Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Advanced Math 1
Week 02 - Cohort 2

Limits of Functions and Continuity

Singapore University of Technology & Design

2018

Singapore University of
Technology & Design

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Learning outcomes

By the end of this cohort, you should be able to:

Understand the formal and intuitive definitions of the limit
of a function at a point.
Use the formal definition of a limit to prove simple limit
laws.
Understand when do limits not exist.
Identify functions that are continuous.
Compute limits using the squeeze theorem, properties of
limits and continuous functions.

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Intuition of limits

f x pq

If f px q Ñ L when x Ñ a, we
L write
P
pq lim f px q  L.
f x
M
x Ña
x
O x a

x Ñ a ñ M Ñ P ñ f px q Ñ L
Intuition: The function f px q approaches L as x approaches
a.
Alternative f px q can be made arbitrary close to L as long as x
formulation: is close enough to a (but not equal to a).
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Why limits?
Suppose spt q is the displacement of a particle at time t s and
we want to find its instantaneous velocity v at t  2 s. We can
estimate this by computing the average velocity over the time
interval r2, 2.1s:
sp2.1q
sp2q
v
2.1
2
.
But this is not instantaneous enough, we further shrink the
interval to r2, 2.01s:
sp2.01q
sp2q
v
2.01
2
.

Still, this is not instantaneous enough, we further shrink the

interval to r2, 2.001s, r2, 2.0001s, . . .. In other words, we want to
know what is the average velocity over the time interval r2, x s,
when x approaches 2:
spx q
sp2q
v  lim
x
2
.
x Ñ2
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Why limits?
x
Expressions such as f px q  1 x1 , g px q  x x and hpx q  x x
1

are defined for x ¡ 0 but not for x  0. Similarly, k px q  sinx x


and `px q  sin x1 are defined for all real x except x  0.
Are there "natural" values for these functions at x  0? (Natural
in the sense that the graph of the function is not broken.) If
there are, is there a way to find these "natural" values?
Yes! For instance, we can try computing f p0.1q, f p0.01q,
f p0.001q, . . . and see whether f px q approaches a value when
x Ñ 0. If it does, then
"natural" value of f p0q  lim f px q.
x Ñ0
However, we need a rigorous definition for limits instead of just
saying lim f px q is the value which f p0.1q, f p0.01q, f p0.001q, . . .
x Ñ0
is approaching to. There’s no end to this process and we will
never find the answer.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

The ε - δ definition for a limit

Definition: Limit of a function at point x  a
We say that the limit of f px q is L (finite) at x  a and we write
lim f px q  L if,
x Ña
@ε ¡ 0, Dδ ¡ 0 such that 0   |x
a|   δ ñ |f px q
L|   ε.
In this case, we also say that f px q approaches/converges to
L when x approaches a or sometimes we will just say that
lim f px q exists without specifying the L.
x Ña
|f px q
L|   ε ô L
ε   f px q   L ε
"
0   |x
a|   δ ô a
δ x  x a. a δ
In other words, f px q can be made arbitrary close to L (by
choosing any ε we want) as long as x is close enough to a, but
not equal to a (meaning, we can find an appropriate δ).
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Geometrical meaning of the ε - δ definition

Definition: Limit of a function at point x a
lim f px q  L if,
x Ña
@ε ¡ 0, Dδ ¡ 0 such that 0   |x
a|   δ ñ |f px q
L|   ε.
f x pq
p
f a δ q L ε

L
Try this Geogebra applet.
p
δq
f a

L
ε

x
O a
δ a a δ

This has to be true for ALL ε ¡ 0 in order for lim f px q  L.

x Ña
4
! Both δ and ε must be STRICTLY POSITIVE! 7 / 40
Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 1 (15 min)

Suppose you are an engineer working in a company that
produces metal cubes of different sizes according to the
requirement of the customers. Your production machine can
control the sides of the cubes, x cm, with an error margin of δ
cm. A particular customer requires the volume of the cubes to
be 8 cm3 , with an error margin of 0.5 cm3 . Your boss assigns
this project to you.

