Math AA HL Year 1 Guide

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INDEX

Topic 1: Number and Algebra 1

Topic 2: Functions 18

Topic 3: Geometry and Trigonometry 50

Topic 4: Calculus 71

Citations 122
Topic 1: Number and Algebra

PART A

Number systems:

R → Real Numbers
The set of real numbers includes all the rational and irrational numbers. The real numbers are
“all the numbers” on the number line. There are infinitely many real numbers just as there are
infinitely many numbers in each of the other sets of numbers.

Q → Rational Numbers
Rational Numbers are numbers that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers, or by the fraction
1 −7
p/q, where p and q are integers. For instance, the fractions 2 and are rational numbers. Another
23
very important thing to note here is that only terminating decimals are rational numbers.
Decimals that follow a repeating pattern after some point are also rationals: for example,
1
0.333333 = 3is a rational number.

Z → Integers
Integers are the set of real numbers consisting of natural numbers or whole numbers, their
additive inverses and zero. The sum, product and difference of two integers is also an integer.
For example: {1,2,32,-4,20} are all integers.

N → Natural Numbers
The natural numbers are essentially counting numbers like 1,2,3,4,5, etc. There are infinitely
many natural numbers.

I → Irrational Numbers

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An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers. In its decimal
form, it never ends or repeats. For instance, √3 and π = 3.14159265358979.. , are both irrational
numbers.

The following venn diagram displays the conventional number systems that are involved in
mathematics: Real Numbers, Rational Numbers, Integers, Natural Numbers and Irrational
Numbers. It gives an understanding of how these number systems are related and identified.

PART B
Arithmetic Sequences and Series:

Finding an equation of an arithmetic sequence is essentially like finding a pattern in the numbers.
A sequence is a list of numbers that is written in a defined order which can be ascending or
descending. Each of the numbers in a sequence is called a term, and an arithmetic sequence is
often called a progression.

A sequence is defined with a general formula shown below.

Where 𝑢1 is the first term of the sequence and ‘d’ is the common difference between each term in
the sequence. This is used to find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a particular arithmetic sequence.

2
For example, 𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 5.

Find the following terms of the sequence.

i. 𝑢1 ii. 𝑢27 iii. 𝑢5

To solve the above, we need to substitute ‘n’ with the term that we wish to find.
Answers:
i. 𝑢1 = 3(1) − 5 = −2 ii. 𝑢27 = 3(27) − 1 = 80 iii. 𝑢5 = 3(5) − 1 = 14

Exercise A:

Q1. For the following sequences find 𝑢7 , 𝑢100 , 𝑢2 .

i. 𝑢𝑛 = 17𝑛 − 108 ii. 𝑢𝑛 = 2(𝑛 − 28)+ 57

Q2. An arithmetic sequence starts 23,36,49,62, ... Find the first term of the sequence to exceed
10,000.

Note:- It is helpful to remember that in a arithmetic sequence 𝑢𝑛+1 − 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑑. When asked to

prove that a sequence is arithmetic, this is one of the methods you are expected to use.

Application of Arithmetic Sequences - Approximating using Arithmetic Sequences

Q. Raina has put an empty egg carton on a weighing scale. Its mass is 32g. When the carton is
filled with 12 eggs, the total mass of the eggs and cartons is 743g. Find,
I. The average mass of the eggs that are in the carton
II. Hence, find an arithmetic sequence for 𝑢𝑛 , the approximate total mass when ‘n’ eggs
have been added to the carton.
III. For what values of n is your model valid?

To solve the above question it is important to go step by step.

I. To find the average mass of the eggs in the carton we need to know the total mass of the
eggs and the number of eggs (12) one of which has been given. To find the total mass of
the eggs only we subtract 32g (mass of carton) from 743g (mass of carton + eggs).
743 - 32 = 711 (total mass of eggs only). Now we need to divide this by the number of
eggs: 711/12 = 59.25g. Each egg weighs approximately 59.25g.
II. To write a general formula for the above word problem we need to understand it in depth.
When ‘n’ eggs have been added to the basket, the weight of the eggs would be n(59.25).
However, we must not forget to include the weight of the basket as well. Therefore, the
formula would be: 𝑢𝑛 = 59.25𝑛 + 32.

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III. The value of ‘n’ for which this model would be valid only till we know the capacity of
the basket. Since the basket remains constant and we have not been told otherwise, the
amount of eggs that can be placed depends on the dimensions of the basket. Therefore,
for 0 < 𝑛 ≤ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡, this model is valid.

Exercise:
Q. Parth joins a social media platform. After a week he has 34 friends, and after 9 weeks he has
80 friends on the platform. Find,
I. The average number of friends Parth has made each week from week 1 to 9.
II. Assuming that the total number of friends he has after ‘n’ weeks is an arithmetic
sequence, find the model that models the number of Parth’s friends in ‘n’ weeks.

Q. A party event venue advertises all-inclusive venue hire and catering costs of $ 6950for 50
guests and $11950 for 100 guests. Assume that the cost of venue hire and catering for ‘n’ guests
forms an arithmetic sequence.
I. Write a general formula for 𝑢𝑛 .
II. Explain the significance of a) the common difference and b) the constant term
III. Estimate the cost of venue hiring and catering for a party with 95 guests.

Sum of an arithmetic sequence

To find the sum of the n terms in an arithmetic sequence use the formula below.

Q. Determine the sum of the first 8 terms of the arithmetic sequence 𝑢𝑛 = 5𝑛 + 27.
A. In order to do this we simply need to go step by step. First, we shall find 𝑢1 . To find this,
we substitute 1 in place of ‘n’ in the general formula of the sequence to get 5(1) + 27 =
32. Then we need to find the common difference which can be directly obtained; 27.
Now we need to apply the formula and get the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence.
𝑆8 = 4{ 2(32) + (8 − 1)27 } = 253(4) = 1012.

Geometric Sequences and Series

All sequences cannot have a linear relationship and the ones that do not, are called Geometric
Sequences. The formula below helps you determine the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a geometric sequence.

Where 𝑢1 is the first term of the sequence and 𝑟is the common ratio.

4
 𝑛−1
For example, 𝑢𝑛 = 5(2) .

Find the following terms of the sequence.

i. 𝑢2 ii. 𝑢5 iii. 𝑢14

To solve the above, we need to substitute ‘n’ with the term that we wish to find.
Answers:
i. 𝑢1 = 5(2) 1−1 = 5 ii. 𝑢5 = 5(2) 5−1 = 5(16) = 80 iii. 𝑢14 = 5(2) 14−1
=
5(8192) =40980

Exercise:

Q1. For the following sequences find 𝑢7 , 𝑢100 , 𝑢200 .

i. 𝑢𝑛 = 17(5)𝑛−1 ii. 𝑢𝑛 = 2(3)𝑛−1

Q2. Show that the sequence is geometric : 5,10,20,40. Find 𝑢𝑛 and hence the 15𝑡ℎ term.

Q3. A Geometric sequence has 𝑢4 = −70 and 𝑢7 = 8.75. Find the second term of the sequence.

Q4. A geometric sequence with common ratio ‘r’ and an arithmetic sequence with common
difference ‘d’ have the same first two terms. The third terms of the geometric and arithmetic
sequences are in the ratio 2:1. Find,
I. the possible values of ‘r’ II. For each value of ‘r’, find the ratio of the 4𝑡ℎ terms

Note:- It is imperative to remember that in a geometric sequence 𝑢𝑛+1 ÷ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑟. If you are

asked to prove that a sequence is geometric, one of the methods you are expected to use is this.

Sum of finite Geometric Sequences

The general formula below gives you the sum of the n terms of a finite geometric sequence.

Q. Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the arithmetic sequence 𝑢𝑛 = 5(2) 𝑛−1.
A. In order to do this we simply need to go step by step. First, we shall find 𝑢1 . To find this,
we substitute 1 in place of ‘n’ in the general formula of the sequence to get 5(1) = 5. Then
we need to find the common ratio which is 2. Now we need to apply the formula and get
5(28 −1)
the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence. 𝑆8 = = 640.
2−1

5
 Sum of infinite convergent geometric sequences

Q. The sum of the first three terms of a convergent infinite geometric series is 19. The sum of the
series is 27. Find the first term and the common ratio.

Q. The second term of a convergent infinite geometric series is 8/5. The sum of the series is 10.
Show that there are two possible series, and find the first term and common ratio in each case.

Sigma Notation and Arithmetic/ Geometric Series

𝑒𝑛𝑑

∑ = 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
The sigma notation is used to find the sum of the series.
Expand and evaluate:
1. ∑5𝑘=1 (11 − 2𝑘) 2. ∑3𝑘=1 (4𝑘)

Applications of Geometric Sequences

Geometric sequences have many applications. Growth and Decay, Financial math, Population
growth and Annual Depreciation are only a few of them that the IBDP syllabus focuses on.
1. Compound Interest & Annual Depreciation

Using the formula above we can calculate the amount or the future value of a deposit that is
compounded annually. Another method to perform calculations of compound interest is through
the Graphic Display Calculator, where you have to plug in values that are given in a word
problem and you will receive your answer.

6
 Example:

Q. A certain sum amounts to $ 72900 in 2 years at 8% per annum compound interest,

compounded annually. Find the sum.

A.

Let the sum be $ 100. Then, amount = $ {100 × (1 + 8/100)²} = $ (100 × 27/25 × 27/25) =
$ (2916/25)

If the amount is $ 2916/25 then the sum = $ 100.

If the amount is $ 72900 then the sum = $ (100 × 25/2916 × 72900) = $ 62500.

Hence, the required sum is $ 62500.

Exercise:

It is known that the number of fish in a certain lake will decrease by 7% each year unless the
addition of new fish occurs. At the end of each year, 250 new fish are added to the lake. At the
start of 2018, there are 2500 fish in the lake.

A. Show that there will be approximately 2645 fish in the lake at the start of 2020.

B. Find the approximate number of fish in the lake at the start of 2042.

2. Recurring Deposits
One of the applications of Geometric sequences are recurring deposits. As the name suggests

7
in a recurring deposit, a fixed amount of money is invested at a fixed duration for a fixed period
of time. These installments all mature on the same date. Essentially, a recurring deposit is like
having multiple fixed deposit investments, all of which mature on the same day.

Example:
Q. Parth has started renting an apartment. He paid $5000 rent in the first year, and his rent
increased by 5% each year.
a. Find, to the nearest $10, the rent Parth pays in the 5th year
b. Determine an expression for the total rent Parth pays during the first n years.
c. How much rent did Parth pay during his 7 year stay?
A. To solve this we must use our knowledge of sequences and their sums.
a. We need to determine a general formula for the rent she pays. Since the principal amount
is 5000 dollar, and the rate is 5% the general formula for the compounded rent is the
following:
5
𝑢𝑛 = 5000(1 + ) 𝑛−1
100
To find the amount in the 4th year, simply substitute 5 in place of n.
b. The total rent paid by Paula is essentially the sum of the finite geometric sequence that
5000(1.05𝑛 −1)
we derived in part (a). Thus using the formula we can say: 𝑆𝑛 = , which is
1.05−1
equivalent to 𝑆𝑛 = 100000(1.05𝑛 − 1).
c. To determine how much she paid in the first 7 years we can use the formula that we
derived in subpart (b) since it gives us the total amount paid in the first ‘n’ years.
𝑆7 = 100000(1.057 − 1).

Example:
Q. Prashant initially puts $6000 in an account, which earns 5% interest paid annually. At the end
of each year, he invests another $1000 in the same account. Find the amount in the account after
8 years.
A. To solve this particular question we need to derive an equation that shows the amount he
saves per year. Every year we are told Prashant deposits $6000 and at the end another
$1000. If 𝐴𝑛 is the amount he has at the end of each year then we can say that :
𝐴1 = 6000(1.05) + 1000
The amount he has at the end of the second year would be the interest he earns on the amount he
had in the first year, plus the $1000 he deposited.
Thus 𝐴2 = 𝐴1 (1.05) + 1000 = (6000(1.05) + 1000)1.05 + 1000 = 6000(1.05)2 + 1000(1.05) +
1000.
We can therefore say that 𝐴8 = 6000(1.05)8 + 1000(1.05)7 + 1000(1.05)6 + 1000(1.05)5 +
1000(1.05)4 + 1000(1.05)3 + 1000(1.05)2 +
1000(1.05)1 + 1000.

8
We see that the amount following 6000(1.05)8is a geometric series whose common ratio is 1.05.
1000(1.058 −1)
Thus 𝐴8 can be written as 𝐴8 = 6000(1.05)8 + = $18413.84 which is the value of the
1.05−1
account after 8 years.

Exercise:

Q. On Mary’s birthday 1st January 1998, Mary’s grandparents put $x in a savings account. They
kept on depositing $x on the first day of each month thereafter. The account paid a fixed rate of
0.4% interest every month. The interest was determined on the last day of every month. Then,
the interest is added to the account. Let $𝐴𝑛 be the amount in Mary’s account on the last day of
the nth month, immediately after the addition of the interest.

a) Determine an expression for A1 and prove that A2 =1.0042 x + 1.004x

b) (i) Find a similar expression for A3 and A4.

(ii) Hence prove that the amount in Mary’s account the day before her 10th birthday is
given by 251(1.004120 − 1)x.

c) Write down an expression for 𝐴𝑛 in terms of x on the day before Mary’s 18th birthday,
indicating clearly the value of n.

d) Mary’s grandparents hoped that the amount in her account would be at least $20 000 the day
before she was 18. Determine the minimum value of the monthly deposit $x required to achieve
this and give your answer correct to the nearest dollar.

e) As soon as Mary turned 18, she decided to invest $15 000 of the money from her grandparents
in an account of the same type earning 0.4% interest per month. She withdraws $1000 every year
on her birthday to get herself something. Determine how long she can do so until there is no
money left in her account.

Q. Raina takes a bank loan of $150 000 to buy a house, at an annual interest rate of 3.5%. The
interest is calculated at the end of each year and is added to the amount outstanding.

a) Find the amount Raina would owe the bank after 20 years. Give your answer to the nearest
dollar.

To pay off her loan, Raina makes annual deposits of $P at the end of every year in a savings
account, paying an annual interest rate of 2% . She makes her first deposit at the end of the first
year after taking out the loan.

b) Show that Raina’s savings total to (1.0220 −1)P after 20 years .

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c) Given that Raina’s aim is to own the house after 20 years, find P to the nearest dollar.

Raina visits a different bank and makes a single deposit of $Q , the annual interest rate being
2.8%.

d) Raina wants to withdraw $5000 at the end of each year for a period of n years. Prove that an
5000 5000 5000
expression for the minimum value of Q is 1.028+ 2 +...+ 1.028𝑛 .
1.028

PART C
Laws of Exponents:

1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 → Product Law

2. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 → Division Law
3. (𝑎𝑚 ) 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚𝑛 → Power Law
4. 𝑎0 = 1
1
5. 𝑎−𝑚 = → Negative Index Law
𝑎𝑚
𝑚
𝑛
6. √𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛
7. (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑏 𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛
8. ( ) =
𝑏 𝑏𝑛
𝑏 −𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
9. ( ) =( )
𝑎 𝑏
10.𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑐 → 𝑎 = 𝑐

PART D
Laws of logarithms:

1. 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑐 , then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑐
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥𝑦)
𝑥
3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( )
𝑦
𝑛
4. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0
6. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
1
7. −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( )
𝑥

10
 1
8. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
The same rules apply for logarithms with the base 𝑒: (ln x).

Change of Base Theorem

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎

Essentially, it is a formula that permits you to rewrite a logarithm in terms of logs with another
base. This is very important when using a calculator to evaluate a log to any base other than 10
or e.

Example:
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 5
𝑙𝑜𝑔16 32 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16 4

Example:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3 0.47712
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 3 = ≃ ≃ 1.585
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 0.30103

Example:
𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔8 𝑥 = = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 8 𝑙𝑛 8

Note:- Another very important type of question that often comes in the exam is the following.

