Journal of Cereal Science 95 (2020) 103071

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Journal of Cereal Science

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The effects of sodium reduction on the mechanical properties of doughs

made from flours with a range of strengths using a mixograph
Xinyang Sun a, b, *, Filiz Koksel b, Martin G. Scanlon b, Michael T. Nickerson c
a
College of Food Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing 210023, PR China
b
Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
c
Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A8, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To devise strategies for meeting Health Canada’s target for reduced-sodium bread production, relationships
Sodium reduction between dough formula (i.e., red spring wheat flour, salt (NaCl) and water content) and dough mechanical
Dough mechanical properties properties were examined. Mixograph energy to peak (ETP), peak height (PKH), and peak bandwidth (PBW)
Wheat flour strength
were used to define changes in the properties of doughs induced by sodium reduction. ETP measurements
Mixograph
indicated that dough strength characteristics were less responsive to sodium reduction as water content was
increased. ETP was a good indicator of the cultivar-dependent response of doughs to sodium reduction, with
doughs made from stronger flours being more sensitive to sodium reduction. According to ETP results, sodium
reduction led to a decrease in flour strength discrimination. Sodium reduction at NaCl contents below ~1.5% led
to more obvious changes in dough mixing characteristics (indicated by the ratio of PBW to PKH). Mixograph
analyses of dough tolerance to sodium reduction will guide wheat breeding programs to select cultivars suitable
for reduced sodium breadmaking.

1. Introduction Biffen, 1909): stronger flours (with strong gluten and strong dough
properties) produce better bread. Differences in flour strength directly
Dough mechanical properties are reported to have a direct relation to determine variation in the mechanical properties of wheat flour doughs
breadmaking performance and loaf quality, justifying studies of the (Khatkar et al., 1996; Rooke et al., 1999). However, the mechanical
mechanical properties of bread dough prior to baking (Dobraszczyk and properties of dough made from a given cultivar are also affected by the
Morgenstern, 2003). For this purpose, various empirical rheological sodium chloride content of the dough (Butow et al., 2002). This differ­
methods such as the farinograph and mixograph have been employed ential sensitivity of wheat cultivars to NaCl can be attributed to the ef­
(Gélinas and McKinnon, 2013; Martinant et al., 1998; Zounis and Quail, fects of Na+ and Cl− ions on the hydrated gluten proteins (Avramenko
1997). et al., 2018; Kim and Bushuk, 1995). A protein extraction study was
One material commonly added to dough formulations is sodium conducted for flours designated as strong and very strong (Kim and
chloride (salt). In recent years there has been emphasis on reduction of Bushuk, 1995). The proportion (%) of protein precipitated after NaCl
salt in bread because dietary sodium intake has been associated with a addition was measured, showing that gluten proteins extracted from the
causative factor in the development of cardiovascular disease (Avra­ very strong flour were more sensitive to NaCl addition. This was
menko et al., 2018; Joffres et al., 2007). For example, Health Canada’s attributed to molecular weight differences between the proteins in the
Sodium Working Group recommends reducing sodium content to 330 two cultivars.
mg/100 g bread, down from the typical value of 520 mg sodium/100 g One instrument used to investigate the mechanical properties of
bread (Yovchev et al., 2017). Therefore, there is a need to understand dough is the mixograph (Gaines et al., 2006), which determines the
the extent to which reduced-sodium bread production impacts the me­ resistance (torque, Tq) the dough exerts on the instrument’s mixer pins
chanical properties of dough (Yovchev et al., 2017, 2015). as a function of mixing time. Dough mixograph parameters have been
The quality of bread made from flours milled from different wheat used to show how dough mechanical properties were affected by the
cultivars varies according to the “strength” of the flour (Saunders and wheat cultivar (Khatkar et al., 1996), by NaCl content (Danno and

* Corresponding author. College of Food Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Sun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.103071
Received 10 April 2020; Received in revised form 2 August 2020; Accepted 2 August 2020
Available online 12 August 2020
0733-5210/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Sun et al. Journal of Cereal Science 95 (2020) 103071