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 1 (15 min)

1. Let f px q be the volume of the cube with sides x. What is

f px q? Intuitively, what is the x0 such that lim f px q  8? (no
x Ñx0
proof is needed.)
2. By using this Geogebra applet, find an error margin δ cm
that will fulfill the request of your customer.
3. A month later, the customer requests to improve the error
margin to 0.2 cm3 . What error margin δ cm can you set
for your machine?
4. A month later, the customer requests to improve the error
margin to 0.05 cm3 . You are tired of this but you know
you can find a δ that works, why is that so?
5. You don’t want to lose your job, but you don’t want to be
bothered every time the customer requests to improve the
error margin ε. What can you do?
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 1: Solution

1. f px q  x 3 and x0  2. So xlim
Ñx f px q  xlim
0 Ñ2
x 3  23  8.

2. A possible δ  0.04. (any 0   δ ¤ 0.04 is correct.)

3. A possible δ  0.01. (any 0   δ ¤ 0.01 is correct.)

4. Because lim f px q  8, so by the ε-δ definition, for any error

x Ñ2
margin ε ¡ 0 of 8, we can always find an error margin
δ ¡ 0 for x such that |x
2|   δ ñ |f px q
8|   ε.

5. You can prove your claim in part 1: lim f px q  8, by the ε-δ

x Ñ2
definition, i.e. use algebra to express δ in terms of ε,
similar to expressing N in terms of ε for convergent
sequences. So let’s learn how to do this!

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Example of ε-δ definition

Show that lim p5x q  10.
x Ñ2
For every ε ¡ 0 we need to find a δ ¡ 0, such that
0   |x
a|   δ implies |f px q
L|   ε. What should δ be?

So, we are given any ε ¡ 0.

We choose δ  ε{5 ¡ 0.
Now, if 0   |x
a|   δ, then the following holds (a  2 and
L  10).
0   |x
2|   ε{5
ðñ 0   5|x
2|   ε
ðñ 0   |5x
10|   ε
ùñ |f px q
L|   ε
Hold on a second, how do we know we can choose δ  ε{5?
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Example of ε-δ definition

This is the actual thinking process for proving lim p5x q  10.
x Ñ2
1. For every ε ¡ 0 we need to find a δ ¡ 0, such that
0   |x
a|   δ implies that |f px q
L|   ε. We don’t know yet
which value of δ will work, so let’s just call it δ.
2. If 0   |x
a|   δ, then the following holds (a  2 and
L  10).

|f px q
L|  |5x
10|  5|x
2|   5δ.

3. Now, we choose a δ ¡ 0 such that the inequality above
becomes |f px q
L|   ε. A straightforward choice will be
5δ  ε ðñ δ  ε{5. Notice that δ  ε{5 ¡ 0. Can you give a
different δ that works?
4. Once we have found the δ (usually in terms of ε), we have to
present the proof as in the previous slide.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 2 (10 min)

If f px q 

x2 4
p
q , use the ε-δ definition of the limit to show that:
4 x 2

x2
4
lim f px q  lim  1.
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 4 px
2q

Remark: This expression is not artificial at all. Compare it with

the instantaneous velocity in page 4, do you see the similarity?

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 2: Solution

The function f px q is not defined for x 2. We want to show:

 2 
 x
4 
if 0   |x
2|   δ, then |f px q
1|  

1   ε pq.
4 p x
2q

But since x  2, we can cancel the term px
2q so that

x2
4 px
2q px 2q  x 2  x 1 .
4 px
2q
 4 px
2q 4 4 2

Hence if 0   |x
2|   δ:
   
x  x 1  1
|f px q
1|   4 2
1   4
2   4 |x
2|   4δ .
 1  

We can choose δ
 ε, i.e. δ  4 ε ¡ 0, to satisfy the condition
pq above. 4

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 2: Solution, continued

If f px q  x2
4
p
q , use the ε-δ definition of the limit to show that:
4 x 2
x2
4
lim f px q  lim  1.
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 4 px
2q