Q. Solve 4𝑥 + 2𝑥+2 = 3 using logs.

A. To solve this question we must simplify the equation so that the terms with ‘x’ have the
same base: 22𝑥 + 2𝑥 (4) − 3 = 0
B. Next, it is important to realise that this can be written as a quadratic equation where we
let 2𝑥 = 𝑎. If we do that we get: 𝑎2 + 4𝑎 − 3 = 0.
C. Using the quadratic formula we get 𝑎 = −2 ± √7. However, we do not have to find ‘a’
the questions asks us to find ‘x’, therefore we can rewrite the same as 2𝑥 = −2 ± √7.
D. Using logarithms we can rewrite this as 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (−2 ± √7). However, we are not done
yet. Since log of a negative number does not exist, 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (−2 − √7) does not exist and
should be omitted. The final answer is 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (−2 + √7).

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 Exercise:
1. Solve the simultaneous equations
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 6𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦
1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 (15𝑦 − 25).
2. Solve (𝑙𝑛 𝑥) − (𝑙𝑛 2)(𝑙𝑛 𝑥) < 2(𝑙𝑛 𝑥) 2
2

3. Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 + 3) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 − 3) = 4

4. Find the integer values of m and n for which
𝑚 − 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔3 2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔9 6
5. The first terms of an arithmetic sequence are
1 1 1 1
, , , ,….
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔8 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔32 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔128 𝑥
Find x if the sum of the first 20 terms is equal to 100.

Using the Graphic Display Calculator one can graph certain equations to solve questions as well.
Example 1:
Q. Solve the equation 4𝑥−1 − 2𝑥 = 8
A. To solve this by going to the Graphic function in the GDC we would type in
Y1 = 4𝑥−1
Y2 = 2𝑥 + 8, and then locate the intersection. The ‘x’ value of the intersection would be the
answer.

12
In this case the intersection point is (3,16). Therefore the answer is x = 3.

PART E
Binomial Expansion:

The binomial theorem uses the concept of Pascal’s Triangle:

And so on and so forth….

Binomial Expansion is the expansion of expressions into the sum of their individual terms.
How to use Pascal’s triangle to perform binomial expansion?

When we have to expand -

(𝑎 + 𝑏) 1 = 1𝑎 + 1𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 2 = 1𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 3 = 1𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 1𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 4 = 1𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 1𝑏 4

..And so on and so forth. We see that there is a pattern, which is the same as in Pascal’s triangle
and therefore we use Pascal’s triangle in Binomial Expansion.
For example, if we want to expand (𝑥 − 2𝑦 ) 3 , we can perform binomial expansion and do it.
Since the power of the expansion is ‘3’ we use the 4th row of Pascal’s triangle to determine the
coefficient of each term in the expression. One other important thing to note is that the number of
terms ‘n’ in the expansion is always one more than the power. Similarly, this expansion would
have 4 terms.
First we must write down the coefficients of each of the terms.
Note:- If the expansion has a negative sign involved like in the example shown here, the signs of
the coefficients will alternate.
+1
−3
+1
−3

13
Second, we write ‘x’ and ‘2y’ next to each of these coefficients. The powers for ‘x’ keep
reducing from 3 to 0 and for 2y the powers keep increasing from 0 to 3. Then we simplify each
of the terms.
+1 × (𝑥)3 × (2𝑦)0 = 𝑥 3
−3 × (𝑥)2 × (2𝑦)1 = −6𝑥 2 𝑦
+1 × (𝑥)1 × (2𝑦)2 = 4𝑥𝑦 2
−3 × (𝑥)0 × (2𝑦)3 = −24𝑦 3
Thus, we can say that (𝑥 − 2𝑦 ) 3 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦 2 − 24𝑦 3 .

To determine the value of the coefficients according to Pascal’s triangle we use the concept of
Combinations.

𝑛 𝑛!
𝐶𝑟 =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
For example, if we want to know the 3rd term in the Pascal’s Triangle for the 4th power. By
looking at the triangle above we know it would be 4, however using this notation we can
calculate it.
4 4!
𝐶3 = =4
3! (4 − 3)!
Similarly we can write (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑛
𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 0 + 𝑛
𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 1 +
𝑛
𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 . . . + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑎0 𝑏 𝑛
The above is equivalent to the formula given in the Math AA HL formula booklet :

𝑛
Note:- It is helpful to remember that 𝐶0 = 1 ,𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 1 , 𝑛
𝐶1 = 𝑛 , 𝑛
𝐶2 =
𝑛2 −𝑛
.
2
To find a specific term in the expansion of an expression, rather than expanding the entire
expression we can use a general formula that will help us find the term.
𝑛
General Formula : 𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 . Below are a few examples of what kind of questions
appear in the exam.

Example:
Write down and simplify the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)4 in ascending powers of x. Hence find the
exact value of (2.1)4 .

A. To solve this we first follow the steps shown above.

+1 × (2)4 × (𝑥)0 = 16

14
 +4 × (2)3 × (𝑥)1 = 32𝑥
+6 × (2)2 × (𝑥)2 = 24𝑥 2
+4 × (2)1 × (𝑥)3 = 8𝑥 3
+1 × (2)4 × (𝑥)4 = 16𝑥 4
Thus, (2 + 𝑥)4 = 16 + 32𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 4 . In order to find the exact value of (2.1)4we
must write it in a manner that is easier to compute.
(2.1)4 = (2 + 0.1)4 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
∶ 16 + 32(0.1) + 24(0.1)2 + 8(0.1)3 + 16(0.1)4 = 19.4481

Example:
Find the term in 𝑥 in the expansion of (3𝑥 + 𝐴)(2𝑥 + 𝐵)6 .
5

A. To solve this we need to first expand the expression (2𝑥 + 𝐵)6 and then multiply it with
(3𝑥 + 𝐴).
(2𝑥 + 𝐵)6 =
+1 × (2𝑥)6 × (𝐵)0 = 64𝑥 6
+6 × (2𝑥)5 × (𝐵) = 192𝑥 5 𝐵
+15 × (2𝑥)4 × (𝐵)2 = 240𝑥 4 𝐵 2
+20 × (2𝑥)3 × (𝐵)3 = 160𝑥 3 𝐵 3
+15 × (2𝑥)2 × (𝐵)4 = 60𝑥 2 𝐵 4
+6 × (2𝑥)1 × (𝐵)5 = 12𝑥𝐵 5
+1 × (2𝑥)0 × (𝐵)6 = 𝐵 6
(3𝑥 + 𝐴)(2𝑥 + 𝐵)6
= (3𝑥 + 𝐴)(64𝑥 6 + 192𝑥 5 𝐵 + 240𝑥 4 𝐵 2 + 160𝑥 3 𝐵 3 + 60𝑥 2 𝐵 4 + 12𝑥𝐵 5 + 𝐵 6 )
To find the coefficient of 𝑥 5 we need to multiply only those terms in the two brackets that would
give 𝑥 5 . So, (3𝑥)(240𝑥 4 𝐵2 ) + (𝐴)192𝑥 5 𝐵 = 𝑥 5 (720𝐵 2 + 192𝐴𝐵)and therefore the coefficient
of 𝑥 5 is 720𝐵 2 + 192𝐴𝐵.

Example:
2
Find the constant term in the expansion of (𝑥 − 𝑥)4 .
A. To find the constant term in the expansion of the above expression we can use the general
formula.
𝑇𝑟+1 = 4 𝐶𝑟 (𝑥)4−𝑟 (2𝑥 −1 )𝑟 ; To find the constant term we need the power of ‘x’ to equate to
0. Since 𝑥 0 = 1. Through this we can determine the value of ‘r’ and substitute it in the general
formula to get the constant term.
Equation the power of ‘x’ to 0:
(𝑥)4−𝑟 (𝑥 −𝑟 ) = 𝑥 0
4−𝑟−𝑟 =0
4 − 2𝑟 = 0

15
 4 = 2𝑟 ; 𝑟 = 2
Now, we can substitute this in the general form equation to get:
4 4
𝑇2+1 = 𝐶2 (𝑥)4−2 (2𝑥 −1 )2 = 6(𝑥)2 (𝑥 2 ) = 6(4) = 24. Thus, the constant term in the
2
expansion of (𝑥 − 𝑥)4 is 24.

Exercise:
Q. Expand the following expressions using binomial expansion:-
1. (2𝑥 + 5)5
2. (3𝑥 + 4)7
3. (2𝑥 2 + 5)3
4. (𝑥 + 9)8
5. (7𝑥 + 2)14
2
Q. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 8 in the expansion of (𝑥 2 − 𝑥)7 .
3
Q. Find the constant term in the expansion of (4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)12 .
Q. Consider the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 where 𝑛 ≥ 3.
a. Write down the first four terms of the expansion.
The coefficients of the second, third and fourth terms of the expansion are consecutive terms of
an arithmetic sequence.
b. Show that 𝑛3 − 9𝑛2 + 14𝑛 = 0.
c. Hence find the value of n.
𝑥
Q. When (1 + 2 )𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, is expanded in ascending powers of x, the coefficient of 𝑥 3 is 70.
a. Find the value of n.
b. Hence, find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 .

PART F
Partial Fractions:

Writing a fraction in the form of partial fractions makes it easier to integrate. For now, we will
understand how to write fractions in the form of partial fractions.

Example:
2𝑥 −8
Q. Write as partial fractions.
𝑥 2 −4

A. To do this we first find simplify the denominator.

𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
We can then write it in the form shown below-

16
 2𝑥 − 8 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−2 𝑥+2
2𝑥 −8
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
= 𝐴(𝑥+2) + 𝐵(𝑥−2)
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
; We can now equate2𝑥 − 8 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2).
2𝑥 − 8 = 𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵
2(𝑥) − 8 = 𝑥(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 2𝐴 − 2𝐵 ; Thus, we can say that 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2; 2𝐴 − 2𝐵 = −8.
2𝑥 −8 3
Using the simultaneous equations we get A = -1 and B = 3. Thus we can write = −
𝑥 2 −4 𝑥+2
1
.
𝑥−2

Exercise:
20
Q. Write (2𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)as the sum of partial fractions.
𝑥−9
Q. Write 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3as the sum of partial fractions.
6𝑥 2 +𝑥−19 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Q. Write (𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)2 as the sum of partial fractions in the form + +
𝑥+3 𝑥−1 𝑥−2

Topic 2: Functions
PART A

Types of Relations:

17
The above relation is a one-to-one relation as one input corresponds to one output.

This is a one-to-many relation where one input corresponds to one or more outputs.

18
This is a many-to-one relation where many inputs correspond to the same specific output.
There are also many-to-many relations, but they are not relevant to our subject.
What is a function?
A function is a mathematical method of relating one or more inputs to a specific output.
For example: (Taking x as the input and y as the output)
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is a function as one or two x-values correspond directly to one specific y-value, however,
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 is not a function as one x-value can correspond to one or more y-values. Essentially, only
one-to-one relations and many-to-one relations are functions.
There is a simple method of verifying if a particular graph is a function: The Vertical Line test.

The graph above is given by𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and if we draw a vertical line through the graph at any x-
value, we will find that it corresponds to one specific y-value. For example, if we draw a line at
x= -2, we get a y-value of 4 and if we draw a line at x=1, we get a y-value of 1. Thus, there is a
specific output for every input.

19
Now, let us look at the graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑥

Here, if we draw a vertical line at any x-value in the graph above, it will correspond to 2 outputs.
The graph above illustrates a one-to-many relation. This is not a function as functions can only
exist as one-to-one and many-to-one relations.
Exercise:

Is this graph a function?

20
 1.

2.

PART B
Straight-Line Graphs:

There are 3 different forms of straight-line graphs.

1. y = mx + c (gradient-intercept form).
2. ax + by + d = 0 (general form).
3. y − y1 = m(x − x1) (point-gradient form).

21
For two parallel lines:
Gradient of Line 1= Gradient of Line 2
This can be simplified to be written as m1=m2

For two perpendicular lines:

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 1 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 2 = −1

PART C
Domain and Range of Functions and Inverse Functions:

The domain of a function consists of all the possible inputs/x-values that can make a function
“work” and will result in the output of real y-values. For example, the function𝑦 = √3 − 𝑥 has
the domain 𝑥 ≤ 3 as the square root of a negative number is not real.
The range of a function consists of all the possible output values that result from the substitution
of the domain into the function. For example, for the same function 𝑦 = √3 − 𝑥 , the y-
value/output is always greater than zero. Thus, the range can be written as 𝑦 ≥ 0.
The inverse of a function is a function that undoes the action of another function. Graphically,
this means that the inverse function is a reflection of the original function in the line y=x. In
order to find the inverse of a function, we must swap y and x and then try to obtain y in terms of
x again.
For example, finding the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3.
Swapping x and y:
𝑥 =𝑦+3
𝑦 =𝑥−3
Thus, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 is the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3. This same principle can be applied to all functions.
However, for the inverse of a function to be a function, the graph of the original function must
pass the Horizontal Line Test
Let us consider y = x2.

22
If we draw a horizontal line through any y-value of this graph, it will pass through 2 points. This
is a problem as we eventually swap x and y while calculating the inverse of this function and that
would give us a graph like the one shown below.

As discussed earlier, this graph is not a function and thus, the inverse of y = x2 for all x-values is
not a function.
However, the inverse of y = x2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0is a function as all horizontal lines passing through the
y-axis only pass through one output value. Thus, by restricting the domain of a function, we can
ensure that the inverse of the function is a function as well.
Exercise:
1. What is the domain and range of the function given below?

23
 2. Find the inverse of this function and state and explain whether the inverse is a function or
not.
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)4 − 4

PART D

Quadratic Functions:

A quadratic function can be expressed in 3 forms.

1. The standard form: y = ax2 + bx+ c
2. The vertex form: y = a(x-h)2+k where (h, k) is the vertex
3. The intercept form: y = a.(x-p).(x-q) where x=p and x=q where y=0, that is, p and q are
the x-intercepts.
Note- ‘a’ is the vertical stretch factor.
Converting from one form to another:

From standard form to vertex form:

There are 2 possible ways of converting equations from standard form to vertex form. The first
uses a method known as completing the square. Let us consider the equation y = x2 - 2x + 2. In
this expression, a = 1. Thus, the method can be applied immediately.
Steps:

24
 1. Take the coefficient of the middle term, in this case, 2, divide it by 2 and square it. For
this case, that gives us 1.
2. The answer from step 1 is added and subtracted on the same side of the equation. This is
done because simply adding 1 on the same side of the expression will change its
meaning, thus, to keep it the same, the same value must be subtracted on the same side
3. This gives us x2 - 2x + 2 +1 -1. Let us group together the perfect square expression,
which is (x2 - 2x +1) and simplify the other two terms. Hence, we get y = (x2 - 2x +1) +1.
4. With further simplification, we obtain the equation in the vertex form: y= (x-1)2+1.

The second method is much faster and can be used when you are more comfortable with
quadratic equations. Let us consider the same equation y = x2 - 2x + 2. Here, a =1, b=-2 and c=2.
−𝑏
To find the x-coordinate of the vertex, we can use the relation 𝑥 = .Then, we can obtain the y-
2𝑎
value of the vertex by plugging in the x-value obtained from the above relation into the equation.
Finally, we write the equation in the vertex form y = a(x-h)2+k using the values of ‘h’ and ‘k’ we
just obtained.

From vertex form to standard form:

Simple expansion of the equation is required in order to convert the vertex form to the standard
form. Considering the example of y= (x-3)2+2, we first square the term within the brackets. This
gives us x2 -6x +9 +2 and that simplifies to x2 -6x +11.

From standard form to intercept form:

y = x -3x +2. The middle term is the sum of the two zeroes and the y-intercept ‘c’ is the product
2

of the two zeroes. Thus, the two x-intercepts are x=1 and x=2 as they satisfy the two conditions
mentioned earlier.