Hoseney, 1982; He et al., 1992; Lang et al., 1992), and also by water Winnipeg, MB, Canada) equipped with a torque reading software Power
content (Baig and Hoseney, 1977; Lang et al., 1992). Water and NaCl to Mixer, i.e., P2M(UT) by RAR Software Systems (Winnipeg, MB,
exerted opposite effects on dough mixograph parameters except for Canada) was used to measure the mixograph parameters according to
mixing time (Baig and Hoseney, 1977; Danno and Hoseney, 1982; He AACC International Approved Method 54–40.02. Mixing development
et al., 1992; Lang et al., 1992). Measurements of dough strength pa­ time (MDT, min), peak height (PKH, %Tq), peak bandwidth (PBW, %
rameters, i.e., peak height and energy to peak, have shown that added Tq), energy to peak (ETP, %Tq*min), and first minute slope (FMS, % Tq/
water weakened the dough, while added NaCl strengthened the dough min) were determined (Isaak et al., 2019). Dough samples were mixed
(Baig and Hoseney, 1977; Danno; Hoseney, 1982; He et al., 1992; Lang for 10 min on the mixograph.
et al., 1992).
The objective of this research was to examine how reduction in the 2.3. Experimental design and statistical analysis
amount of NaCl in the dough formulation affected mixograph assess­
ments of the mechanical properties of dough made from hard red spring A completely randomized factorial design, of four wheat cultivars (i.
wheat flours varying in flour strength. Because NaCl and water interact e., Pembina, Roblin, McKenzie and Harvest), eight NaCl contents (i.e., 0,
during development of the dough, assessments were also conducted with 0.4%, 0.8%, 0.25 mol L− 1, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.0%) and five water
varying water content. contents (i.e., FAB-4%, FAB-2%, FAB, FAB+2% and FAB+4%), was used
with three replications for each treatment. Analysis of variance
2. Material and methods (ANOVA) using Statistical Application Systems (SAS) software was used
for analysis. A three-way ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the effects
2.1. Wheat flour dough of wheat cultivar, NaCl and water on the mixograph characteristics of
the various doughs. For various wheat cultivars and water contents, the
Wheat flours (Grains Innovation Lab, University of Saskatchewan) difference in the slopes or intercepts of linear fits of dough mixograph
used for this study were prepared from a Canada Western Red Spring parameter vs. NaCl content were analyzed by the F-test (linear fit com­
(CWRS) wheat cultivar, i.e., Roblin, and three Canada Northern Hard parison of parameters in Origin graphing and analysis software, version
Red (CNHR) wheat cultivars, i.e., Pembina, McKenzie and Harvest, so 2016, Originlab Corporation, Northampton, MA, U.S.A.).
that a range of hard red spring wheat flour strengths was utilized. All
four wheat cultivars were grown in one location at the University of 3. Results and discussion
Saskatchewan’s Kernen Crop Research Farm (Yovchev et al., 2017).
For each cultivar, 14 kg wheat was milled on a Buhler mill after 3.1. Interactions of NaCl and flour strength on mixograph characteristics
tempering to 15.5% moisture. On a flour moisture basis (mb) of 14%,
flour and dough properties are those reported in Table 1. The farino­ The five standard mixograph parameters were highly significantly (P
graph optimal water absorption (FAB) of each wheat flour was deter­ < 0.01) affected by wheat cultivar, NaCl and water content (Table 2). An
mined by AACC International Approved Method 54–21.02. additional mixograph parameter was reported in Table 2 - PBW/PKH –
A wide range in dough formulations was studied to evaluate mixo­ which assesses the relative scale of fluctuations in the mixograph curve.
graph response for flour made from each cultivar. Doughs were created As remarked by Gras et al. (2000) and Ng (2006), PBW alone cannot
by mixing wheat flours with varying water content, relative to farino­ characterize dough properties, but information on the extensibility of
graph optimal water absorption (FAB), i.e., FAB-4, FAB-2, FAB, FAB+2 the dough is expected from relative measures of PBW (Ng, 2006).
and FAB+4 (% flour weight basis), and varying NaCl content, i.e., 0, Although a significant effect of cultivar was evident for this normalized
0.4%, 0.8%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.0% (flour weight basis). An equi­ mixograph parameter, PBW/PKH, only NaCl content exerted an effect to
molar condition of 0.25 mol L− 1 (total dough moisture content) was also the same highly significant extent (P < 0.0001) as the other treatments.
chosen as one of the NaCl treatments. A value of 0.25 mol L− 1 NaCl in Water content was only marginally significant, at P = 0.04.
the water of doughs averaged for the four wheat cultivars (Supplemental Interactive effects between wheat cultivar, NaCl and water varied
Material 2) corresponds to 1.2% NaCl content on a flour weight basis according to the mixograph parameter (Table 2). The specific two-way
(Supplemental Material 1). For a moisture content of 38% in white interactive effects differed for the five mixograph parameters, except
bread, a sodium content of 330 mg per 100 g bread (Health Canada’s for PKH and FMS which essentially had the same two-way interaction
target) is approximately 1.2% NaCl (on a flour weight basis). In order to (Table 2). A three-way interaction of wheat cultivar, NaCl and water was
attain an exact NaCl content of 0.25 mol L− 1 for the various wheat observed for PKH (P < 0.01) and marginally for PBW, at P < 0.05
cultivars and water contents, the salt content was varied for each dough (Table 2). Since these two parameters are associated with dough resis­
(Supplemental Material 3). tance to mixing (Bekes et al., 2001; Martinant et al., 1998), how the
properties of doughs of differing strength respond to sodium reduction
depends not only on flour strength but on how water alters flour strength
2.2. Mixograph measurements characteristics.