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

ε-δ definition
Remark: The general strategy to find the δ is
1. Manipulate and express |f px q
L| in terms of |x
a|.
2. Use 0   |x
a|   δ in the previous step to get |f px q
L|  
simple expression of δ.
3. With ε  simple expression of δ, you can express δ in
terms of ε. Make sure δ ¡ 0.
However, it’s cumbersome and tedious to use the ε-δ definition
to find limits every time. For instance, proving lim x 3  8 in
x Ñ2
activity 1 by ε-δ definition can be challenging (this is a
challenging problem in HW 2).
You will learn some rules and theorems of computing limits in
the next section. They are more efficient and faster methods to
find limits of functions. However, these rules and theorems are
still proved by using the ε-δ definition, but we’ll skip the proofs.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Properties of limits / Rules of computing limits

Theorem:
Suppose lim f px q  L1 and lim g px q  L2 (L1 , L2 can be 8), then
x Ña x Ña
Ña  a,
1. lim x
x
2. lim c  c, for any constant c,
x Ña


3. lim pf px q  g px qq  lim f px q  lim g px q  L1  L2,
x Ña x Ña x Ña
4. lim pc  f px qq  c lim f px q  cL1 ,
x Ña x Ñ
a

5. lim pf px q  g px qq  lim f px q  lim g px q  L1  L2,
x Ña x Ña x Ña
pq f x
 Ña p q
lim f x
 LL ,
pq pq
x
6. lim 1
xÑ ag x x Ña
lim g x 2

1
with the convention ‘ 8  0’, ‘ 01  8’, ‘ 01

8’, ‘8 8  8’,
‘
8
8 
8’, ‘8non-zero constant  sign of the constant8’.
Remark: Notice that the rules above are similar to the rules of limits
for sequences. 17 / 40
Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Examples
1.


x2
1 px 1qpx
1q
x
lim 7
Ñ
1 x 1
 7 x Ñ

lim
1 x 1
 7 x Ñ

lim px
1q  7p
1
1q 
14.
1
2.


x 1
x Ñ2 x
1
lim
x3
 xlim x 1

lim x 3
Ñ2 x
1 x Ñ2
lim x 1 



Ñ2
 xlim

x
1
lim x lim x lim x
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 x Ñ2
x Ñ2
 2 1
2
1

2  2  2  3
8 
5.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Squeeze theorem
Squeeze theorem:
Let I be an interval containing the point a. Let f px q, g px q and
hpx q be functions defined on I, except possibly at a itself. Sup-
pose that for every x in I, x  a, we have:
f px q ¤ g p x q ¤ h px q @ x
P I ztau
with lim f px q  lim hpx q  L, then lim g px q  L.
x Ña x Ña x Ña

pq
h x

pq
g x
x
O a
pq
f x
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 3 (10 min)

Draw a sketch of the functions x 2 ,
x 2 , x 2 sin x1 and find
lim x 2 sin x1 .
x Ñ0
Solution: y
x2

x 2 sin x1

x
O

x 2
The function sin is not defined for x  0. But we have
x2 1
x

1 ¤ sin x1 ¤ 1 ñ
x 2 ¤ x 2 sin x1 ¤ x 2
and lim x 2  lim
x 2  0, hence lim x 2 sin x1  0.
x Ñ0 x Ñ0 x Ñ0 20 / 40
Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Concept check
pq
f x pq
f x f x pq
L L L

paq a pbq a pc q a

pq
f x
f x pq f x pq
L L L

pd q a peq a pf q a

Which lim f px q doesn’t exist? Ans: (a), (d), (e).

x Ña
Which lim f px q  L? Ans: (a), (d), (e), (f).
x Ña
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Concept check

Formally, lim f px q  L means the ε-δ definition fails for this

Ña
particular L, i.e. for this L, it’s impossible to find a δ ¡ 0 that
x

satisfies the ε-δ definition for some ε ¡ 0. Try this for lim x  2.
x Ñ1
On the other hand, lim f px q doesn’t exist means the ε-δ
Ña
definition fails for ALL L P R, i.e. for any L P R, it’s impossible to
x

find a δ ¡ 0 that satisfies the ε-δ definition for some ε ¡ 0.