From intercept form to standard form:

Simple expansion of the equation is required in order to convert the intercept form to the
standard form. Considering the example of y= 2(x-1)(x-2), we first open multiply the terms
within the brackets and then multiply all the terms in the simplified expression by 2. That will
give a final equation as y= 2x2 -6x+4.

From intercept form to vertex form:

Let us take the equation: 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2). We will simplify it to :𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1/2)(𝑥 + 2).
This means that x1 (the first x-intercept) =½ and x2 (the second x-intercept)= -2. Now, we shall
add up x1 and x2. This gives us -3/2. This value is also equal to -b/a. Thus, to obtain the x-value
for the vertex, we simply divide -3/2 by 2 and replace x by -¾ in our initial equation to get the y-
value of the vertex. Thus, we can rewrite the equation in the vertex form, using our calculations.

From vertex form to intercept form:

25
There are two possible methods. We can reverse the methodology mentioned above and work
backwards to obtain our equation in the intercept form. Alternatively, you can simply expand the
vertex form to obtain the standard form and then use the standard form to intercept form
conversion as mentioned earlier!
Note: Sometimes, certain equations do not have x-intercepts and we will deal with them in depth
later on.

Domain and Range of Quadratic Equations:

If we do not want to find the inverse of a quadratic function, its domain consists of the set of all
real numbers. Contrarily, if we want to find the inverse function of a quadratic function, we must
consider the x-coordinate of the vertex. If the inverse function is to be negative, then 𝑥 ≤ ℎ and if
the inverse function is to be positive, then 𝑥 ≥ ℎ. The range of quadratic equations, however,
depends on the sign of the ‘à’ value and the y-coordinate of the vertex. If 𝑎 > 0, the graph has a
minimum value and thus, the range is 𝑦 ≥ 𝑘. However, if 𝑎 < 0, the graph has a maximum value
and thus, the range is 𝑦 ≤ 𝑘.

Using the Quadratic Formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
The above formula can be used with the standard form where y = ax2 + bx+ c.
The part of this formula that is of particular interest to us is𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐

Let us understand the importance of this part, formally known as the discriminant.
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 >0, then a quadratic equation has 2 real, different roots (x-intercepts)
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 =0, then a quadratic equation has 2 real, equal roots (x-intercepts)
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐<0, then a quadratic equation has no real roots and thus, has no x-intercepts.

A very common question where utilising the discriminant is vital:

3𝑘𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑘
= 0. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒 2 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙,
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒,

Here, we utilise the discriminant: 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. We take ‘2’ as our ‘b’ value, ‘k’ as our c value and
‘3k’ as our ‘à’ value and use them to solve for the possible values of ‘k’ depending on the
presence of real roots.

Concavity:
Most functions have a type of concavity. The concavity of quadratic functions depends on the
sign of “a” in y = ax2 + bx+ c. If “a” is positive, then the function is positive and the graph of ‘f’

26
is concave up. If “a” is negative, then the function is negative and the graph of ‘f’ is concave
down.

Exercise:

Convert the following equations from the standard form to the vertex form, find its domain and
range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5
2) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
3) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 19

Convert the following equations from the vertex form to the standard form, find its domain and
range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1. 𝑦 = 3(𝑥 + 5)2 − 59/5
2. 𝑦 = 1/5 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1
3. 𝑦 = 5/2 (𝑥 − 1/2)2 + 6

Convert the following equations from the standard form to the intercept form, find its domain
and range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 36
2. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 6
3. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2

Convert the following equations from the intercept form to the standard form, find its domain
and range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1. 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 1)(x-5)
2. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1/9) (𝑥 − 3)
3. 𝑦 = 3(𝑥 + 2)(1 − 𝑥)

Convert the following equations from the intercept form to the vertex form, find its domain and
range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1. 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 1/2) (𝑥 − 3)
2. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 3)
3. 𝑦 = 8(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

Convert the following equations from the vertex form to the intercept form, find its domain and
range and simultaneously determine if the function has real roots:
1. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 1
2. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 1
3. 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1.25)2 − 6.125

27
PART E
Graphing Functions and Using Graphs to obtain key data:
Drawing a function:
Let us consider the function y=x . In order to draw the graph of y=x2, we must actually calculate
2

the y-value of the function for every x-value, plot the points on a graph paper and draw the
graph.
Sketching a function:
This is only an approximation of what the graph of a function will actually look like. For
sketching a function, some key features that must be considered are the x-intercepts (roots), y-
intercepts, which can easily be calculated. While graphing functions, another key feature that
must be considered is an asymptote. An asymptote is a value that the graph of a function keeps
on getting closer and closer to, but never quite reaches. The most common example of
asymptotes can be found in functions where ‘x’ is in the denominator. For example, let us
1
consider 𝑦 = 𝑥. At x=0, the value of y is infinite, which is not possible. Thus, the y-value
approaches negative infinity as the x-value approaches zero from the left hand side and
approaches positive infinity as the x-value approaches zero from the right hand side. This is
perfectly illustrated in the graph below.

28
Other important aspects of a graph that must be considered are the maximum and minimum
values. While some functions do not have maximum and minimum values, most do and they
must be clearly illustrated in a graph. We have previously discussed maximum and minimum
values through the vertex of a quadratic function. However, it is worth noting that the maximum
and minimum values do not always have to determine the range of the function.
Additionally, another key aspect we can find out from the graphs of functions, is their symmetry.
Referring back to quadratic functions, their axis of symmetry lies along the x-value of their
vertex as if the graph of the function is folded along that x-value, it will completely overlap.

Exercise:
Sketch the following graphs, keeping in mind the features previously discussed:

29
 1. y=(x+3)(x-2)(x+5)
2. y= -(2x+1)2
1
3. 𝑦 = 𝑥−2

PART F
Composite Functions:
A composite function treats the output of one function as the input for another. This is
represented by the notation (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) or even f(g(x)). Let us consider an example.
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3
(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)3
This clearly illustrates that (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥)is not necessarily equal to (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).
Additionally, composite functions only exist if the range of the first function is a subset of the
domain of the second function.
Another key aspect to note is that (f ∘ f -1)(x) = (f -1 ∘ f)(x) = x. This is a
direct link to the content covered in Topic 2, Part B.

Exercise:
Find the composite functions, using f(x) and g(x) as noted below, and check if the composite
function exists.
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 3
2
𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 6
1. (𝑓𝑜𝑓)(𝑥)
2. (𝑔𝑜𝑔)(𝑥)
3. (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥)
4. (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥)

PART G
Rational Functions:
𝑓(𝑥)
A rational function is any function that can be expressed as a quotient 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), g(x) is not equal
to zero, where f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions.
Steps to graph rational functions:
1. Find the x-intercept by equating f(x) to zero
2. Find the y-intercept by substituting x=0 in both f(x) and g(x)
3. Find the vertical asymptote by equating g(x) to zero
4. Find the horizontal asymptote by dividing the coefficient of x in the numerator by the
coefficient of x in the denominator

30
Some rational functions have oblique asymptotes. We can tell if a function has an oblique
asymptote if we compare the highest power in the numerator to the highest power in the
denominator. If the highest power in the numerator>highest power in the denominator, then the
function has an oblique asymptote. The Math AA syllabus only includes functions of the type

.To find the oblique asymptote, we divide the numerator by the denominator
using long division.The quotient is the oblique asymptote. Additionally, this type of rational
functions do not have horizontal asymptotes.

However, rational functions of the type have their horizontal asymptote at y=0.
This can be generalised for all functions where the degree of the numerator of f(x) is less than the
degree of the denominator. However, if there is a vertical transformation ‘b’(mentioned in Part
J), then the horizontal asymptote is y=b.
Exercise 2G:
Sketch the rational functions listed below, using the steps outlined above.
1
1. 𝑦 =
2𝑥−3
𝑥+4
2. 𝑦 =
𝑥−2
2𝑥+3
3. 𝑦 =
𝑥−1

PART H
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:
Exponential Functions are expressed in the form: f(x) = ax , a > 0, or ex.
Let us graph 2x. There is no x-intercept and there is a y-intercept at (0,1). The y-value doubles
every time the x-value increases by 1. The graph obtained is given below:

31
All exponential functions have a y-intercept at (0,1) and will approach 0 as the x-value gets
infinitely more negative as seen above. There is an exception to this rule, which will be
mentioned later on.
Logarithmic Functions are expressed in the form f(x) = logax, x > 0 or f(x) = lnx, x > 0.
Let us graph log2x. There is a x-intercept at (1,0) and there is no y-intercept. Every time the x-
value doubles, the y-value increases by 1.(exactly the opposite of 2x, or mathematically, its
inverse). The graph obtained is given below.

32
All logarithmic functions have a x-intercept at (1,0) and will approach negative infinity as the x-
value approaches 0.

Exercise 2H:
Graph the following exponential and logarithmic functions:
1. 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥)
2. 𝑦 = 4𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥)
4. 𝑦 = 1𝑥

PART I
Solving equations:
Let us try and solve the equation given below.
22𝑥 − 4. 2𝑥 + 4 = 0
There are 2 methods that can be used. Firstly, we can simply graph this function on a calculator
or a graphing software like Desmos and obtain the answer by checking the roots of the function.
Alternatively, we can equate 2x to b and rewrite the equation as a quadratic equation, which is
noted below:
𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 + 4 = 0
Once we have this equation, we can easily solve it to get the answer. Then, we can resubtitute
that value of b in its relation to 2x and get the value of x.

33
However, there are some equations that we cannot solve algebraically and thus, must use
technology to find their solution. One such equation is 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥). Here, we simply graph ex
and cos(x) and find their intersection on a calculator or graphing software.

Exercise:
Solve the following equations, either algebraically or graphically:
1. 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 4
2. 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)

PART J
Basic Transformations of Functions:
Transformations of functions are used to shift and/or resize the graphs of functions. There are 3
types of transformations that we will be looking at in depth.
1. Translations: y = f(x) + b; y = f(x − a). The first translation
mentioned, f(x)+b essentially moves the graph of a function up
or down along the y-axis. For example, if f(x)=x2 and b = -1, then the
function x2 is moved down and has a y-intercept of -1 and there is a change in the x-
intercepts as well. The second translation has the same principle, but it moves the graph
of a function left or right along the x-axis. So if a>0, the graph is translated to the right by
‘à’ units and if a<0, the graph is translated to the left by ‘à’ units. Let us consider an
example. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 .The initial graph looks like this:

However, if we want to graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) + 1, the graph we obtain is

shifted one unit to the right along the x-axis and moved up by one unit along the y-axis.
This is what the resultant graph looks like:

34
 We can apply the same principle to all functions.
2. Reflections in both axes: 𝑦 = − 𝑓(𝑥); 𝑦 = 𝑓( − 𝑥). 𝑦 = − 𝑓(𝑥)reflects the function
f(x) over the x-axis. You essentially have to fold the graph over the x-axis. Let us
consider the same example as mentioned earlier 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 1. The reflection of the
graph in the x-axis is shown alongside the original graph.

35
Now, let us look at 𝑦 = 𝑓( − 𝑥). 𝑦 = 𝑓( − 𝑥)reflects the function f(x) over the y-axis. You
essentially have to fold the graph over the y-axis. Using the same example, the reflection of the
graph in the y-axis is shown alongside the original graph.

However, there are certain functions where f(x)=f(-x). These types of functions are known as
even functions. A simple example of this is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . In this function, if we substitute ‘x’ with
‘-x’, we will get the same output function. Odd functions, on the other hand, are functions where
f(-x) = f(x). An example for this is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 . If we substitute ‘-x’ in ‘x’, we get 𝑓(−𝑥) =
−𝑥 3 which is equal to -f(x).
3. Dilations of functions: In the previous transformations, we only adjusted the ‘position’ of
the graph of the function. In this type of transformation, we will actually change the
shape of the graphs. A vertical stretch with scale factor ‘p’ is noted as y = pf(x). When
p>1, the graph is vertically stretched, that is, the graph is pulled away from the x-axis.
We find the coordinates of the graph by multiplying each of its y-coordinates by p. If
0<p<1, the graph is vertically compressed, that is, the graph is pulled towards the y-axis.
Similar to earlier, we find the coordinates of the graph by multiplying each of its y-
coordinates by p. If p<0, we first stretch the function by p and then reflect the graph
across the x-axis. Essentially, the x-intercepts of the function will stay the same but the y-
intercept will change. An example of is 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 . First, we pull the function of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 away from the x-axis by a scale factor of 2. That results in the graph shown below.

36
 Then, we reflect this graph across the x-axis and we get this resulting graph.

1
Next, we are going to look at horizontal stretches, given by y = f(qx) where 𝑞is the scale factor.
When q>1, the graph is horizontally stretched, that is, the graph is pulled away from the y-axis.
We find the coordinates of the graph by dividing each of its y-coordinates by q. If 0<q<1, the
graph is horizontally compressed, that is, the graph is pulled towards the x-axis. Similar to
earlier, we find the coordinates of the graph by dividing each of its y-coordinates by q. If q<0,
1
we first stretch the function by and then reflect the graph across the y-axis. Essentially, the x-
𝑞
intercepts will change, but the y-intercept will stay the same. Let us consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 . Let us substitute ‘x’ with ‘2x’.
The graphs are illustrated below where f(x) is in blue and f(2x) is in grey.

37
In this particular case, as the function is an even one, the graph of f(-2x) is the same as the graph
in blue.

Note- There is a particular sequence that must be followed when transforming functions as
changing the order of transformations will create different functions. The sequence is as follows:
1. Start by looking for a horizontal stretch
2. Then check for any vertical stretch
3. Check for any reflections
4. Handle any vertical or horizontal transformations

Exercise:
Note down and graph the following functions after the following transformations.
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 after it has shifted to the right by 3 units, shifted up by 2 units and vertically
stretched by a scale factor of 3.
1
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥−2after it has shifted to the left by 2, shifted up by 5 units, reflected in the x-axis
and horizontally stretched by a scale factor of 0.5.

PART K
𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)
There are 2 methods through which we can determine the values of x for which 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥).
1. Solving algebraically: Equating the two equations and solving to obtain their points of
intersection. Then, compare the functions at x-values that lie between the points of
intersection to determine which function is greater between the points of intersection. Let
us assume the graphs intersect at (m,n) and (p, q). If f(x)> g(x) between m and p, then
g(x) is greater than f(x) for x>p and x<m.
2. Solving graphically. Graph the two equations and determine their points of intersection.
Additionally, observe which graph is above the other at before, between and after their
intersections.

38
Exercise 2K:
1. Find the values of x for which 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + 2is greater than or equal to 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 5.
2. Find the values of x for which 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 is greater than or equal to 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 + 5.

PART L
Modulus and Piecewise Functions:
A modulus function is a function that has a positive output irrespective of the input. It is
mathematically represented as 𝑦 = |𝑥|. The graph of the basic modulus function is given below.

This function can be noted as a piecewise function as well. A piecewise function is a function
that is defined for a particular set of intervals. For the modulus function, the piecewise function
is given by the following:

Exercise:
Graph the following functions:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = |𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4|

39
 2.

3.
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = |3(𝑥 − 2)3 − 1|

PART M
Advanced Transformations of Functions:
Some transformations of functions that are vital in Math AA HL are:
1
y = f(|x|), 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), y = [f(x)]2
Let us look at the first one. y = f(|x|). This function reflects the graph to the right of the y-axis in
the y-axis while ignoring the original left-hand side of the graph.
Eg- 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑓(|𝑥|) = 𝑒 |𝑥| . The original graph and the transformed graph are shown below, in
green and blue respectively.

1
Next, is the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Here, we must take the reciprocal of each y-value of the original
function. Let us consider a different example. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1.

40
 1
The original function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is in orange and the transformed function 𝑦 = is in blue.
𝑓(𝑥)
For these transformations, we must use our learnings from rational functions in order to find the
asymptotes of the function and use any y-values of the original function to help understand the
shape of this function.
Finally, let’s look at y = [f(x)]2. The output of this function is all positive as the square of any
number is positive. Let us consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2. [f(x)]2 will be (4𝑥 2 +
2𝑥 − 2 )2 . The original and transformed function will be shown below in grey and green
respectively.