A strain gauge 10-g mixograph (Dynamic Machine Corporation, 3.2. Effects of NaCl and water on dough strength characteristics

Table 1 Two parameters frequently used to define dough strength from

Flour and dough properties. mixograph analyses are PKH and ETP (Butow et al., 2002; Isaak et al.,
Cultivar Flour Protein Ash FAB DDT MTI STA 2019). With the reduction of NaCl from 3% to 0, the PKH of doughs
yield decreased regardless of water content (Fig. 1), indicating a negative
(%) (%, 14% (%) (%, 14% (min) (FU) (min) effect of sodium reduction on dough strength. For each water content,
mb) mb) the PKH of dough showed a good linear relationship with NaCl reduction
Harvest 72.4 13.2 0.45 65.5 3.9 41 4.9 (Fig. 1, r2 values). The slope of PKH against NaCl content was not sta­
McKenzie 69.6 13.2 0.46 64.1 4.6 29 6.5 tistically different according to water content in the dough (Fig. 1, slope
Pembina 73.7 12.6 0.46 61.6 5.7 30 7.8 values in linear fit equations). The PKH of doughs decreased signifi­
Roblin 71.7 13.8 0.40 65.0 6.0 6 16.6 cantly as water content was increased (Fig. 1, intercept values in linear
mb: moisture basis; FAB: farinograph water absorption; DDT: dough develop­ fit equations), indicating a softening effect of water on wheat flour
ment time; MTI: mixing tolerance index; STA: dough stability. dough properties (Baig and Hoseney, 1977; Isaak et al., 2019; Lang

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X. Sun et al. Journal of Cereal Science 95 (2020) 103071

Table 2
Effects of cultivar, NaCl and water on dough mixograph parameters.
Effect df MDT PKH PBW ETP FMS PBW/PKH

Cultivar 3 <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* <.0063*

NaCl 7 <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* 0.0015* <.0001*
Water 4 <.0001* <.0001* <.0001* 0.0004* <.0001* <.0414
Cultivar × NaCl 21 <.0001* 0.8942 0.0698 <.0001* 0.0712 0.3729
NaCl × Water 28 0.3192 0.0191 0.2124 0.0008* 0.3890 0.0471
Cultivar × Water 12 <.0001* 0.0034* 0.0162 0.6360 0.0001* 0.1303
Cultivar × NaCl × Water 84 0.6506 0.0069* 0.0411 0.1355 0.1172 0.5676

df: degrees of freedom; MDT: mixing development time; PKH: peak height; PBW: peak bandwidth; ETP: energy to peak; FMS: first minute slope; P values labeled by * =
significant at P < 0.01.

