FORENSIC 2

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Prof. Chervin Loewe B. Navilla
1st Placer, Criminology Licensure Exam, Oct. 2015

CRIMINALISTICS - is the application of the principle of various sciences as it pertains in solving

problems in connection with the administration of justice.

- Also referred to as Police Science or Forensic Science

Dr. Hans Gross – He is known as the “Father of Modern Criminalistics.”

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

Law of Multiplicity of Evidence – The greater the number of similarities and

dissimilarities; the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct”

1. Comparison- with the used of standard specimen, evidence under question can be
compared in order to effect identification.
2. Exclusion – is two or more persons have to be identified and all but one is not yet
identified, then the one whose identity has not been established may be known by
the process of elimination.

Fingerprints offer a reliable means of personal identification. That is the essential

explanation for fingerprints having replaced other methods of establishing the identities of
criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. That is why, it stand out among the different
methods in identifying persons involved in the commission of a crime.

FIRST KNOWN METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION

1. Tattoo Marks- method adopted by tribes during ancient times signifying their clan and family.
It is barely used as identification but purely utilized for the purpose of ornamentation. It is not a
reliable means of identification because it can be duplicated, changed or disfigured.

2. Scarification- a means of identification by cutting or wounding some parts of the body that
forms scars in time and forms pattern after healing which serves as an identification.

3. Alphonse Bertillion

a. Portrait Parle (Personal or Verbal Description)- it means “speaking likeness.” It is

an identification in which a person is being identified through memory and described the
features and put into sketch. It is an unreliable mean since certain cases of twins would likely to
occur and subject to wrong accusation.

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 b. Anthropometry- it is the measurement of several bone structures of the human body
and considered as a first method of identification. This method was abolished because of the
West Case.

History of Fingerprint

BC 200’s – In China, the first details of using handprint identification was discovered during the
Qin Dynasty. The Chinese were well acquainted with the essential characteristics of fingerprints.
The arches and whorl were called as “LO” (snail) and loops are “KI” (winnowing basket).
Though the Chinese were well acquainted with the types of pattern, they did nothing in
developing a system of classification.

Early Study in Fingerprint

1600’s

NEHEMIA GREW

- In a "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" paper in 1684, he

describes the RIDGES and PORES of the hand and feet.
- Dr. Nehemiah Grew was the first European to publish friction ridge skin observation
Dutch anatomist Govard Bidloo's 1685 book, "Anatomy of the Human Body" also
described friction ridge skin (papillary ridge) details. 

MARCELO MALPIGHI

- In 1686, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges,

spirals and loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer,
which is approximately 1.8mm thick.

Fingerprints as a Method of Identification

1. SIR WILLIAM J. HERSCHEL – (1858) Bengal, India, printed the palm of natives as
to avoid impersonation and as a substitute to signature.

RAJADHAR KONAI- first person Herschel printed the palm.

2. HENRY FAULDS – (Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan) advocated the use of

fingerprints in the detection of crime.
3. SIR FRANCIS GALTON (1822-1911) –a cousin of Charles Darwin, is credited with
being the first scientist of friction skin identification as well as his role promoting its
used.
4. SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY (1859-1931) – known as the “Father of
Fingerprint” The United Kingdom Home Secretary Office conducted an inquiry into
"Identification of Criminals by Measurement and Fingerprints."  Mr. Edward Richard
Henry (later Sir ER Henry) appeared before the inquiry committee to explain the

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 system published in his recent book "The Classification and Use of Fingerprints."
The committee recommended adoption of fingerprinting as a replacement for the
relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of anthropometric measurement, which only
partially relied on fingerprints for identification.  
5. THOMAS BEWICK, an English naturalist, uses engravings of his own fingerprints
to identify books he published.
6. HAQUE AND BOSE – two Hindu police officers who help Henry in attaining his goal.
7. JUAN VUCETICH – developed his own system of system of classification and which
was officially adopted in Argentina and in used today in most-Spanish speaking
country. Credited to the case of “ROJAS HOMICIDE”

History of Fingerprint in US

1903 - The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints in the
U.S. for criminals. 