41
 Exercise:
Apply the 3 transformations discussed above on the functions given below.
1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−3
𝑥 2 +6𝑥+8
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥−1 − 7
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1

PART N
Polynomial Functions:
What is a polynomial?

What is the difference between the zeroes and the roots of a polynomial function?

42
A zero of a polynomial is a value of the variable, which makes the polynomial equal to zero.
The roots of a polynomial equation are the solution to the equation.

Complex, Conjugate Roots Theorem:

This theorem states that complex roots are always found in pairs. Simply put, if we find, or are
given, one complex root, we can easily obtain the other root. Similar to radical conjugates, the
roots are normally of the form 𝑎 ± 𝑏𝑖. The most important aspect that must be remembered when
dealing with this theorem is that i2 is equal to -1 as 𝑖 = √−1. Additionally, in a quadratic
equation, if one of the roots of the equation is a+bi, the other root must be a-bi, as the
coefficients of x in the quadratic equation must be real.

Example:
3+i is a zero of 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where a and b are real numbers. Find a and b

As it is given that 3+i is one of the zeroes, we can easily deduce that the other zero is 3-i. To find
the values of a and b, we use the expansion method. We multiply (x-3-i) by (x-3+i) and after
expansion, we compare the coefficient of x to ax and the y-intercept to b and derive that they are
equal.

Remainder and Factor Theorem:

The remainder theorem states that for a polynomial f(x), the remainder of f(x) upon division by
x-c is f(c).
The factor theorem states that if we let f(x) be a polynomial such that f(c)=0 for some constant
‘c’. Then x-c is a factor of f(x). Conversely, if x-c is a factor of f(x), then f(c)=0

Example:
(2x+1) and (x-2) are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 8. Find constants a and b and
4

all zeros of P(x)

1
We substitute 𝑥 = − 2and x=2 in the function p(x) and get two equations in terms of a and b. We
then solve them simultaneously. Once we have obtained the values of a and b, we utilise them to
divide the function by (2x+1) and (x-2) in order to get a quadratic. We do this using either long
division or synthetic division.
Steps for synthetic division:
1. We need to find at least one factor of the function we are trying to simplify. This can be
done by substituting a range of x-values in the function p(x), normally from -3<x<3.
2. Once we have found the factor, we draw a line on a paper and write the factor on the left
hand side and the coefficients of x on the right, in descending order of the power it is

43
 raised to.
3. Then, bring the leading coefficient (first number) straight down.
4. Multiply the number in the division box with the number you brought down and put the
result in the next column
5. Add the two numbers together and write the result in the bottom of the row
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until you have reached the last term and write the final answer.
7. The final answer is made up of the numbers in the bottom row with the last number being
the remainder and the remainder must be written as a fraction. The variables or x’s start
off one power less than the original denominator and go down one with each term.
Once we have the quadratic, we can use the quadratic formula to obtain the other roots.
Note- Complex conjugates can too be utilised with the factor theorem and having complex roots
is always helpful as we automatically know two of the roots of the function.

Sum and Product of the Roots:

In simple terms:
−𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
The sum of the roots of a polynomial function= .
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
(−1)𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The product of the roots of a polynomial function= .
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

Graphing cubic and quartic functions:

The first important thing that we must consider is the general shape of the graph of a cubic
function. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 has the shape given below when a>0

And when a<0, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 has the shape given below.

44
As a increases, the graph of y becomes steeper. Using our learnings from transformations, we
recognise that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑏)3 + 𝑐 is produced by translating the original graph of y
by b units to the right/left and c units upwards/downwards. All cubic polynomials have at least
one real zero and thus, must cut the x-axis at least once. Here is some additional information
about the zeroes of cubic polynomials which will be immensely helpful in graphing them.

For a cubic of the form 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽)(𝑥 − 𝛾)where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑅, the graph has three
distinct x-intercepts corresponding to the three distinct roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾.

For a cubic of the form 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)2 (𝑥 − 𝛽)where 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑅,the graph touches the x-axis at
𝛼 and 𝛽.

For a cubic of the form 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)3 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅,the graph has only one x-intercept, 𝛼. The
graph is horizontal at this point.

45
For a cubic in the form 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)where the discriminant is negative,
there is only one x-intercept, 𝛼.

For quartic polynomials, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 4 .If a > 0, the graph opens upwards and if a<0, the graph opens
downwards.
If a quartic is factored into real linear factors then:

46
 Exercise:
1. Find all real quartic polynomials with zeros:
a. -1, 2, 1 ± √5
b. 3 ± 𝑖, ±√13
c. ±𝑖√5, 2, 9
2. Show that 𝑥 4 + 16 is divisible by two real quadratic factors that have the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 +
4 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 4, but cannot be divided into two real quadratic factors that have the
form 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 8and 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2.
3. When P(x) is divided by x2-2x-3, the quotient is x2+3x+2 and the remainder R(x) is
unknown. When P(x) is divided by x-3, the remainder is 12. When P(x) is divided by x-2,
the remainder is 80. Find R(x) in the form ax+b
4. 3+i is a root of 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0. Find a and b and deduce the other roots
of the equation.
5. A real quartic polynomial has a leading coefficient of 3 and constant term 20. Its zeros
exist in the form 2𝑎 ± 𝑖 and 5 ± 𝑎 where a is a real number. Find the possible values of a.
6. Find the equation of the quartic whose graph:
1
a. Touches the x-axis at 2 and cuts the x-axis at -3 and 4and passes through the point
(-2, -14)
2 1
b. Cuts the x-axis at ± 5and 3and passes through the point (-3, 5)
c. Passes through (-4, 14), (9,5), (-2,1) and (4,3)

IB Questions:
1. (Non-Calculator) The function g(x) is defined by g(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 8x - 24 where
x∈R
(a) Find the remainder when g(x) is divided by
(i) (x - 2)
(ii) (x - 3).
(b) Prove that g(x) has only one real zero.
(c) Write down the transformation that will transform the graph of y = g(x) onto the graph
of y = 8x3 - 12x2 + 16x - 24.
2. (Non-Calculator) Consider the following two functions:
2𝑥 2 + 3
𝑏(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≥ 0.
75
|3𝑥 − 4|
𝑐(𝑥) = , 𝑥𝜖𝑅
10
(a) State the range of b(x) and c(x) and graph the two functions.
𝑝𝑥 2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟
(b) Find an expression for the composite function (𝑏𝑜𝑐)(𝑥) in the form where p ,
3750

47
 q and r are integers.
(c) (i) Find an expression for the inverse term 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
(ii) State the domain and range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and graph the function.
3. (With Calculator) Find the set of values of x for which |0.1x2-2x+3|=log10(x)
4. The functions p and q are defined by 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐and 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + 𝑒𝑥 +
𝑓, 𝑥𝜖𝑅 where a, b, c, d, e, and f are real constants.
a. Given that p(x) is an even function, show that b=0.
b. Given that q(x) is an even function, find the value of f.
c. The function r(x) is both even and odd, with domain R. Find h(x).
𝑥+𝑎 −𝑐
5. The function g(x) is of the form 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏𝑥+𝑐 , 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 .given that the graph
𝑏
2
of f has asymptotes x = −4 and y = −2 , and that the point (3,1) lies on the
graph, find the values of a , b and c .
6. (Non-Calculator)
7
a. Sketch on the same axes the curve 𝑦 = |𝑥−4|and the line y=x+2, clearly indicating
any axes intercepts and any asymptotes.
7
b. Find the exact solutions to the equation 𝑥 + 2 = |𝑥−4|
7. The quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 + (𝑘 − 1) = 0 has roots 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 such that 𝛼2 + 𝛽 2 =
4. Without solving the equation, find the possible values of the real number k.
8. In the quadratic equation 7𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0, 𝑝𝜖𝑄, one root is three times the other. Find
the value of p.
9. Let r(x)= ln(x). The graph of r(x) is transformed into the graph of the function s by a
translation of 3 units to the right and 2 units downwards, followed by a reflection in the x-
axis. Find an expression for s(x), giving your answer as a single logarithm.
10. Find the values of k such that the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 𝑘 has 3 distinct real
solutions.
11. (With Calculator)The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥)is transformed into the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(2𝑥 +
1).
a. Describe the two transformations that are required to do so
b. Solve 𝑙𝑛(2𝑥 + 1) > 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥), 𝑥𝜖[0,10].
1
12. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2 , 𝑥𝜖𝑅, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 2 𝑜𝑟 − 1.
a. Express x2+3x+2 in the form (x+h)2+k
b. Factorise x2+3x+2
c. Sketch the graph of f(x), indicating on it the equations of the asymptotes, the
coordinates of the y-intercept and the local maximum.
1 1 1
d. Show that 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2 = 𝑥+1 − 𝑥+2
e. Sketch the graph of f(|x|).

48
Topic 3: Geometry and Trigonometry
PART A
Distance, 3D Volume, Surface Area:

Distance between 2 points in 3-Dimensional Space:

𝐷 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

49
Midpoint of 2 points in 3-Dimensional Space:
𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1
𝑀=( , , )
2 2 2

Volume and Surface Area of 3-D Solids:

Square Pyramid:
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑏 2 ℎ
3
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏 2 + 2𝑏𝑠

Right Circular Cone:

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑙

Sphere:
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Hemisphere:
2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟 2

IB Questions:

50
51
52
53
PART B
Right-Angled and Non Right-Angled Trigonometry:

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

Sine Rule:

Cosine Rule:

Or

Area of a triangle using sine:

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
2

Exercise 3B:
Find X:

54
 1.

2.

3.

PART C

55
 Applications of Right and Non Right-Angled Trigonometry:
Now, we will look at the applications of Right and Non Right-Angled Trigonometry. The
applications include bearings, angle of elevation and angle of depression.

Exercise:
1. A flagpole is held up by 3 wires as given in the diagram below.
a. Calculate angle ADB
b. Determine the area of 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵
c. Determine the angle of elevation of the peak of the tower from point C
d. Prove that 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 is not a right-angled triangle.

2. Quadrilateral ABCD is given below.

a. Find the length of AC
b. Find angle BAC
c. Calculate the size of ACD
d. Find the length of AD
e. Determine the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.

3. A ship leaves Jeju with a bearing of 030° and travels a distance of 250 km to Shanghai.
At point B, the ship shifts direction with a bearing of 130°. It then travels a distance of
434 km to reach Nagasaki. Determine the bearing and distance for the ship to return from
Nagasaki to Jeju.

56
PART D
Radian measure of angles, Length of an arc, and Area of a sector:

Radians are an alternative way of measuring angles.

One radian is equal to the angle that is formed when an arc opposite the angle has the same
length as the radius of a circle. It is illustrated in a more simple manner below:

Converting between radians and degrees:

180
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

Length of an arc:
In degrees, the length of an arc is equal to:
𝜃
𝑙= × 2𝜋𝑟
360
Converting to radians:
𝑙 = 𝜃𝑟

Area of a sector:
In degrees, the area of a sector is equal to:
𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟 2
360
Converting to radians:
𝐴 = 𝜃𝑟 2

Exercise:
1. Find the length of the arc and the area of the sector:

57
a.

b.

c.

IB Questions:

58
PART E
Unit Circle:
The equation of a unit circle is as follows: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.

59
 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
r =1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Thus, we can deduce (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 = 1
2

Note: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1.
Thus, we can conclude that −1 ≤ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≤ 1. This will be very important
when we graph these functions.

60
Now, we can understand where a trigonometric function is positive.

A point in the first quadrant is given by (x, y), thus, both 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 will be positive and as,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
tan𝜃is 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, it too is positive.
A point in the second quadrant is given by (-x, y), thus, while 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is positive, both 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and
tan𝜃are negative.
A point in the third quadrant is given by (-x, -y), thus, both 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 will be negative and
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
as, tan𝜃is 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, it is positive.
A point in the second quadrant is given by (x, -y), thus, while 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is positive, both 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and
tan𝜃are negative.
This concept can be remembered by a simple phrase: All Silver Tea Cups.

61
We need to know the values of the unit circle. The diagram below illustrates all the important
ones.

While this may seem confusing, there is an easier method. We only need to learn the sine and
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
cosine values in the first quadrant and use ‘All Silver Tea Cups’ and the relation tan𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃to get
everything else.
Necessary sine and cosine values:
𝜋
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1
𝜋
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 0
𝜋 1 𝜋
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 = 2. This is also equal to cos60 and cos 3.
𝜋 √3 𝜋
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 = . This is also equal to sin60 and sin3.
2
𝜋 𝜋 √2
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 = .
2

Other important relations:

1
1. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Trigonometric Identities:

Supplementary Angles:
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(180 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(180 − 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Negative Angles:
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Complementary Angles:
𝜋
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜋 1
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 2 − 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

These identities are very important for simplifying various sums in the IB Syllabus and we will
solve some of them together.

62
 Example:
2𝜋 7𝜋
Evaluate (𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 )2 − (𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 )2 .
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 √3 3
We know that 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Thus 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 = . Thus, its square is 4.
3 3 2
𝜋 7𝜋
We can easily deduce that 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 = 1. lies in the 4th quadrant and the tan function is negative in
4
7𝜋
that quadrant. Thus, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −1. Hence, its square is 1. Therefore, the above expression
4
simplifies to:
3 −1
−1= .
4 4

Note- The equation of a straight line through the origin is y = xtanθ, where θ is the angle formed
between the line and positive x-axis.
Exercise 3E:

1.
2. Solve:
a. 4(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 − 3 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
b. 2(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2 -5=0, -2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
3 3
3. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = − 5 , 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝜋, find (hint, draw a right angled triangle to help yourself out)
a. cosx
b. tanx
c. cos(𝜋-x)
d. tan(2𝜋-x)
e. cotx
f. secx
g. cosecx
𝜋
h. cosec(2-x)
𝜋
i. sec(2+x)

63
PART F
Trigonometric Identities and Double Angle Formula:
Important Trigonometric Identities:
1. (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 = 1
2. (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)2 + 1 = (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃)2
3. (𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)2 + 1 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃)2
Double Angle Formulae:
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)2 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 = 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)2 − 1 = 1 − 2(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 = 1−(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2

Exercise:
−7
1. If x is acute and 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = , find
9
a. Cosx
b. Sinx
c. Tanx
21
2. Find the exact value of tanA if 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴 = 20and A is obtuse.
3. Prove that:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
a. = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
b. (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)4 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
c. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
d. − = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
4. Solve for x, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
b. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0
c. 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
d. 2(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
e. 3(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2 − 13𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 4 = 0. (𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 22𝑥 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠. )

PART G
Graphing and Modelling Trigonometric Functions:
Graphing Trigonometric Functions:
The graph of sin(x) is given below for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋:

64
As sin(x) is a periodic function, the function exists in a similar manner for 𝑥𝜖𝑅.

The graph of cos(x) is given below for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

As cos(x) is a periodic function, the function exists in a similar manner for 𝑥𝜖𝑅.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
However, tan𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. Thus, the function has a vertical asymptote (discussed in topic 2) whenever
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
cos𝜃is equal to zero, which is at 𝑥 = 2 , − 2 , ,− , . ..Essentially, there are vertical asymptotes
2 2
𝜋
at 𝑥 = 2 (2𝑛 + 1), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝜖𝑍.
𝜋
Thus, the graph of tan𝜃is given by the following for0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋, 𝑥 ≠ 2 (2𝑛 + 1) :

65
The equation for a general sine function is given by the following:
f(x) = asin(b(x + c)) + d, where a is the amplitude of the function, b is the period, c is the
horizontal translation and d is the vertical translation. The amplitude is the difference between
the mean position of the graph and its highest/lowest point. The period of a trigonometric
function is the minimum time it takes for a function to return from its mean position after
reaching a maximum and a minimum. The period of the most simple sine graph, y=sinx, is 2𝜋.
2𝜋
Here, B=1, thus, we can conclude that 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = .Similar to a sine function, the period of a
𝐵
2𝜋
cosine function is and its amplitude is the difference between the mean position of the graph
𝐵
and its highest/lowest point. Additionally, the range of basic sine and cosine functions is −1 ≤
𝑦 ≤ 1. However, the range of tan function is 𝑦𝜖𝑅. Moreover, the period of the most simple tan
𝜋
function is 𝜋. Thus, its period in general is given by 𝐵.”à” for a tan function is not the amplitude,
rather, it is the vertical stretch of the function.

