered separately as 990 and 9.
- A flag is also used to control the loop. In this case 999 is also a flag.
NB. As for the Repeat...Until loop, the condition is tested after the loop body has been run at least once,
even when the condition is true from start. This is rather misleading.
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c. While ... Do Statement: A looping structure in which the loop body is repeatedly executed when
the condition set is TRUE until it becomes FALSE. It is used when the number of repetitions is not
known in advance. The condition set is tested first before execution of the loop body. Therefore the
loop body may not be executed at all if the condition set is FALSE from start. The syntax of the
WHILE…END WHILE structure is as follows:

WHILE {condition}
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
ENDWHILE

An example of the program is as follows:

Sum, Count, Average = 0
WHILE Count < 6 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
Count = count + 1
ENDWHILE
Average = Sum/count
Display sum, count, average
END

The word WEND can be used to replace the word ENDWHILE in some structures and therefore is
acceptable. The word Do, after the condition is optional.

Differences between the Repeat...Until and the While…ENDWHILE structures

Repeat Until Loop While Endwhile Loop

1 Loop body is executed when the Loop body is executed when the
condition set is FALSE until it condition set is TRUE until it becomes
becomes TRUE FALSE
2 Loop body is executed at least Loop body may not be executed at all
once
3 Condition is tested well after Condition is tested before execution of
execution of loop body loop body

c. Flowcharts
It is a diagram used to give details on how programs and procedures are executed. Flowcharts are
drawn using specific symbols, each with its own meaning, as given below:
Symbol Explanation
Process Symbol - Indicates where some form of processing occur

Arrow -Shows directional flow of data (data flow symbol)

Input /output - Parallelogram in shape. Indicates where data is
entered and output form, either screen display or
printout.
Terminal - Oval in shape. Indicate the start and stop of a
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program. Therefore it is written either

Start/Begin/Stop/End.
Connector - Circular in shape. Denotes the start and end of a
subroutine. Nothing should be written inside it.
Pre-defined process Indicates a module/subprogram/procedure inside
another program
Decision Represents a selection stage. Often used where a
condition is, especially in repetition and selection
structures.

Illustrations of flowcharts for programs

1. Using Simple Sequence Structure
Start

Enter number, A

Enter number, B

Sum = A + B

Display Sum

Stop

Flowchart equivalent to the

Pseudocode for the flowchart on the
pseudocode on the right
left:

2. Using Selection Structure

Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent

Enter first Number, A

Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN
Print A is bigger
ELSE
IF A<B THEN
Print B is bigger
ELSE
Print Numbers are
equal
ENDIF
ENDIF
END

3. Using Iteration
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(a) Repeat ... Until Structure

Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent
Sum, Average, Count = 0

Repeat

Enter Number

Sum = Sum + Number

Count = count + 1

Until Count > 10

Average = Sum / count

Display Sum, count, Average

End

b) WHILE...WEND Structure and the FOR...TO...NEXT Loop

Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent

Sum, Average, Count = 0

WHILE Count <=10

Enter Number

Sum = Sum + Number

Count = count + 1

WEND

Average = Sum / count

Display Sum, count, Average

END

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 ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes – ZIMSEC Syllabus 7014

Use of the Pre-defined Symbol and the connector

This is used when drawing flowcharts of subprograms as given below.
Start Module Accept

Numbers

Enter First Number, A

Enter Second Number, B

Enter Third Number, C

a. Flowchart for whole b. Flowchart for module End Module

Accept Numbers
program

c. Pseudocode for module

Accept Numbers

Flowchart (a) above indicates modules named Accept Numbers, Add numbers Multiply Numbers and
Display Results. Flowcharts for individual modules can then be designed as given in diagram (b)
above, only the first module is indicated. Can you do the rest?

d. Structure Diagrams: These are diagrams that show relationships between different modules as
given below.
Start

Sum, Product = 0

Enter First Number, A

Enter Second Number, B

Sum = A + B

Product = A * B

Display Sum, Product

End

The structure diagram above indicates five sub-programs of the program Process Numbers, namely
Initialise, Accept Numbers, Process Numbers, Display Results and Exit. The module Process Numbers
has its own sub-programs, which are Add Numbers and Multiply Numbers. Modules are appropriate
for very large programs. Can you write pseudocode for individual modules? The program can be
written as a continuous single program as indicated on the right side of the diagram.
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 ‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes – ZIMSEC Syllabus 7014

INTERPRETING AND TESTING PROGRAMS

Dry running (desk checking): the process of manually testing the logic of a program on paper before
coding on the computer. Dry running is done to determine the logic of a program (to check if it gives
intended results.)
Debugging: The process of finding and correcting errors in a program. Bugs are errors in a program.
A debugger is a program used in aiding the finding and removal of errors in a program.

PROGRAMMING ERRORS
Programming errors are grouped into:
i. Syntax error: this is an error of violating the grammatical rules governing sentence construction in
a certain programming language, for example, leaving a semi-colon at the end of each line in Pascal.
Syntax errors are detected by the computer. A program cannot run with syntax errors.
ii. Logic error (Semantic error): refers to an error in the sequencing of instructions, modules and
specifying wrong formulae that will produce undesirable results. For example, instructing the
computer to display result before any processing has been done. Logic errors cannot be detected by
the computer. The user just finds wrong and unintended results of a process. It is also an error
generated by entering the wrong data type during program execution, for example, entering a text
value where a numeric value is needed.
iii. Runtime (execution) error: These are errors that occur during program execution and can be
generated when the computer tries to read past an end of file marker or by dividing a number by zero.

DATA TESTING
After a program has been coded, it must be tested with different data types to determine if intended
results are produced. The types of test data that can be used include:
i. Extreme Data: Refers to the minimum and the maximum values in a given range. For example, a
computer program requires the user to enter any number from (between) 1 to 20. 1 and 20 are
extreme data and the computer must accept these. Thus extreme data is accepted by the computer.
ii. Standard (normal) Data: This refers to data that lies within (in-between) a given range. In our
example above, the numbers from 2 to 19 are standard data and are accepted by the computer.
iii. Abnormal Data: This refers to data outside a given range. As to our example above, the number 0,
-1, -50 and all number from 21 and above are abnormal data.
iv. Valid data: refers to data of the correct data type. Invalid data is data of the wrong data type. Thus
if the user enter the value “Tungamirai” instead of a number, this is referred to as a wrong (invalid)
data type. Only numbers are needed, not text.

PROGRAM TESTING
A very large program must be tested using the following types of tests:
Unit testing: the process of testing each program unit singly to determine if it produces expected
results.
System testing: the testing of the whole program after joining the modules to determine if it runs
perfectly.
Integration Testing: testing to see if modules can combine with each other.
User acceptance testing: determining if users of the new system are prepared to use it.

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