1907- US Navy begins using fingerprint

1908- US Marine Corps started using fingerprint.

1924 – An act of Congress established the Identification Division of the NBI.

1946- the introduction of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) technology begans
due to the massive number of fingerprint cards manually processed by the FBI.

2015- largets AFIS repository in America is operated by the Homeland Security’s US Visit
Program in Clarksburg, West Virginia but the world’s largest fingerprint system is in India. The
Unique Identification Authority of India.

Related Studies in Fingerprints

A.Dactyloscopy- (Latin word= “Dactyl” means Finger; Latin word= “Skopien” means to
examine)

- is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.

B. Dactylography- scientific study of fingerprint as a means of identification.

C. Dactylomancy- scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of identification.

D. Dermatoglyphics- deals with the study of skin patterns.

E. Chiroscopy – (Greek word “Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” – to examine) it studies the prints of
the palm of the hand. William Herschel is considered as “Father of Chiroscopy”

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 F. Podoscopy – (Greek word “Podo” – sole of the foot and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with
the study of the footprints.

G. Poroscopy – (Greek word “Poros” – pore and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with the study
of the arrangement of the sweat pores. Edmond Locard is considered the “Father of Poroscopy”

Basic Principles of Fingerprint

 Individuality – (Francis Galton) no two persons have the same fingerprint.

 Constancy or Permanency – that the friction ridge once fully developed, its arrangement
will remains the same throughout the man’s life. Ridges appears from 3rd to 4th mos. Of
fetus life and completes at 5th to 6th mos. Before birth. It is also known as the “From
Womb to Tomb” principle.
 Infallibility – that fingerprint cannot be easily forged.

 FINGERPRINT- is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth
surface through the medium of ink, sweat, or any substance capable of producing visibility.

Finger Composition and Structure

A. PHALANGE- is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three
bones.

 Basal or Proximal- it is located at the base of the finger nearest the palm.
 Middle Phalange- the next and above the basal bone.
 Terminal Phalange- the particular bone covered with friction skin and located at
the tip of the finger.

B. FRICTION SKIN- is an epidermal hairless skin found on the lower surface of the hands
and feet covered with ridges and furrows. Also known as “Papillary Skin.” Biologists use
the term “Volar Skin”

B.1. Composition of Friction Skin

 Ridge Surface
o Ridge- the elevated or hill like structure/the black lines with tiny white
dots. It appears as black lines in the fingerprint impression.
o Furrow- the depressed canal like structure/the white space between
ridges. It appears as white lines in a fingerprint impression
 Fundamental Layers
o Epidermis- the outermost layer.
o Dermis- the innermost layer.

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 B.2. Ridge Destruction- damage in the friction skin can be temporary or permanent.
Such permanency in the damage may cause scar or termed as “Sicatriz.”

 Epidermis- temporary
 Dermis- permanent
 Cut with a depth of more than 1 mm.- permanent; With less than 1mm.-
temporary

THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

A. THE THREE GENERAL/FAMILY OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS.

1. The Arch (5%)

2. The Whorl (35%)
3. The Loop (60%)

B. THE EIGHT STANDARD FINGERPRINT PATTERN

-Presently, there are eight standard patterns which are widely used in the
field of fingerprint. Before, on the Galton and Henry System, they used the
Nine standard fingerprint pattern. Only that after the Galton-Henry System
with FBI Modification and Extension, we have our eight standard fingerprint
pattern.

Galton and Henry System Galton-Henry System with FBI Modification

and Extension

Groups/Families = 3 Groups/Families = 3
1. Arch (3) – Plain, Tented, and 1. Arch (2) – Plain and Tented
Exceptional Arch. 2. Loop (2) – Radial and Ulnar Loop
2. Loop (4) – Plain, Lateral, Twin, and 3. Whorl (4) – Plain, Central Pocket
Central Pocket Loop Loop, Double Loop, and Accidental
3. Whorl (2) – Plain Whorl and Accidental Whorl
Whorl

B.1. Arch (5%)

1. Plain Arch (A)- a type of fingerprint pattern in which ridges flow form
one side to the other with a slight raise in the center.