Note:- We can convert sine and cosine graphs to each other very easily. In the most basic sine
𝜋
function, it can be transformed to a cosine function by a horizontal translation by 2units to the
left.

Modelling Trigonometric Functions:

Example:

66
 1. Given below is a table that has recorded the average monthly temperatures for a city in
India.

a. Plot the given data on a graph, taking the months as x-values (For example,
Jan=1, Feb=2 and so on)
b. This data can be modelled by a trigonometric function in the form T= asin(b(x +
c)) + d. Without using technology, estimate the values of
i. b
ii. a
iii. d
iv. c
c. Check how well your model fits the data using technology.
The first subpart is quite simple and just requires attention to detail while graphing. Next,
roughly connect the points in a form resembling a trigonometric function and then analyse the
graph to roughly estimate the period of the graph. To determine the amplitude a, we must look at
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚−𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
the maximum and minimum temperature. 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = .The vertical
2
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚+𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
translation is given by 𝑑 = . Finally, with only one variable left (c), we can
2
simply use substitution to get its value.

Exercise:
𝑥
1. For the function 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛( 4 ) + 2, find the following:
a. Amplitude
b. Period
c. Range
2. Sketch the following functions for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3𝜋:
𝜋
a. 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 + 3 ) − 1
b. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 5
c. 𝑦 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛(2𝑥 − 𝜋) − 2
3. State the transformations which transform:
𝜋
a. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2(𝑥 − 4 ) + 2
1 1 2
b. 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛(2 (𝑥 + 𝜋)) + 5
4. On a June day in London, the maximum temperature is 18.7 °C occurs at 1:30 pm and the
minimum temperature is 4.5°C. Suggest a cosine function that can model the temperature
for that day, where T is the temperature and t is the hours after midnight.

67
PART H
Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions and Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

Thus, from the unit circle:

1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐵𝐹
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑂𝐹
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶
4. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑂𝐶
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑂𝐺
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝐸𝐺

Sketching reciprocal functions:

𝜋 3𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋: (It has vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 2 , 2

68
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋: (It has vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋)

We can easily deduce the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, using our learning from 𝑦 =
1
in advanced transformations in functions.
𝑓(𝑥)

Sketching inverse trigonometric functions:

69
Let us first start with 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

Domain𝜖[−1,1]
𝜋 𝜋
Range𝜖 [− 2 , 2 ]

Now, let us move onto 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑖𝑒, (𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

Domain 𝜖[−1,1]
Range𝜖[0, 𝜋]

Finally, we will look at the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥, 𝑖𝑒, (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥)

Domain: 𝐷𝜖𝑅
𝜋 𝜋
Range: 𝑅𝜖]− 2 , 2 [

70
 Exercise:
1. Simplify:
𝜋
a. arccos(cos 3)
𝜋
b. arcsin(sin− 4 )
4𝜋
c. arctan(tan 3 )
2. Find the other 5 trigonometric ratios if
2 3𝜋
a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) = − 3 , < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
2
5 3𝜋
b. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) = 3 , 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2
3 𝜋
c. 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) = − 1 , 2 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

PART I
Compound Angle Identities:

Exercise:
5 1
1. Determine exactly the tangent of the acute angle between 2 lines with gradients 3and 7
2. If √2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝑎 < 2𝜋 .
3. We know that sinB=cosA+cosC. Prove that triangle ABC is right-angled.
6 3
4. If 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 7and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 = 4, find the exact value of tanA.

IB Questions:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
1. Prove that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴
2. In triangle ABC, 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 = 6and 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 1
1
a. Prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 2
b. Show that angle CAB can have only one value
3. The diagram below illustrates the triangle ABC where AB=2, 𝐴𝐶 = √2,and angle
BAC=15°

71
 a. Expand and simplify (1 − √3)2
b. By writing 15° as 60°-45°, determine the value of cos(15°)
c. Determine the value of BC in the form 𝑎 + √𝑏 , where a, b ∈ 𝑍
𝜋 𝜋
4. The first 3 terms of a geometric sequence are sinx, sin2x, 4sinx(cosx)2, − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 .
a. Find the common ratio r
b. Find the set of values of x for which geometric series sinx+sin2x+
4sinx(cosx)2+.. converges
1 √15
c. Let 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4) , 𝑥 > 0. Show that the sum to infinity of this series is .
2
5. Obtain all the solutions for the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 360°
𝜋 3
6. Given that 2 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = − 4,find the value of sin2x.
7. In triangle ABC, angle ABC=90°, 𝐴𝐶 = √2, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 + 1.
1
a. Prove that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 =
√2
b. By squaring both sides of the equation in part a, solve the equation to find the
angles in the triangle
c. Use Pythagoras theorem in triangle ABC to get BC, and hence, prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 =
√6−√2
4
d. Hence, or otherwise, calculate the length of the perpendicular from B to [AC]
8. (With Calculator)
a. Solve the equation 3(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)2 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 4 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒0 < 𝑥 < 180°, expressing
your answer to the nearest degree
b. Determine the exact value of sec x that satisfy the equation 3(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)4 −
8(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2 + 4 = 0,
9. (Without Calculator)
𝜋
a. Sketch the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥and 𝑦 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 .
b. Find the x-coordinates of the point of intersection of the two graphs for the same
domain given above.

72
Topic 4: Calculus
PART A
Differentiation:

Finding the derivative of a particular function means finding the rate of change of one variable
with respect to the other. The rate of change can be defined as the average rate of change, or the
instantaneous rate of change.
Note:- The slope of an equation is also known as the rate of change of the dependent variable
with respect to the independent variable.
Using the examples below we will understand what exactly this means.

a. b.

To find the average rate of change from A to B for example in question (a) we can find the slope
of the line using the two points. A(1,2) and B(3,3).
3−2 1
Slope = = ; Another way to look at it would be that we rise 1 up and run 2 to the right.
3−1 2
This gives us the rate of change from A to B. Similarly, in the (b) we can use the same logic to
calculate the rate of change from A(-2,1) to B(3,3). It would be :-
3−1 2
Slope:- =
3−(−2) 5
Finding the instantaneous rate of change, would mean finding the rate of change of ‘y’ with
respect to ‘x’ at that particular x value. The example below illustrated the same.

73
 2a. To find the instantaneous rate of change at 𝑥 =
−1, we draw a tangent at that point, and find its slope.
By choosing two suitable points (1,-1) and (3,7) we
can find the slope.
7−(−1) 8
Slope:- = 2 = 4To find the instantaneous rate of
3−1
change at 𝑥 = 2, we find the slope of the tangent using
two suitable points (0,1) and (-2,-1).
−1−1
Slope:- =1
−2

Derivatives can be found using the first principle’s

method as well. The first principle’s method suggests that :
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
Let us take an example to prove the following.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + ℎ2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ (2𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥 + ℎ
ℎ→0
𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 0 = 2𝑥

Therefore, the derivative of 𝑥 2 is 2𝑥. For now let us use the concept of limits, which will be
explained in detail at a later stage of the guide.

Usually, in order to understand derivatives fully it is imperative to understand that the derivative
of a function can be used to find the gradient of the tangent to any curve at that particular point.
For example, find the gradient of the tangent to:
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 at the point (2,8)
The following is solved by first, finding the derivative of the function and then plugging in the
value of ‘x’ to find the gradient of the tangent at x = 2. So, using the first principle’s method:

74
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
(𝑥 + ℎ)3 − 𝑥 3
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 + 3𝑥 ℎ + 3ℎ2 𝑥 + ℎ3 − 𝑥 3
3 2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(3𝑥 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 )
2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
2
ℎ→0
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥(0) + 0 = 3𝑥 2
Now that we know that 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 ,we can substitute 2 in place of ‘x’ to get 𝑓′(2)= 3(4) = 12.
The gradient of the tangent at x = 2 is 12.

Q. Using the first principle’s method find the gradient of the tangent to :
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥, at (1,2)
4
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, at (2,5)

After we perform the same calculation over and over again for similar functions we can
generalise a set of rules for differentiation.

The Derivative of 𝑥 𝑛 : 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Below are some of the many common derivatives of different types of functions.

75
 𝑐 𝑑𝑦 1
Q. Suppose 𝑦 = where c and d are constants. When 𝑐 = 3, 𝑑 = 1and 𝑑𝑥 = − 8,find c and d.
√1+𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Q. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑐𝑥 − 𝑥 )3 . Given that 𝑓(1.5) = 3and 𝑓′(1.5) = 30, find c and d.

However, it does not end here. To find the derivative for functions that are products of two
functions or are the result of one function being divided by another, we have the ‘Product’ and
‘Quotient’ rule. Also, one of the most important parts of differentiation is the chain rule. The
chain rule suggests that while differentiation a function that has several functions in composite, if
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑢), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 ; the derivative of the outer function multiplied by
the derivative of the inner function. The three rules are shown below.

76
 Product Rule

Example:
Q. Find the derivative of :
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Let,
𝑢 = 𝑥2 ; 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑥 ; = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Then,
𝑓′(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + (2𝑥 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Quotient Rule

Example:
𝑑𝑦
Q. Use the quotient rule to find 𝑑𝑥 if
1 + 3𝑥
𝑦=
2−𝑥
Let,
𝑢 = 1 + 3𝑥 ; 𝑣 =2−𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=3 ; = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(2 − 𝑥) × 3 − (1 + 3𝑥) × −1 6𝑥 + 7
𝑓′(𝑥) = =
(2 − 𝑥)2 (2 − 𝑥)2

Chain Rule

Example:
Q. Differentiate with respect to x:

77
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 )
To solve such questions we need to make use of the chain rule. We first take the derivative of the
outer function, which in this case in 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, and then multiply it by the derivative of the inner
function 𝑥 2 .
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 2 )(2𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 2 )
Exercise:
Q. Find the following:-
𝑑 4𝑥
1. ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−5
𝑑 𝑥2
2. (− )
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 +3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
3. 𝑥
4. 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)
7. 𝑥√𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝜋 𝑥
8. The point P has y-coordinate 6, and lies on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 3 ).
Find the coordinates of P
Find the gradient of tangent to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at P.
9. 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
10. 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1))

Second and Higher Order Derivatives

Taking the second order derivative means differentiating the first derivative, or differentiating
the function twice. If we were to find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative, it would mean differentiating the
function 𝑛times.
Exercise:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Q. If 𝑦 = 2𝑒 3𝑥 + 5𝑒 4𝑥 ,show that 𝑑𝑥 2 − 7 𝑑𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 0.
𝑑2 𝑦
Q. If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3),show that 𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 = 0.
𝑑4 𝑦
Q. If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥,show that 𝑑𝑥 4 = 𝑦.
Q. If 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, show that 𝑦′′ + 𝑦 = 0.
Q. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) .Find:
I. 𝑓′(𝑥)
II. 𝑓′′(𝑥)
III. 𝑓′′′(𝑥)
IV. 𝑓 (4) (𝑥)
V. Hence form a general formula for 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥), 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + .

78
 Implicit Differentiation

The process of finding the derivative of a dependent variable in an implicit function by

differentiating each term separately, by expressing the derivative of the dependent variable as a
symbol, and by solving the resulting expression for the symbol.

Example:
𝑑𝑦
Q. Find 𝑑𝑥 if
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25
b) 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 1
To solve this we need to carry out implicit differentiation in the following manner:-
𝑑𝑦
a) 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
Once we different each of the terms with respect to ‘x’, we must rewrite it to make 𝑑𝑥 the subject
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
of the formula. Therefore, for a) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
b) 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦(𝑑𝑥 ) = 0 ; = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Exercise:
𝑑𝑦
Q. Find 𝑑𝑥 if
1. 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑛(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑦
3. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 2𝑦
4. The graph shows the relation (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .
a) Find the axes intercepts.
b) Find the coordinates of all points on the graph at which the tangent is horizontal.

Q. An ellipse has the equation 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 48. Find the coordinates of the points on the ellipse
such that the normal at those points passes through (0,2).

Properties of Curves

79
 1. Tangents and Normals

As mentioned before one of the key properties of differentiation is to find the equation of a
tangent to a curve. The normal at that point is simply perpendicular to the tangent, and can be
calculated since the slope of the normal is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent.

Example:

Q. Find the equation of the tangent to:

1
a) 𝑦 = at 𝑥 = − 3
√3−2𝑥
To do this we must differentiate the equation with respect to ‘x’.
−1 3
𝑦′ = (3 − 2𝑥)−2 × −2 = (3 − 2𝑥)−1.5
2
After this has been done, we must substitute -3 with ‘x’ to find the slope of tangent at x = -3.
1
𝑦′ = (3 − 2(−3))−1.5 =
27
We know the slope of the tangent, however we need the equation in the form y = mx + c. We
now substitute 3 in the function to obtain its corresponding ‘y’ value.
1 1 1
𝑦= = 3, therefore (-3,3) lies on the curve. Now, we can obtain the equation of the
√3−2(−3)
tangent by doing:-
1 1
𝑦 − 3 = 27 (𝑥 + 3)

Example:
Q. Find the equation of another tangent to 𝑦 = 1 − 3𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 3 which is parallel to the
tangent at (1,2).
In order to solve this, we first differentiate with respect to ‘x’.
𝑑𝑦
= −3 + 24𝑥 − 24𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Slope of tangent = −3 + 24(1) − 24(1) = −3
−3 + 24𝑥 − 24𝑥 2 = − 3
24𝑥(1 − 𝑥) = 0
𝑥 = 1; 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = 1, was already given to us, however the second answer we obtained is the key to answering
the question.
At x = 0, we need to find the corresponding ‘y’ value.
𝑦 = 1 − 3(0) + 12(0)2 − 8(0)3 = 1; (0,1)
Now we can determine the equation of the tangent since we have the slope and a point on the
tangent. Thus, the equation would be
𝑦 − 1 = −3(𝑥 − 0)

80
 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 1

Find a and b.
To solve this question we first equate both
the equations to get an equation in a and b.
𝑥 + 2 = 𝑎 √𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
6 = 2𝑎 + 4𝑏
3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏→ Eq 1

We know that the slope of the tangent to the curve at x = 4 is 1, since the coefficient of x in 𝑦 =
𝑥 + 2is 1. Therefore, we can find another equation in terms of a and b.

𝑦 = 𝑎√𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎
= +𝑏
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
Slope of the tangent at x = 4 is 1.
𝑎
1= +𝑏
2(2)
𝑎 + 4𝑏 = 4→ Eq 2
Using these two simultaneous equations we can find the value of a and b.
𝑎 = 4 − 4𝑏
𝑎 = 3 − 2𝑏
4 − 4𝑏 = 3 − 2𝑏
1 1
1 = 2𝑏; 𝑏 = 2and therefore 𝑎 = 4 − 4(2) = 2; 𝑎 = 2

Exercise:
Q. Consider the curve 𝑦 = 𝑎√1 − 𝑏𝑥 where a and b are constants. The tangent to this curve at
the point where 𝑥 = −1is 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5.Find the values of a and b.
Q. Find the exact area of the shaded triangle.

81
 2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions

If 𝑓(𝑥)is increasing then 𝑓′(𝑥) ≥ 0and a function 𝑓(𝑥)is decreasing when 𝑓′(𝑥) ≤ 0.

Example:
3 2
Q. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 10.
a. Find 𝑓′(𝑥), and draw its sign diagram.
b. Find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥)is increasing or decreasing.