Fig. 1. Effects of sodium reduction on dough peak height (PKH) with changes Fig. 2. Effects of sodium reduction on dough energy to peak (ETP) with
in dough water content averaged over four red spring wheat cultivars. Linear changes in dough water content averaged over four red spring wheat cultivars.
fits (dashed lines): y = 4.45a x + 40.3A, r2 = 0.896 (black), y = 4.35a x + Linear fits (dashed lines): y = 19.0a x + 57.0A, r2 = 0.918 (black), y = 18.2a x
37.8B, r2 = 0.969 (red), y = 4.80a x + 34.7C, r2 = 0.932 (blue), y = 4.37a x + + 56.0A, r2 = 0.985 (red), y = 14.4b x + 59.3A, r2 = 0.955 (blue), y = 14.2b x +
33.5D, r2 = 0.906 (green), y = 4.66a x + 30.9E, r2 = 0.979 (purple). For the 59.3A, r2 = 0.945 (green), y = 13.5b x + 59.3A, r2 = 0.943 (purple). For the
slope or intercept of the linear fits, values labeled by the same letter are not slope or intercept of the linear fits, values labeled by the same letter are not
significantly different (P < 0.05). (For interpretation of the references to colour significantly different (P < 0.05). (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

et al., 1992). determinants of dough strength (Butow et al., 2002; Haraszi et al., 2008;
NaCl had a similar effect on the dough strength parameter ETP as it Isaak et al., 2019), the effects of NaCl on mixograph properties evidently
did on PKH: decreasing NaCl lowered ETP (Fig. 2). However, unlike for depend on the wheat cultivar used for dough preparation. The ETP
PKH, ETP did not clearly show a water-induced softening of the dough values of doughs made from the four wheat cultivars were compared by
(Fig. 2, intercept values in linear fit equations). This outcome can be averaging over the five chosen water contents (Fig. 3). ETP showed a
attributed to increased water content extending MDT so that the good linear relationship with NaCl reduction (Fig. 3, r2 values) for
elevated MDT and the lowered PKH exert opposite effects on ETP (Lang doughs made from all four wheat cultivars. The slope of ETP against
et al., 1992; Ng, 2006), with the two determinants of ETP cancelling NaCl content was significantly different for wheat cultivar (Fig. 3, slope
each other out. Although some slopes of ETP against NaCl reduction values in linear fit equations), so ETP can be used to discriminate the
were not statistically different between water contents, higher water tolerance of specific flours to sodium reduction.
content doughs did have a lower slope of ETP with the reduction in NaCl By comparing the slopes of ETP against NaCl content, an ascending
content (Fig. 2, slope values in linear fit equations). For these hard red order of cultivar sensitivity to NaCl reduction was Harvest < Roblin ~
spring wheat flours, increasing water content decreased the sensitivity McKenzie < Pembina (Fig. 3, slope values in linear fit equations). A
of the dough to sodium reduction. Under a different mechanical mixing ranking of flour strengths based on DDT and STA was Harvest <
action (the farinograph), doughs of higher water content were reported McKenzie < Pembina < Roblin (from weak to strong, Table 1). The
to be less responsive to NaCl reduction as measured by dough consis­ lowest sensitivity to NaCl reduction was seen for the weakest cultivar
tency (Hlynka, 1962). Harvest. Therefore, based on mixograph assays, when devising bread
formulations of specific dough strengths, it is the stronger flours that are
more sensitive to sodium reduction in the formula. This outcome mirrors
3.3. Effects of flour strength and NaCl on dough mixograph the response of gluten proteins to NaCl-induced precipitation (i.e., the
characteristics proportion of protein precipitated with NaCl addition), where flours of
greater strength showed greater NaCl sensitivity (Kim and Bushuk,
Interactive effects of wheat cultivar and NaCl were observed for MDT 1995).
and ETP (Table 2). Since these two mixograph parameters are classic

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X. Sun et al. Journal of Cereal Science 95 (2020) 103071

Fig. 3. Effects of sodium reduction on dough energy to peak (ETP) for four red Fig. 4. Effects of sodium reduction on dough peak bandwidth/peak height
spring wheat cultivars whose dough moisture contents represent an average of (PBW/PKH) for four red spring wheat cultivars whose dough moisture contents
five water contents. Linear fits (dashed lines): y = 22.6a x + 69.4A, r2 = 0.962 represent an average of five water contents. Linear fits (dashed lines) over
(black), y = 15.1b x + 70.5A, r2 = 0.964 (red), y = 15.3b x + 47.5B, r2 = 0.959 lower salt contents (NaCl content of 0 to 1.5%): y = 0.025b x + 0.410A, r2 =
(blue), y = 10.5c x + 45.5B, r2 = 0.951 (green). For the slope or intercept of the 0.702 (black), y = 0.017b x + 0.402B, r2 = 0.836 (red), y = 0.033a x + 0.391B,
linear fits, values labeled by the same letter are not significantly different (P < r2 = 0.978 (blue), y = 0.021b x + 0.402B, r2 = 0.938 (green). For the slope or
0.05). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the intercept of the linear fits, values labeled by the same letter are not significantly
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) different (P < 0.05). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