2. Tented Arch (T)- is a type of pattern having an angle of 90 degrees or

less, an up thrust, and approaching the loop type (there is no ridge count).

B.2. Loop (35%)

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 a. There must be a delta

b. A sufficient re-curving ridge passing or touching an imaginary

line drawn between the core and delta.

c. There must be ridge count of at least one.

1. Ulnar Loop ( ) – downward slant are from the thumb towards the little
finger or ulnar bone.

2. Radial Loop (/) – downward slant are from the little finger toward the
thumb or radius bone.

B.3. Whorl (60%)

a. Plain Whorl (W) – at least one circuiting ridge is touched or

cross by an imaginary line from delta to delta.

b. Central Pocket Loop (C) – no circuiting ridge is touched by the

imaginary line from delta to delta.

c. Double Loop Whorl (D)

 2 separate loop formation

 2 separate and distinct shoulder
 2 deltas

d. Accidental Whorl

 2 or 3 deltas
 2 diff. types of patterns except PLAIN ARCH.

THE RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (GALTON DETAILS)

In a single fingerprint impression, there are a hundred of ridge characteristics present.

Fingerprint pattern is not enough to provide proof of identification to make an accusation
prosper. It is indeed the importance of identifying every details of ridge characteristics to provide
number of points in order to support once conviction. The identification of ridges characteristics
serves as the basic ground to specifically determine the owner of those prints. Investigators rely
heavily on the amount of similarities of the ridges in the finger when compared with the
specimen and standard print.

(Basic Types of Ridges: Island (Dot), Ending, & Bifurcation)

1. Ridge Dot (Island Ridge)- ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.

2. Bifurcation- a ridge formation wherein a single ridge divides or forks into two. It forks.
3. Converging Ridge- two ridges that meet at a certain point.
4. Diverging Ridge- two ridges that spread apart.

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 5. Enclosure/Lake Ridge/Eyelet- a single ridge that divides into two and meets at a
certain point to form another single ridge.
6. Ending Ridge- it refers to an abrupt end.
7. Type Lines- is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern.
8. Pattern Area- it is surrounded by the type lines and where the delta, core, ridges and
patterns are located.
9. Re-curving ridge- a single ridge that curves back from where it started.
10. Bridges- a connection ridge between parallel running ridges usually in right angles.
11. Sufficient Recurve- recurving ridge which is free from any appendage.
12. Rod or Bar- short or long ridge inside the recurve and directed towards the core.

The two fingerprint terminus (Focal points)

 The Delta (outer terminus)- found at the center or near the center of the
diverging type lines.
 The Core (inner terminus or the heart) - found at the center or innermost
recurve of the typelines.

RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING

1. Ridge Counting- process of counting the ridges that touches the imaginary line from
delta to core in a loop type and delta to delta with the exception in the final division
wherein it requires a delta to delta ridge count. Never include delta and core in the
ridge count.

2. Ridge Tracing- number of intervening ridges between the tracing ridge at the right
delta.

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

Important Terms to Remember in Fingerprint Classification

BLOCKING- is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of
the fingerprint pattern.

CLASSIFICATION- is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby

it may be located in the filing cabinet.

CLASSIFICATION FORMULA- is a numerical description of a set of fingerprints which

is composed of figures and letters written above the horizontal line.

FILING- process of locating the proper place in a fingerprint file.

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 FILLING OUT- entering on a fingerprint record card of all known essential data about a
subject.

SEQUENCING- means the placing of a group of classified sets into their correct filing
order.