Note:- A sign diagram is very useful in determining the behaviour of a function.

a. First we find the derivative of the function which is:-
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥

82
After we find the derivative we need to draw its sign diagram. To draw the sign diagram we must
find the turning points. These are found by equating the derivative to 0.
3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 = 0
3𝑥(𝑥 − 4) = 0
𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 = 4
We substitute a point smaller than 0 in the derivative and a value of ‘x’ greater than 4 in the
derivative, and a value between 0 and 4. If the value is positive we put a +𝑣𝑒 sign and if the
value is negative we put −𝑣𝑒 sign. For example the sign diagram for the above derivative is the
following:

b. To answer this we need to carefully observe the sign diagram. We know that if the
derivative is positive, the function is increasing and if it is negative, it is decreasing.
Therefore the function is increasing when x > 4 and x < 0, and the function is negative
when 0 < x < 4.
Exercise:

Q. Find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing or decreasing:-

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2
2
b) 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
4𝑥
Q. Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1
−4(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
a) Show that 𝑓′(𝑥) = and draw its sign diagram
(𝑥 2 +1)2
b) Hence find intervals where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)is increasing or decreasing.

3. Stationary Points

Although you did not know what stationary points were, in the previous sums we have been
finding them all along. A stationary point of a function is a point where 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0. It could be a
local maximum or a local minimum or a point of inflection.
Note:- At a stationary point the tangent is horizontal (gradient = 0).
The diagram below explains what these three terms mean and the respective sign diagram for
each of them.

83
 Example:

Q. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 40is shown. P and Q are stationary points.
a) Classify points P and Q.
b) Find 𝑓′(𝑥)
c) Find the coordinates P and Q
A. From our knowledge from functions we can classify point P as a maximum and point Q
as a minimum. We can derive that 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 15. Since stationary points are
points at which the derivative is 0, to find the coordinates of points P and Q we equate the
derivative to 0.
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 15 = 0. This gives us 𝑥 = −5 ; 𝑥 = 1. To find the corresponding y
values we simply substitute the x values in the 𝑓(𝑥).

Q. Consider the function 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 − 7.

a) Find 𝑔′(𝑥),and draw its sign diagram.
b) Find intervals where the function is increasing and decreasing
c) Find and classify any stationary points
d) Sketch the graph 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)showing the features you have found
e) Describe the behaviour of the function as 𝑥 → ∞and as 𝑥 → −∞

84
We begin by differentiating the function: 𝑔′(𝑥) = −6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 18. To draw the sign diagram
we equate the derivative to 0.
−6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 18 = 0
𝑥 = 3; 𝑥 = −1

Then we need to find the intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing. For this we
need to see the sign diagram. Since the derivative is positive between -1 and 3, that is when the
function is increasing. Since the derivative is negative when x > 3 and x < -1 it is decreasing
during that time. Stationary points are when the derivative is equal to 0. Thus, the x-coordinate
of the stationary points have already been determined: 𝑥 = 3; 𝑥 = −1. To find the corresponding
‘y’ values we have the substitute them in 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥). To classify them we need to observe the
sign diagram again. If at x = a the sign goes from negative to positive there is a local minimum at
that point, and if at x = a the sign goes from positive to negative there is a local maximum at that
point. However, if the sign is the same it is a point of inflection. Therefore, since the sign
changes from negative to positive at x = - 1, there is a local minimum at that point, and because
the sign changes from positive to negative at x = 3, there is a local maximum at that point.

Using the properties of the graph that we obtained we can easily sketch the above graph. Lastly,
as 𝑥 → ∞we see that the graph is going in the downward direction where 𝑦 → −∞.and as 𝑥 →
−∞in the second quadrant we see that the graph is moving in the upward direction where 𝑦 →
+∞.

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 Exercise:
Q. For each of the functions find and classify any stationary points. Sketch the function, showing
all the important features.
a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3
b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
Q. The cubic polynomial 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 touches the line with the equation 𝑦 =
9𝑥 + 2at the point (0,2) and has a stationary point at (-1,-7). Find 𝑄(𝑥).
Q. Find the greatest and least value of
a) 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 − 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5
𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1
Q. Prove that ≤ 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 > 0.
𝑥
Q. Consider the relation 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑦.
𝑑𝑦
a) Find 𝑑𝑥 .
b) Find the equation of the normal to the equation at A.
c) Find the exact coordinates of the stationary points.

4. Shape

: we say that the curve is concave down

Note:- At this point 𝑦′′ > 0.

: we say that the curve is concave up

Note:- At this point 𝑦′′ < 0.

Example:

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Q. For the given function determine the intervals on the function where it is:-
a) Increasing
b) Decreasing
c) Concave Up
d) Concave Down
−1
𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥
To solve this we need to find the derivative of the function.
1
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1.5
2
Then, we equate the derivative to 0 to find the x-coordinate of the stationary points.
1
𝑥 −1.5 = 0; However when we equate it to zero we realise that this equation does not have an
2
answer, there is no solution to it, therefore there is no stationary point.
The domain of the function is 𝑥 > 0 and for all positive values of x since 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0, the function
is always increasing, and therefore never decreasing.
Then to answer about the shape of the function we find the second derivative of the function or
𝑓′′(𝑥). In this example -
−3
𝑓′′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 𝑥and for any positive value of x, 𝑓′′(𝑥)< 0. This means that the function is concave
√
down.
Exercise:
Q. Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(2𝑥 − 1) − 3.
a) Find the x-intercept
b) Can f(0) be found ? State its significance
c) Find the domain of the function
d) Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = 1
e) Find , and hence explain why the function is concave down for all x in the domain of f
f) Graph the function showing the features you have found

𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
Q. Find intervals where the curve is concave up or concave down for 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥+1

5. Inflection Points
A point of inflection is a point at which the tangent to the curve crosses the curve. At a point of
inflection 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 0.

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Note:- There is a point of inflection at x = a, if 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 0and the sign of 𝑓′′(𝑥)changes at x = a.
The point of inflection is a:
● Stationary inflection if 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0
● Non-stationary inflection if 𝑓′(𝑥) ≠ 0

Example:

Q. Describe the inflection points of the graph.

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 A. C is a non-stationary point of inflection because the tangent to the curve at C would not
be horizontal and therefore would not be equal to 0. D is a stationary point of inflection
because the tangent to the curve at D would be horizontal and therefore equal to 0.

Q. Find and classify all points of inflection.

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 1
First we find the derivative, followed by the second derivative.
𝑦′ = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9
𝑦′′ = 6𝑥 − 12
Now, we equate the second derivative to 0 to obtain x = 2. Then we draw the sign diagram for
the second derivative. For this we need to plug in one value greater than 2 and less than 2, in the
second derivative and accordingly put the signs to get:

Therefore, there is a point of inflection at x = 2, since at this point the double derivative is equal
to 0 and there is a sign change in the sign diagram for the double derivative.
To figure out whether it is a stationary or non-stationary inflection point we substitute 2 in the
first derivative. 𝑦′ = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9
𝑦′ = 3(2)2 − 12(2) + 9 = −3. Since −3 < 0, there is a non-stationary point of inflection at x =
2.

Exercise:

Q. For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 3
a) Find and classify all the turning points
b) Find and classify all points of inflection
c) Find where the function is increasing or decreasing
d) Find intervals where the function is concave up or down
e) Sketch the function showing the features you have found

Q. Consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 − 3𝑒 −𝑥

a) Determine the axes intercepts
b) Prove that the function is increasing for all ‘x’.
𝑑2 𝑦
c) Show that 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑦.
d) Use the GDC to graph the function and its features you have found

Q. Consider the surge function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,where A and b are positive constants. Prove
that the function has:

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 a) A local max at t = 1/b
b) A point of inflection at t = 2/b
c) Sketch the function showing the features you have proved

Differentiability and Continuity

Continuity:
At a point:A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x=p, if 𝑙𝑖𝑚−𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+𝑓(𝑥),that
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
is, the function is approaching the same y-value from both the left hand and right hand side of p.
During an interval: The function g(x) is said to be continuous during an interval (c,d) given that
c<d only if g(x) is continuous at all points during the interval.
Standard examples of continuous functions:
1. All polynomial functions
2. Cosine and sine functions
Essential and removable discontinuities:
Functions have 3 types of discontinuities:
1. Hole
2. Jump
3. Break
Of these 3, a ‘break’ and a ‘jump’ is essential while a ‘hole’ is removable.

In this graph, there is a hole (aka a removable discontinuity) at x=5 and an essential discontinuity
in the form of a break in the graph at x=6. We can remove the hole at x=5, by defining the value
of f(x) as 4 when x=5 using a piecewise function.

Differentiability:
A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point x=a if
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

90
 𝑓(𝑎+ +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎+ )
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (where a+ indicates a is being approached from the
ℎ→0 ℎ
right hand side)
𝑓(𝑎− +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎− )
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (where a- indicates a is being approached from the
ℎ→0 ℎ
left hand side)
Note:- All differentiable functions are continuous, but not all continuous functions are
differentiable.
The overall function is differentiable if a derivative can be found on all points on the graph of the
function.
Functions with cusps, sharp edges, or breaks are not differentiable. Examples: 𝑦 = |𝑥| 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.

Note- This is merely an important concept. You will not be tested on this in an IB exam.
Limits and L'Hopital's Rule
When we discussed vertical asymptotes in Functions, we saw that the x-values of the function
kept getting closer and closer to the vertical asymptote value (let it be noted by b), but were
never quite equal to it. As the x-values keep approaching b, the function values also approach
certain values. Limits help us determine what these values are.
We say that the limit of f(x) is L as x approaches b. This can be written in the form given below.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑏
Given that f(x) is as close to L as possible as we want x sufficiently close to b, from both sides,
without actually letting x be b.

Example:
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4
Find the limit: 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥
0
Here, if we substitute x=2 in the expression, we get 0.There are 2 ways we can solve this. Firstly,
we can graph the function and observe the behavior of the graph as the x-value approaches 2.
Secondly, we can use L’Hopital’s Rule.
Given that f(x) and g(x) are differentiable and g’(x) is not equal to zero on an interval that
contains the point x=a. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 0and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) = 0or, if as f(x)→ ±∞and g(x)→ ±∞, then
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 , given that the limit on the right exists.
𝑥→𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑑 𝑔′(𝑥)
Thus, we differentiate the numerator and denominator of the above expression separately and
then substitute the value of 2.
Note- A limit does not exist if the limit is ∞or if the value the function approaches as it
approaches b from the left hand side is not equal to the value the function approaches as it
approaches b from the right hand side.
Sample Exercise 2:

91
 2
𝑥 0
Find the limit:𝑙𝑖𝑚 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥). Here, if we substitute zero in the expression, we get0. Hence, we apply
𝑥→0
2𝑥
L’Hopital’s Rule. However, even after applying the rule, we get 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)which still gives us
𝑥→0
0
.Thus, we have to apply L’Hopital’s Rule again to solve this.
0

Exercise:
2
𝑥 +2𝑥
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
𝑥→0
𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑎𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
1 1
4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚+( − )
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑙𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥))
5. 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑙𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥))
𝑥→0

Rates of Change

One of the many applications of differentiation includes ‘Rates Of Change’. Here we examine
how one variable changes with respect to another. Measuring the rate of something means how
fast or slow it changes with respect to time.

Example:
Q. The future profit of a company is modelled as 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 118thousand dollars,
where x is the time in years from now.
𝑑𝑃
a) Find 𝑑𝑥 at state its units
𝑑𝑃
b) Find 𝑑𝑥 at x = 8 and state its meaning.
𝑑𝑃
We have been given an equation that models profit of a company. The expression 𝑑𝑥 tells us how
𝑑𝑃
the profit of the company changes with respect to time. To find 𝑑𝑥 we simply differentiate P with
respect to x.
𝑑𝑃
= 4𝑥 − 12
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
To find 𝑑𝑥 at x = 8, we substitute 8 in the derivative.
4(8) − 12 = 20; This means that the rate at which profit will be made in the 8th year will be
20,000 dollars per year.

Example:

92
Q. The temperature of a liquid after being placed in a refrigerator is given by 𝑇 = 5 + 95𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ,
where t is the time in minutes.
𝑑𝑇
a) Show that = 𝑐(𝑇 − 5)
𝑑𝑡
This is an example of how the temperature of an object is changing with time, or one can say it
shows the rate of change of T with t. First we differentiate the equation.
𝑑𝑇
= 0 + 95𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (−𝑘)
𝑑𝑡
We can rewrite 𝑇 = 5 + 95𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 as 𝑇 − 5 = 95𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑇
Therefore, = (−𝑘)(𝑇 − 5),where c = -k.
𝑑𝑡

Example:
Q. Find exactly the rate of change in the area of triangle PQR as𝜃changes, at the time when 𝜃 =
45. .

In this example, we have not been given any formula or equation.

1
However, we know that the area of a triangle is 𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑏 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 .
We can substitute the two sides that we have been given.
Thus, 𝐴 = 3(7) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 = 21𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Now we can differentiate A with respect to t.
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝐴 21 𝑑𝜃
= 21𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 ; Now we simply substitute 45 in place of 𝜃to get = ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 , and that is how
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 √2
we can find the rate of change of the Area with respect to the time as the angle changes.

Optimisation

A very useful application of calculus is optimisation. It involves maximizing or minimizing a

variable to make efficient or best use of it. For example, a company would aim to maximize
profit and minimize costs and therefore can model equations and find ways to accomplish their
goals. Let us solve a few examples together.

Example:
𝑥2
Q. The total cost of producing x chocolates per day is + 8𝑥 + 20dollars and for this production
4
1
level each chocolate may be sold for (23 − 2 𝑥)dollars. How many chocolates should be
produced per day to maximise the total profit?

In this example we need to optimize the production level to find the best number of chocolates
that should be produced per day for profits to be maximum. First of all, we need to frame an
equation that gives us the profit. Let the profit 𝑃(𝑥).

93
Since profit = revenue - cost
1 𝑥2
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥(23 − 2 𝑥) − + 8𝑥 + 20. To maximize/minimize something we need to equate the
4
3𝑥
derivative to 0. So by differentiating we get 𝑃′(𝑥) = 31 − . Now we must equate this to zero.
2
3𝑥
31 = ; 3𝑥 = 62; 𝑥 = 20.67. We can check if this is actually a maximum by equating the
2
double derivative to 0 and if it is a negative value it means that at that particular point there is a
maximum.

Example:

Q. A cone has radius r cm and slant height s cm. Find the ratio s:r which maximises the volume
of a cone.

ℎ = √𝑠 2 − 𝑟 2 . We know that the volume of a cone is given by:-

1 1
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ; We can now replace ‘h’ with √𝑠 2 − 𝑟 2 . Therefore, 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 √𝑠 2 − 𝑟 2 .
Using the product rule,
𝑑𝑉 2 1 𝜋𝑟 3
= 3 𝜋𝑟√𝑠 2 − 𝑟 2 − 3 . Now we need to maximise the volume and therefore we must
𝑑𝑟 √𝑠2 −𝑟 2
equate the derivative of the volume with respect to the radius.
2(𝑠2 −𝑟 2 )−𝑟 2 𝑠 3
= 0; 2(𝑠 2 − 𝑟 2 ) − 𝑟 2 = 0; 2𝑠 2 = 3𝑟 2 ; = √2 . Thus the ratio s: r is √3: √2.
√𝑠2 −𝑟 2 𝑟
Note:- The main idea in optimisation is to get an equation of the variable you want to maximise
or minimise and find its derivative. Once you have done this, you need to equate it to 0 and you
are good to go!

IB Questions:

Q. André wants to get from point A located in the sea to point Y located on a straight stretch of
beach. P is the point on the beach nearest to A such that AP = 2 km and PY = 2 km. He does this
by swimming in a straight line to a point Q located on the beach and then running to Y.

94
When André swims he covers 1 km in 5√5 minutes. When he runs he covers 1 km in 5 minutes.
(a) If PQ = x km, 0 ⩽ x ⩽ 2 , find an expression for the time T minutes taken by André
to reach point Y.