NaCl reduction decreased the difference in ETP values between

doughs made from the wheat cultivars (Fig. 3). Therefore, differences in 4. Conclusions
the mixing characteristics of wheat cultivars are less obvious at reduced
sodium content conditions compared to regular formulations. This Mixograph parameters indicate how doughs made from a wide range
finding is probably attributable to hydrophobic interactions between of formulations respond to sodium reduction. ETP measurements indi­
gluten proteins being predominant at higher salt conditions (Butow cated that wheat flour dough became less responsive to sodium reduc­
et al., 2002; Yovchev et al., 2017). As such, differences in flour strength tion as water content was increased. The parameter ETP is also a good
(arising from enhanced protein-protein interactions) are more pro­ indicator of how a dough’s response to sodium reduction differs ac­
nounced at higher salt conditions. Although it has been asserted that salt cording to wheat cultivar: the slope of ETP against NaCl showed that
does not affect differentiation of flours of differing strength (Anderssen doughs made from weaker red spring wheat cultivars exhibited better
et al., 2004), it has been reported recently that flours of hard red winter tolerance to sodium reduction compared to doughs made from stronger
wheat cultivars were better discriminated (on the basis of mixograph cultivars. Differences in the mixing characteristics of flours were less
measurements) as salt content was increased (Isaak et al., 2019). obvious at reduced sodium contents, an effect more pronounced at NaCl
Therefore, higher NaCl content is recommended when using the mixo­ contents below 1.5% (fwb). Understanding factors affecting a dough’s
graph to screen wheat cultivars for flour strength. tolerance to sodium reduction will better guide wheat breeding pro­
The derived mixograph parameter, PBW/PKH (the ratio of peak grams in screening wheat cultivars that are suitable for reduced sodium
bandwidth to peak height), normalizes the fluctuations in the mixograph breadmaking.
curve relative to variation in curve magnitude arising from flour
strength and water content (Gras et al., 2000; Ng, 2006), essentially Declaration of competing interest
eliminating effects of water and all interactions on dough strength
characteristics (Table 2). The values of PBW/PKH of doughs made from None.
the four wheat cultivars were compared by averaging over the five water
conditions to show how the various formulations changed with NaCl Acknowledgements
reduction (Fig. 4).
Although the effect of wheat cultivar on PBW/PKH was significant The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by Canada
(Table 2), it was difficult to discern a consistent cultivar effect other than Bread Corp. (Toronto, Canada), the Saskatchewan Agricultural Devel­
the tendency of Pembina doughs to have higher PBW/PKH values at opment Fund, the Western Grains Research Foundation, and through a
most NaCl contents (Fig. 4). For doughs made with low NaCl contents joint NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
(0–1.5% flour weight), there was a reasonably good linear fit of PBW/ Canada)-CIHR (Canadian Institute of Health Research) Institute of
PKH against NaCl content (Fig. 4, r2 values). The decrease in PBW/PKH Nutrition, Metabolism and Diabetes Funding Initiative for Sodium
as NaCl content was reduced was quite noticeable at these lower NaCl Reduction in the Canadian Food Supply, and CSC (China Scholarship
contents compared to at the higher NaCl contents. Changes in dough Council). The authors would like to thank Dr. Nancy Ames and Dave
properties are therefore more pronounced as salt content is reduced Niziol from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Winnipeg, MB, Canada)
below approximately 1.5% NaCl (flour weight basis). for technical support.

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X. Sun et al. Journal of Cereal Science 95 (2020) 103071

Appendix A. Supplementary data He, H., Roach, R., Hoseney, R.C., 1992. Effect of nonchaotropic salts on flour bread-
making properties. Cereal Chem. 69, 366–371.
Hlynka, I., 1962. Influence of temperature, speed of mixing and salt on some rheological
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. properties of dough in the farinograph. Cereal Chem. 39, 286–303.
org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.103071. Isaak, C., Sapirstein, H., Wu, Y., Graf, R., 2019. Effects of water absorption and salt on
discrimination of wheat gluten strength assessed by dough mixing and protein
composition. J. Cereal Sci. 89, 102752.
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