FORMATION IN THE CLASSIFICATION LINE

KEY MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL

________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL

DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

1. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION- summation of all numerical value designated only to

Whorl Patterns appearing in a fingerprint chart. Expressed in as numerators and
denominators with a pre-established fraction of 1/1 to complete the Primary Division.
ALL WHORLS APPEARING IN THE FOLLOWING FINGERS WILL HAVE ITS
CORRESPONDING NUMERICAL VALUES, TO WIT:

 (1ST PAIR) 1st and 2nd Finger (Right Thumb and Right Index)= numerical
value of 16
 (2ND PAIR) 3rd and 4th Finger(Right Middle and Right Ring)= numerical value
of 8
 (3RD PAIR) 5th and 6th finger (Right Little and Left Thumb)= numerical value
of 4
 (4TH PAIR) 7th and 8th finger (Left Index and Left Middle)= numerical value of
2
 (5TH PAIR) 9th and 10th finger (Left Ring and Left Little) = numerical value of 1

- All values appearing on the EVEN numbers will be the NUMERATOR while
those in the ODD number will be the DENOMINATOR.
- Patterns without numerical value are the arches and loops.

Note: Fingers nos. 1-5 are from Right Hand while fingers No. 6-10 are from
Left Hand.

PAIR OF FINGERS IN A CLASSIFICATION CARD

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 FIRST PAIR FIRST PAIR SECOND PAIR SECOND THIRD PAIR
PAIR

THIRD PAIR FOURTH PAIR FOURTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR

0 16 0 0 4
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central
Pocket Loop
T D A / w
4 2 2 0 1
Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w

All numerators (Even Numbers): 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 23

All denominators (Odd Numbers): 0+0+4+2+0= 6

23/6 + 1/1 (Pre-established Fraction) = 24/7

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION = 24
________
7

2. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (BY CAPITAL LETTERED GROUP)- this is done

by putting all the CAPITAL LETTER symbol of the standard fingerprint pattern from
two INDEX FINGERS. The pattern in the Right hand will be the Numerator and Left
Hand the Denominator.

Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w

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Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w

____24 _D___
7 C

3. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (BY SMALL LETTERED GROUP)- this involves

only the three fingerprint pattern namely, RADIAL LOOP, PLAIN ARCH, AND
TENTED ARCH (RAT). Whenever these patterns appear in the finger, the symbol
must be r for Radial Loop, a for Plain Arch, t for Tented Arch. The Index Finger is
excluded in this classification. All this three patterns once appear on the fingerprint
card, must be exhibited before (Right and Left Thumb) or after the Primary or
Secondary Classification.

Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w

Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w

24 tDa

7 Ca

4. SUB-SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION-derived from the index, middle, or little finger.

- it is derived by ridge counting the loop and Ridge tracing the Whorl.

a. Ridge Counting of Loop

Index = 1-9 Ridge Counts (INNER) 10 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)

Middle = 1-10 Ridge Counts (INNER) 11 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)

Ring = 1-13 Ridge Counts (INNER) 14 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)

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 b. RIDGE TRACING OF WHORL

Rules on Ridge Tracing of Whorl

 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes INSIDE or ABOVE the right delta and
there 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is INNER (I).

 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes OUTSIDE or BELOW the right delta
and there are 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is OUTER (O).

 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes either ABOVE or BELOW the right
delta and there are 2 or less intervening ridges, the tracing is MEETING (M).

 If the tracing ridge from the left delta meets squarely with the right delta, the
tracing is MEETING (M).

m - o
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w
m m -
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w

24 tDa M-O___________________

7 Ca MM-

5. MAJOR DIVISION- derived from the thumb finger only.

- If whorl patterns appear, ridge trace.

- Ridge Count if the patterns appears on the thumb are loops and identify
whether it is Small, Medium, or Large depending on the number of ridge counts
appearing therein. Refer to Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1 TABLE 2

Ridge Counts Symbols Ridge Counts Symbols

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 1-11 Small (S) 1-17 Small (S)

12-16 Medium (M) 18-22 Medium (M)

17 or more Large (L) 23 or more Large (L)

Note: Table 2 shall only be applied to the right thumb when the ridge count from the left
thum reached 17 or more (LARGE). This is known as “Exceptional.”