𝑑𝑇 5√5𝑥
(b) Show that 𝑑𝑥 = − 5.
√𝑥 2 +4

𝑑𝑇
(c) (i) Solve 𝑑𝑥 = 0

(ii) Use the value of x found in part (c) (i) to determine the time, T minutes, taken for
André to reach point Y.

𝑑2 𝑇 20 5
√
(iii) Show that 𝑑𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2+5)1.5 and hence show that the time found in part (c) (ii) is a minimum.

95
Q. A packaging company makes boxes for chocolates. An example of a box is shown below.
This box is closed and the top and bottom of the box are identical regular hexagons of side x cm.

3√3𝑥2
(a) Show that the area of each hexagon is 𝑐𝑚2 .
2
3
(b) Given that the volume of the box is 90𝑐𝑚3 , show that when √20 the total surface area of the
box is a minimum, justifying that this value gives a minimum.

Q. Two non-intersecting circles C1 , containing points M and S , and C2 , containing points N

and R, have centres P and Q where PQ = 50 . The line segments [MN] and [SR] are common
tangents to the circles. The size of the reflex angle MPS is α, the size of the obtuse angle NQR is
β , and the size of the angle MPQ is θ . The arc length MS is l1 and the arc length NR is l2 . This
information is represented in the diagram below.

The radius of C1 is x, where x ≥10 and the radius of C2 is 10.

a) Explain why 𝑥 < 40

𝑥−10
b) Show that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 50
c) (i) Find an expression for MN in terms of x (ii) Find the value of x that maximises MN.

96
 d) Find an expression in terms of x for 𝛼and 𝛽.
e) Find an expression, b(x) , for the length of the perimeter in terms of x
f) Find the maximum value of the length of the perimeter.
g) Find the value of x that gives a perimeter length of 200.

Related Rates of Change

Essentially, in related rates, our two variables (let’s call them x and y) are changing with time.
Thus, the problems in these types of questions is, in simple terms, determining the change in x
with respect to time when we know the change in y with respect to time and a relation between x
and y is given. Let us solve some sample questions together.

Example:
1. p and q are variables related by the equation 𝑝𝑞 3 = 30.
a. Differentiate this equation with respect to time t.
b. When p=3, q is increasing at a rate of 1 unit per second. Find the rate of change of
p.
So, we differentiate this equation using the concepts of implicit differentiation and product rule.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑝
This becomes: 𝑝3 𝑑𝑡 + 3𝑝2 𝑞. 𝑑𝑡 = 0. Then, we need to find the rate of change of q. We know that
𝑑𝑞
= 1. We can easily find q as p=3, and it is given that 𝑝𝑞 3 = 30. Thus, we substitute the value
𝑑𝑡
of q in the equation we found and get the rate of change of p.
Note- The rate of change of p will be negative and that means that p is decreasing as q is
increasing, something that we can easily deduce if we rewrite the original relation.

Example:
2. The length of a rectangle is decreasing at 2 cm per minute. However, the area remains
constant at 300 cm2. Taking c as the length and d as the width of the triangle:
a. Determine the relation between c and d
b. Differentiate the relation obtained in a with respect to time
c. At what rate is the width of a rectangle increasing at the moment when
i. c=8
ii. The rectangle is a square

Firstly, we know that the area of a rectangle is length into width. Thus, 𝑐𝑑 = 300.We then use
implicit differentiation and the product rule to get the differentiated equation with respect to the
time. Once we have achieved that, it is simple substitution.

Example:
3. Two planes fly on parallel courses that are 9 km apart. Their air speeds are 300 ms-1 and
400 ms-1. How quickly is the distance between them changing at the moment when the
faster jet is 3 km behind the slower one?

97
This is a slightly more complex question and we need to draw a diagram to understand the
situation better. Firstly, we must understand that the relative speed of the two airplanes is 400-
300=100 ms-1. Thus, the distance that this covers in time t is given by d=100t.

Thus, we can deduce that 𝑥 2 = (100𝑡)2 + 90002 . Once we have rewritten this by applying a
square root on both sides of the equation, we must differentiate the equation in terms of t. We
find the time by equating 100t to 9000 to get the time. Using this, we can easily find the rate of
change of the distance between the two planes.

Example:
4. A flashlight level with the ground is located 20 m from the foot of a building. The
flashlight shines in the building’s direction. A 1.92 m tall person walks from the
flashlight in the building’s direction at .54 ms-1. At what rate is the person’s shadow
shortening at the point when they are
a. 16 m
b. 9 m from the building?

98
 𝑥 20
=
1.92 20 − 0.54𝑡
We then rewrite the equation in terms of x and differentiate with respect to t. For the two parts,
we find the time taken by first finding the distance travelled by subtracting distance from the
𝑑
building from the total distance. Then, we use 𝑡 = 𝑣 where we just found d and v is 0.54 ms-1.

IB Questions:

1. [7 marks]
A ladder of length 10 m on horizontal ground rests against a vertical wall. The bottom of the
ladder is moved away from the wall at a constant speed of . Calculate the speed of descent of the
top of the ladder when the bottom of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall.
2. [7 marks]
A helicopter H is moving vertically upwards with a speed of 10 ms−1 . The helicopter is m
directly above the point Q which is situated on level ground. The helicopter is observed from the
point P which is also at ground level and PQ =40 m. This information is represented in the
diagram below.

When , h = 30 m
̂ is 0.16 radians per second;
(a) show that the rate of change of H𝑃𝑄

99
 (b) find the rate of change of PH.
3. [10 marks]
Below is a sketch of a Ferris wheel, an amusement park device carrying passengers around the
rim of the wheel.

(a) The circular Ferris wheel has a radius of 10 metres and is revolving at a rate of 3 radians per
minute. Determine how fast a passenger on the wheel is going vertically upwards when the
passenger is at point A, 6 metres higher than the centre of the wheel, and is rising.
(b) The operator of the Ferris wheel stands directly below the centre such that the bottom of the
Ferris wheel is level with his eyeline. As he watches the passenger his line of sight makes an
angle with the horizontal. Find the rate of change of at point A.
4. [8 marks]

A lighthouse L is located offshore, 500 metres from the nearest point P on a long straight
shoreline. The narrow beam of light from the lighthouse rotates at a constant rate of radians per
minute, producing an illuminated spot S that moves along the shoreline. You may assume that
the height of the lighthouse can be ignored and that the beam of light lies in the horizontal plane
defined by sea level.

When S is 2000 metres from P,

100
 (a) show that the speed of S, correct to three significant figures, is metres per minute;

(b) find the acceleration of S.

5. [6 marks]

A stalactite has the shape of a circular cone. Its height is 200 mm and is increasing at a rate of 3
mm per century. Its base radius is 40 mm and is decreasing at a rate of 0.5 mm per century.
Determine if its volume is increasing or decreasing, and the rate at which the volume is
changing.

6. [6 marks]
Paint is poured into a tray where it forms a circular pool with a uniform thickness of 0.5 cm. If
the paint is poured at a constant rate of , find the rate of increase of the radius of the
circle when the radius is 20 cm.

7a. [2 marks]
A straight street of width 20 metres is bounded on its parallel sides by two vertical walls, one of
height 13 metres, the other of height 8 metres. The intensity of light at point P at ground level on
the street is proportional to the angle where , as shown in the diagram.

Find an expression for in terms of x, where x is the distance of P from the base of the wall of
height 8 m.

7b. [2 marks]

101
 (i) Calculate the value of 𝜃 when x = 0.

(ii) Calculate the value of 𝜃 when x = 20.

7c. [2 marks]

Sketch the graph of 𝜃 , for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 20

7d. [6 marks]

Show that :

7e. [3 marks]

Using the result in part (d), or otherwise, determine the value of x corresponding to the maximum
light intensity at P. Give your answer to four significant figures.

7f. [4 marks]

The point P moves across the street with speed 0.5 m/s. Determine the rate of change of 𝜃with
respect to time when P is at the midpoint of the street.

8a. [3 marks]

A water trough which is 10 metres long has a uniform cross-section in the shape of a semicircle
with radius 0.5 metres. It is partly filled with water as shown in the following diagram of the
cross-section. The centre of the circle is O and the angle KOL is 𝜃 radians.

Find an expression for the volume of water in the trough in terms of 𝜃.

8b. [4 marks]

The volume of water is increasing at a constant rate of .

102
Calculate when .

PART B
Integration:

Integration is the complete opposite of differentiation. If differentiating a function helps you find
its slope at a particular point, integration helps you approximate the area and volume under a
curve. Integration is also known as antidifferentiation.

Introduction to Integration
- Riemann Integral

If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then

𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥is defined as the shaded area A.
This is known as the Riemann integral.
We would say “the integral of f(x) from a to b with
respect to x”.

To approximate the area under the curve we can use

several methods. One of the methods is calculating the area of lower and upper rectangles.

The first image shows lower rectangles and how finding the sum of their areas can give an
approximate value for the area under the graph. The similar is shown in the second image with
upper rectangles.

Example:
Consider the region enclosed by 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 3 and the x-axis for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
a. Write an expression for the lower and upper rectangle sums using n subintervals.
b. Find the lower and upper rectangle sums for n=50.
2
c. Hence estimate∫0 √1 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 .

103
The graph for the function is:-

If we take 𝛥𝑥 as the width of each rectangle and 𝑛 as the number of rectangles then we can say
that:-
𝑏−𝑎
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛
;
where the area needs to be calculated between x = a and x = b.
2−0 2
𝛥𝑥 = =
𝑛 𝑛
Therefore for 𝑛 = 50
𝛥𝑥 = 0.04
To make our lives easier, there is a formula that allows us to calculate upper and lower rectangle
sums for increasing and decreasing functions.

For an increasing function:-

𝐴𝐿 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝛥𝑥) ⋅ 𝛥𝑥 (sum of lower rectangles),
𝐴𝑈 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑘𝛥𝑥) ⋅ 𝛥𝑥(sum of upper rectangles),

For a decreasing function:-

𝐴𝐿 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑘𝛥𝑥) ⋅ 𝛥𝑥(sum of lower rectangles),
𝐴𝑈 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝛥𝑥) ⋅ 𝛥𝑥 (sum of upper rectangles),

Since, the above function is increasing we use the formulas for an increasing function. Using the
formulas and substituting appropriately we get:-
𝐴𝐿 = 3.2016
𝐴𝑈 = 3.2816
Note:- It is helpful to remember that for an increasing function:-
𝐴𝐿 ≤ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ≤ 𝐴𝑈 ,
And for a decreasing function:-

104
 𝐴𝑈 ≤ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ≤ 𝐴𝐿

Techniques of Integration

1. Rules of Integration

To find the integral of a function we use the formula provided above.

Example:

Q. Find
a) ∫ (𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥
Using the formula above:-
𝑥3 3𝑥2
∫ (𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 = + − 2𝑥 + 𝑐
3 2
Note:- ‘c’ is known as the constant of integration that must be added after integrating any
indefinite integral.
2𝑥3 3𝑥2
b) ∫ (2𝑥2 − 3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 3
− 2
+𝑥+𝑐
2𝑥2.5
c) ∫ (𝑥√𝑥 − 9) 𝑑𝑥 = 5
− 9𝑥 + 𝑐
However, not all functions are so simple. For different functions there are different integrals.
Some of the standard integrals have been listed below.

105
Below are the properties of integrals:-

Exercise:
Q. Find
a) ∫ (2𝑒𝑥 − 3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ (3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥−1)
c) ∫ ( + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3
d) ∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 1
e) ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑙𝑛 2)
4
f) ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
√1−𝑥2
Note:- If in place of x there is a linear model the rules can be modified as the following:-
1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
1. ∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐, for 𝑛 ≠ −1and 𝑎 ≠ 0.

106
 1
2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
3. ∫ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
4. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1 1
5. ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑙𝑛|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐for 𝑎 ≠ 0
1
6. ∫ 𝑒𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑒𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐
Exercise:

Q. Find
3
a) ∫ (2𝑥 + 5) 𝑑𝑥
4
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3−4𝑥

c) ∫ (2𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥) + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
d) ∫ 32𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
1
e) ∫ (2𝑥+5)𝑙𝑛 3
𝑑𝑥
Partial Fractions and integration

Earlier, we had studied how to write a fraction as the sum of its partial fractions. The main
reason to write it in such a form is so that it can be integrated easily.

Example:
2𝑥−8
∫ 𝑥2 −4
𝑑𝑥; We cannot directly integrate this, nor is there any formula that allows us to do so.
Therefore, we must rewrite it in such a way that we can individually integrate the fractions and
add their integrals up to get the answer.
2𝑥−8 3 1
As studied previously, 𝑥 2 −4can be written as (𝑥+2) − (𝑥−2) . Now this form is familiar for us, and
we can easily integrate it.
3 1
∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 2) − 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑐
(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2)
(𝑥+2)3
This can be rewritten as ‘𝑙𝑛 | (𝑥−2) | + 𝑐.’

Exercise:
6𝑥2 +𝑥−19
a) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)2
2
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥2 −1

107
 20
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥2 −𝑥−3
𝑥−9
d) ∫ 𝑥2 −2𝑥−3
𝑑𝑥

2. Substitution Method

Let us take a simple example:

∫ 3𝑥2 (𝑥3 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢 = 𝑥3 + 1.
The derivative of u can be found and it is as follows:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 and we can rewrite this to 3𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
Let us try utilising u in the integral:
𝑑𝑢
∫ 3𝑥2 × 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑢4 . However, dx can be written as 3𝑥 2. Thus, if we substitute this back into the
𝑢5
integral, 3x2 cancels out and we are left with ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢.We can easily integrate this to get 5 . To
end the sum, we need to rewrite u in terms of x and since that is given to us, we can conclude
that:∫ 3𝑥2 (𝑥3 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥=(𝑥 3 + 1)5 + 𝑐.
2
Let us try the same concept with the integral: ∫ 2𝑥𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥.We substitute u=x2 and follow the
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
exact same methodology as in the previous sum. 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 and we rewrite this as = 𝑑𝑥.
2𝑥
2 2
Rewriting the integral in terms of u: ∫ 𝑒𝑢 𝑑𝑢 as 2x cancels out. Thus, ∫ 2𝑥𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 +
𝑐.
Exercise:
Integrate by substitution
3𝑥 2
1.
√𝑥 3 +2
2. 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 − 5)
6𝑥 2
3. (2𝑥 3 −1)6
2
4. (2𝑥 − 1)𝑒 𝑥−𝑥
1−𝑥 3
5. 𝑥 2 −3𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
6. (Hint, try using the denominator)
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥3
7. ( Hint, try using the denominator and rewriting the equation to make x2 in terms of u)
1+𝑥 2
(𝑙𝑛𝑥)2
8. 𝑥

9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
10. 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 . (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2
11. 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 . (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥)2
12. Tan 3x
𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 3 +5)
13. 𝑥 3 +5

108
 14. 𝑥√𝑥 − 6 (Hint, try using the term under the bracket and using a part of the hint of sum 7)
15. 3𝑥 2 √𝑥 − 2

Now, we will look at integrating using substitution for trigonometric functions.

1. If an integral contains √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ,try substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2. If an integral contains √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 try substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
3. If an integral contains √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 try substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

Example:
∫ √9 − 𝑥2 . Here, we use the substitution mentioned above of 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃and a=3. Then, we
differentiate x with respect to 𝜃 for further substitution.
𝑑𝑥
We get𝑑𝜃 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Eventually, using all our information, we substitute 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃into the integral.