- m - O
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w
M (12) m m -
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w

- 24 tDa M-O___________________

M 7 Ca MM-

6. FINAL DIVISION- derived from the little fingers only.

- Both loop and whorl are subject to ridge counting.

 Radial and Ulnar are subject to the usual procedure.

 Rules in Ridge Counting of Whorl:

a. Plain or Central Pocket Loop Whorl- will be treated as Ulnar Loop.

b. Double Loop Whorl- get the ridge count of the top loop

c. Accidental Whorl- get the least ridge count from any of the whorl pattern
appearing therein.

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 - m - o 10
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w

- 24 tDa M-O____10________________

M 7 Ca MM- 12

7. KEY DIVISION- getting the ridge count of the 1st loop except the little fingers.

- if there is no loop, the first whorl shall be ridge counted and will be treated as Ulnar Loop.

- M 14 - o 10
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w

14 - 24 tDa M-O____10________________

M 7 Ca MM- 12

CLASSIFICATION OF MISSING OR AMPUTATED FINGERS

1. When one or more fingers from the same hand are amputated or missing, it has the same
classification with that of the opposite finger (together with the ridge count and tracing) except
with the primary classification.

2. Two or more opposite finer are amputated or missing, it is given the classification of PLAIN
WHORL, with ridge trace of MEETING.

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3. If all fingers are missing, all shall be treated as PLAIN WHORL AND MEETING.

Finger Abnormalities and Congenitals

1. Macrodactyly- enlargement of fingerprint

2. Polydactyly- having more than the usual normal number of fingers.

3. Brachdactyly- the fingers are abnormally short.

4. Syndactyly- wherein two fingers are joined or fused together.

5. Ectodactyly (Lobster Claw Hand)- it is the absence of one or more fingers in a hand.

Latent Prints

Latent Prints- are those prints that are hidden or concealed which are usually left accidently on
the crime scene. These are prints naked to the human eye but they actually exist.

- the word “latent” is a Latin word which means “something indistinct or hidden.”

- Latent Prints are classified into different categories.

 According to imprinted surface.

a.1 Soft Surface- (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are likely to be three-
dimensional plastic prints.

a.2. Hard Surfaces- are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints

 According to Degree of Visibility

a. Visible Prints- those prints that can be easily recognized such as blood, dirt, ink,
paint, or any colored surface is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface.
b. Semi-visible Prints- prints found on clay, dust, muds and other sticky surface.
c. Invisible Prints- those prints created through sweat or perspiration found on the
fingers. It is the common types observed in the crime scene.

 Other types of latent prints

a. Smudge Prints- prints created due to the sliding motion of the finger.
b. Fragmentary Prints- prints that shows incomplete ridges.

Methods in Developing Latent Prints

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a. Dusting Method- considered as the simplest and most common method of
developing latent prints. By using black powder, the powder will adhere on the
moisture left on the surface. Fingerprint powder can be categorized into four:
 Regular Powders
 Luminescent Powder
 Metallic Powder
 Thermoplastic
b. Chemical Fuming- it is used by applying iodine fume into the latent print
surface.
c. Cyanoacrylate Fuming- used for the development of latent prints on surfaces
made of plastic, adhesive tapes aluminum foils, and rubber bands.
d. Iodine Dusting Method- same procedure as that of a dusting method but uses
an iodine powder and absorbs the fingerprint which gives yellowish brown prints
as a result of development.
e. Ninhydrin Method- best method applied in developing latent prints in a paper
surface.
f. Silver Nitrate Reagent- the application of silver nitrate to a latent print surface
and reacts to the chloride present in the latent print.
g. Iodine Silver Plate Transfer Method- a practical technique used in developing
latent print on human skin. It is done by spraying an iodine fume into the area of
the skin. Once the latent print is developed, it will be transferred to a silver plate
then exposed to strong light for evaluation.
h. Laser Method- modern way of developing latent print.

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