∫ √9 − 9(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 . 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃

When we simplify the root using (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 1and eventually get ∫ 3(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 . In
trigonometry, while we were learning the double angle formula, we learned that 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 =
9
2(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 − 1. We can use this formula to simplify the integral and get ∫ 2
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) From
here, we can use the standard rules of integration to get our solution in terms of 𝜃. Then, we must
refer back to our original substitution and the double angle formula again to get the final answer.
Exercise:
Integrate with respect to x:
𝑥2
1. (hint, try adding ±4to the numerator)
𝑥 2 +4
𝑥2
2. 4−𝑥 2
3𝑙𝑛𝑥
3. 𝑥(1+(𝑙𝑛𝑥)2 )

IB Questions:
𝑥
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √1−𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 1
−1 −3
1
a. Show that 𝑓’(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥) 2 and deduce that f(x) is an increasing function
b. Show that the curve y=f(x) has one point of inflection and find its coordinates
c. Use the substitution 𝑥 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 to prove that ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛√𝑥 −
√𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑐
1
2. Using the substitution𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 , find the integral ∫ 𝑑𝜃
3(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) +(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
2

√𝑥
3. Using the substitution 𝑢 = 1 + √𝑥, find ∫ 1+√𝑥
𝑑𝑥

109
 1 1 2
4. By using the substitution 𝑥 2 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃, prove that ∫ = 4 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥2 ) + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥4 −4
1
1
5. Use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 to find ∫ 3 1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥2 +𝑥2

3. Integration by parts

Integration by parts is one of the techniques of performing integration. There are two types of
integration by parts which will be explored in this topic.

Example:
Q. Find
I. ∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
To do this kind of integration we need to use a special technique. We need to separate this
expression into two parts:-
∫ (𝑥) ⋅ (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥; The next step is to let one of these be ‘u’ and the other ‘dv’. Now the
interesting part is how does one decide which of them should be ‘u’ and which should be ‘dv’.
There is an acronym called “L I A T E” which helps you decide which of them should be ‘u’.
L : Logarithmic function
I : Inverse function
A : Algebraic function
T : Trigonometric function
E : Exponential function
Whichever function appears first is equated to ‘u’. For instance in the example above ‘x’ is an
algebraic function and ‘sin x’ is a trigonometric function. Because A comes before T in the
acronym, we let x = u, and solve the sum in the following manner:-
Let x = u dv = sin x
x’ = 1 v = - cos x
Now, using the formula we solve it.

∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

In this manner, various expressions can be integrated using this method.
Let us understand a few more examples.

Q. Find ∫ ln x dx

110
We can rewrite this as ∫ (1)(𝑙𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 1
1
𝑢′ = 𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
Now, using the formula we get:

∫ (𝑙𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
Another type of integration sum can be of the repetitive type. This is an important part of
calculus that has various applications. An example has been shown below.
Q. Find ∫ 𝑒−2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑢′ = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) 𝑣= −2
Using the formula we get:-
−1 −2𝑥
∫ 𝑒−2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑒−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
We cannot stop here, we need to further integrate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑒−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥, so we perform
integration by parts again on∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑒−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

To solve this we let

𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑥) and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) 𝑣= −2
Using the formula we get:-
−1 −2𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑒−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) − ∫ 𝑒−2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
Putting it all together we get:-
−1 −2𝑥
∫ 𝑒−2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑒−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
∫ 𝑒−2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 =
−1 −2𝑥
2
−1
𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) −( 2 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) −∫ 𝑒−2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
However if we look closely we realise that we have ended up with the exact expression that we
want to integrate.Therefore, we can call this expression I.
𝐼=∫ 𝑒−2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥); If we do that we get:-
−1 −1
𝐼= 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) −( 2 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) − 𝐼
2
−1 −2𝑥 1
2𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) + 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)
2 2
1 −2𝑥
2𝐼 = 2 𝑒 (𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥))
1
𝐼 = 4 𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)) + 𝑐

111
 IB Questions:
1. Find ∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2. Find ∫ 𝑥2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. Using integration by parts find ∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4. Find∫ 𝑥(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
5. Find ∫ 𝑥3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6. Consider the functions f, g defined for 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
a. Find f’(x)
b. Find g’(x)
c. Find ∫ 𝑒−𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Definite Integrals
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑎
Note- when using substitution in definite integrals, make sure to obtain the new values that you
will be integrating with respect to.
Example:
2
∫1 2𝑥(𝑥 3 − 1)4 𝑑𝑥. We use the normal steps for substitution of taking u=𝑥 3 − 1and
differentiating u with respect to x. However, we also must find the value of u at x=1 and at x=2,
to make the calculation easier.

- Area under a curve

Example:
When the graph of f(x) is positive and continuous;
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥. Find the area of the region from x=1 to x=4.

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 𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥)41 = 4𝑙𝑛4 − 𝑙𝑛1 − (𝑥)41 = 4𝑙𝑛4 − 3

Example:
When the graph of f(x) is negative and continuous;
𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
9
The area of the region bounded by 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥, the line x=3 and x=k is 9ln2 units. Find k.
𝑘
−∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 9𝑙𝑛2
3
𝑘
9
−∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = 9𝑙𝑛2
3 𝑥

Example:
Area between the y-axis and the curve;
1
𝑦= . Find the area of the region bounded by the y-axis and the curve from y=1 to y=3.
√𝑥
1
√𝑥 = .
𝑦
1
𝑥= 2
𝑦
2
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦2
Example:
Area between 2 functions
In order to find the area enclosed between 2 functions, we must first find the points of
intersection between the two functions and then we can get the area using the formula:
𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Find the area enclosed by 𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8and 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5.
−𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 = 3𝑥 − 5.

IB Questions:

113
 3𝜋
1. The function f is defined on the domain [0, ] by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
2
a. State the two zeros of f .
b. Sketch the graph of f .
c. The region bounded by the graph, the x-axis and the y-axis is denoted by A and
the region bounded by the graph and the x-axis is denoted by B . Show that the
𝜋
𝑒 𝜋 (𝑒 2 +1)
ratio of the area of A to the area of B is 𝑒 𝜋+
1 𝑘
2. The diagram below shows the two curves 𝑦 = 𝑥and 𝑦 = 𝑥 where k>1

a. Find the area of region A in terms of k .

b. Find the area of region B in terms of k .
c. Find the ratio of the area of region A to the area of region B
3. Consider the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 3), −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
a. Sketch the graph, clearly labelling the x and y intercepts with their values.
b. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph and the x and y axes.

114
 𝑥+1
4. The graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1 is shown below.

The point (1, 1) is a point of inflexion. There are two other points of inflexion.
a. Find f’(x)
b. Hence find the x-coordinates of the points where the gradient of the graph of f is
zero.
𝑝(𝑥)
c. Find f’’(x) expressing your answer in the form (𝑥 2+1)3where p(x) is a polynomial
of degree 3
d. Find the x-coordinates of the other two points of inflexion.
𝜋
e. Find the area of the shaded region. Express your answer in the form 𝑎 − 𝑙𝑛√𝑏,
where a and b are integers.
5. Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥, the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = √3.

- Volume of revolution
Rotating an equation around the y or x axis forms what is known as a solid of revolution. We can
use integration to find the volume of this solid that forms between two intervals. The formula to
find the volume of such a solid is given below.

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If the curve is rotated around the y-axis we use the first equation. Whereas if the curve is rotated
around the x-axis we use the second formula provided.

Example:
Q. Find the volume of revolution when 𝑦 = √𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋is rotated 2𝜋radians about the
x-axis . The graph below is the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.

We need to use the formula to find the volume of the solid that forms when this curve rotates
𝜋
about the horizontal x-axis. Thus, 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫0 (√𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥.
𝑉 = 𝜋(−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)𝜋0 = 𝜋(−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0) = 2𝜋.

Example:
2 2
Q. Consider the part of the curve 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4shown in the diagram below.

The y-intercept is (0,2) and the x-intercept is (1,0).

𝑑𝑦
a) Find an expression for 𝑑𝑥 in terms of x and y.
Here we carry out implicit differentiation that we learnt earlier.
𝑑𝑦
Therefore, 8𝑥 + 2𝑦 ⋅ (𝑑𝑥 ) = 0.
𝑑𝑦 4𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
b) A bowl is formed by rotating this curve through 2𝜋radians about the x-axis. Calculate the
volume of this bowl.

116
 1 1
Since it rotated about the x-axis we use the formula 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 (4 − 4𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
8𝜋
Therefore, 𝑉 = .
3

Note:- If you are asked to find the volume between two curves the same formula applies except it
can be modified to the following:-
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 (𝑦𝑈 )2 − (𝑦𝐿 )2 𝑑𝑥 (if the curves are rotated about the ‘x’ axis)
Exercise:

Q. The region enclosed between the curves 𝑦 = √𝑥𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑒√𝑥is rotated through 2𝜋about
the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid obtained.

Improper Integrals

∞
The Math AA HL course only considers improper integrals that exist in the form ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑏
We rewrite this as 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.For this improper integral to exist, f(x) must approach 0 as
𝑏→∞
x→ ∞.
Sample Question 1:
𝑏 −1 −1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫1 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [2𝑥 2]𝑏1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (2𝑏2) + 2. As b→ ∞, its reciprocal tends to zero. Thus the
𝑏→∞ 𝑏→∞ 𝑏→∞
limit is 0.5.

Exercise:
1. Find the total area between 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 and the x-axis for 𝑥 ≥ 0.
∞ 1
2. Determine ∫𝑙𝑛√3 𝑑𝑥 using the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
3. Find the total area between the function and the x-axis for 𝑥 ≥ 0
1
a. 𝑦 = 1+𝑥
b. 𝑦 = 5−𝑥
c. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
3
d. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥

Kinematics

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects without reference to
the forces which cause the motion. As mentioned earlier there are multiple applications of
calculus and some of the most fundamental physics concepts have its roots in calculus. This
application mainly deals with displacement, velocity and acceleration.

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Displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest distance from the initial position to the final
position. Velocity can be defined as the rate of change of displacement and therefore in terms of
mathematics can be called the derivative of displacement. Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity which is therefore the derivative of the velocity function.

They are often denoted by the following:-

𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Some important formulas include:-

𝑠(𝑡2 )−𝑠(𝑡1 )
1. 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡2 −𝑡1
2. 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠′(𝑡)
3. 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: ∆𝑠 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 or ∫𝑡𝑡12 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
4. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = ∫𝑡 2 |𝑣(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑣(𝑡2 )−𝑣(𝑡1 )
5. 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡2 −𝑡1
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑠
6. 𝑎 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
7. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = |𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦|

Note:- If 𝑣(𝑡)and 𝑎(𝑡)have the same sign then the speed is increasing at time ‘t’.
If 𝑣(𝑡)and 𝑎(𝑡)have opposite signs then the speed is decreasing at ‘t’.

𝑠(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑣(𝑡) ∶ 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑣(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑠(𝑡) ∶ 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑣(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑎(𝑡): 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑎(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑣(𝑡) ∶ 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Example:
Q. A mass on a spring oscillates with displacement 𝑠(𝑡) = 8𝑠𝑖𝑛(8𝜋𝑡) + 6 𝑐𝑚where 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤
0.25𝑠.
a) At what time is the displacement 6cm ?
b) Plot the graph of 𝑠(𝑡) for the given domain

118
 c) Find where and when the mass changes direction
We begin by substituting 6 in place of s(t) to get the time at which displacement is 6 cm.
6 = 8𝑠𝑖𝑛(8𝜋𝑡) + 6
8𝑠𝑖𝑛(8𝜋𝑡) = 0
𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0)
8𝜋𝑡 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋. ..
1 1
𝑡 = 0, ,
8 4
Now we must plot the graph of the given function.

To find where the mass changes direction we need to observe the graph and mark its turning
1 3
points. The graph has a maximum at t = 16 𝑠and a minimum at t = 16 𝑠, and therefore changes
direction at those points.

IB Questions:

1. Particle A moves such that its velocity v ms-1, at time t seconds, is given by 𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑡
, 𝑡 ≥ 0.Particle B moves such that its velocity v ms-1, is related to its displacement s
12+𝑡 4
m by the equation 𝑣(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(√𝑠)
a. Sketch the graph of v(t). Indicate clearly the local maximum and write down its
coordinates.

119
 𝑡
b. Use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑡 2 to find ∫ 12+𝑡4
𝑑𝑡.
c. Find the exact distance travelled by particle A between t=0 and 6 seconds. Give
your answer in the form karctan(b), k, b ∈ 𝑅
d. Find the acceleration of particle B when s=0.1 m
2. A particle P moves in a straight line with displacement relative to origin given by 𝑠 =
2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑡) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑡), 𝑡 ≥ 0,where t is the time in seconds and the displacement is
measured in centimetres
a. Write down the period of the function s
b. Find expressions for the velocity, v and the acceleration a of P
c. Determine all the solutions of the equation v=0, for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4.
3. A particle moves in a straight line such that its velocity, v ms-1, at time t seconds, is given
by:

a. Find the value of t when the particle is instantaneously at rest.

b. The particle returns to its initial position at t=T. Find the value of T
4. The particle P moves along the x-axis such that its velocity v ms-1 at time t seconds is
given by 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 2 )
a. Given that P is at the origin O at time t=0, calculate
i. the displacement of P from O after 3 seconds
ii. the total distance travelled by P in the first 3 seconds
b. Find the time at which the total distance travelled by P is 1 m.
5. A particle moves in a straight line, its velocity v ms-1 at time t seconds is given by𝑣 =
9𝑡 − 3𝑡 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.At t = 0, the displacement s of a particle from an origin O is 3m.
a. Find the displacement of the particle when t=4.
b. Sketch a displacement/time graph for the particle showing clearly where the
curve meets the axes and the coordinates of the points where the displacement
takes greatest and least values.
2𝜋𝑡
c. For t>5, the displacement of the particle is given by 𝑠 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 such that s
5
is continuous for all 0 ≤ 𝑡. Given further that s=16.5 when t=7.5, find a and b.
2𝜋𝑡
d. For t>5, the displacement of the particle is given by 𝑠 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 such that s
5
is continuous for all 0 ≤ 𝑡. Find the times t1 and t2 (0<ti<t2<8) when the particle
returns to its starting point.

Maclaurin Series

120
A Maclaurin series is a power series that allows one to calculate an approximation of a function
𝑓(𝑥) for input values close to zero, given that one knows the values of the successive derivatives
of the function at zero.

Example:

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, find the first three terms using the Maclaurin Series formula.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)
𝑓′′(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑓′′′(𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) + 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)

Now, we substitute zero in each of the equations.

𝑓(0) = 0
𝑓′(0) = 1
𝑓′′(0) = 2
𝑓′′′(0) = 2
Using the formula we can say that:

121
 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + + +. . . ..
2 3

Exercise:

−𝜋 𝜋
Q. The function f is defined on the domain] , 2 [by f(x) = ln (1+sin x)
2
−1
a) Show that 𝑓′′(𝑥) = (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
b) Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥)up to and including the term in 𝑥 4 .

𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
Q. Consider the functions f and g given by 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = .
2 2
a) Show that 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)and 𝑔′(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
b) Find the first three non-zero terms in the Maclauric expansion of 𝑓(𝑥).

Citations

1. Awada, Natasha. Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches. Standard Level. Course

Companion. Oxford, 2019.
2. Desmos. "Graphing Calculator." Desmos. Last modified 2020.
https://www.desmos.com/calculator.
3. GeoGebra. "3D calculator." GeoGebra | Free Math Apps - used by over 100 Million
Students & Teachers Worldwide. Last modified 2020. https://www.geogebra.org/3d.

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4. Hease, Michael, Mark Humphries, Christopher J. Sangwin, and Ngoc Vo. Mathematics:
Analysis and Approaches HL. Haese Mathematics, 2019.
5. International Baccalaureate. "Mathematics: analysis and approaches formula booklet."
Ms Carolina's Math Class. Last modified 2019.
https://www.mochidoesmaths.com/d_5_mataa_inf_1902_1_e.pdf.
6. International Baccalaureate Organisation. "IB Questionbank." IB Documents. Last
modified 2018.
https://www.ibdocuments.com/IB%20QUESTIONBANKS/4.%20Fourth%20Edition/que
stionbank.ibo.org/en/teachers/00000/questionbanks/7-dp-mathematics-
hl/syllabus_sections.html.

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