Notice that in the case where lim f px q  8: , we still say that
Ña
the limit doesn’t exist or f px q diverges when x approaches a.
x

This is because a limit must be a real number and 8 are not.

After all, lim f px q  8 means f px q is getting arbitrarily large and
x Ña
not approaching any particular value when x approaches a.
: refer to page 22 of lecture 2 for the notation.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

The ε - δ definition for a limit

Definition: (When a limit does not exist)

We say that lim f px q doesn’t exist if for all real number L P R,
x Ña
lim f px q  L.
x Ña

Theorem:
If lim f px q exists, its value is unique.
x Ña

Remark: If we manage to show that lim f px q takes different

x Ña
values by making x approach a in different ways (for example x
approaches a from the left and x approaches a from the right),
then we can conclude that the limit doesn’t exist.

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 4 (15 min)

π
lim sin .
x Ñ0 x
x f px q  sin πx
0.d
0.0d
0.00d
0.000d
0.0000d
0.00000d
0.000000d
0.0000000d
0.00000000d

Divide into 9 groups where each group uses a different digit d

from d  1 to d  9. Fill in the table. Does the limit exist?
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 4: Solution
1. For d  1, 2, 4, 5, 8, the numbers tend to 0: Take d  4 as
example
n
π
0.4
 10 π4 , 0.04
π
 102 π4 , . . . ñ un  104 π .
10n
2  125  10n
3 ñ
10n π
n¥3ñ   2 k π.
4 4
The limit of the numbers is sinp2 k π q  0.
2. For d  3, the numbers tend to
0.866 . . .
n
π
0.3
 10 π3 , 0.03
π
 102 π3 , . . . ñ un  103 π .
10n
 10
1 1  p2 k 1q 1 .
n

3 3 3 3
The limit of  is ?
 the numbers
sin π π3 
sin π3 
23 
0.866 . . ..
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 4: Solution, continued

3. For d  6, the numbers tend to 0.866 . . .:
n
π
0.6
 10 π6 , 0.06
π
 102 π6 , . . . ñ un  106 π .
10n 2
n
1
n¥2ñ
6
 10n
1 3
10
1
2
3
 2k 2
3
.
 ?
The limit of the numbers is sin 23π  23  0.866 . . ..
4. For d  9, the number is equal to
0.342 . . .:
n
π
0.9
 10 π9 , 0.09
π
 102 π9 , . . . ñ un  109 π .
10n
 10
1 1  p2 k 1q 1 .
n

9 9 9 9
The number
 is always
sin π π9 
sin π9 
0.342020143325669 . . ..
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 4: Solution, continued

5. For d  7, the values are periodic, un  107 π : n

x f px q  sin πx
sin 107 π -0.974927912181824
sin 1007
π
0.781831482468029
sin 1000
7
π
0.433883739117548
10000 π
sin 7 0.974927912181723
sin 100000
7
π
-0.781831482469759
1000000 π
sin 7 -0.433883739118799
sin 10000000
7
π
-0.974927912288507
sin 100000000
7
π
0.781831479650537

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 4: Solution, continued

The 7th group will think there is no limit. But among the eight
groups observing a limit, five will get zero and three get
different nonzero values. If they share their results with each
other, they will conclude that the limit doesn’t exist, since their
limits are different!
d  1, 2, 4, 5, 8, d  3, d  7, d  6, d  9
y

x
O

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Left and right limits

Definition:
We say that f px q tends to L when x approaches a from the left
and we write lim f px q  L if,
x Ña

@ε ¡ 0, D δ ¡ 0 such that a
δ   x   a ñ |f px q
L|   ε.
lim f px q is called the left limit of f px q at a.
x Ña

Definition:
We say that f px q tends to L when x approaches a from the right
and we write lim f px q  L if,
x Ña
@ε ¡ 0, D δ ¡ 0 such that a   x   a δ ñ |f px q
L|   ε.
lim f px q is called the right limit of f px q at a.
x Ña
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Left and right limits

Theorem:
lim f px q  L if and only if lim f px q  L  lim f px q.
x Ña x Ña
x Ña

In other words, the limit of f px q at a exists if and only if both the

left and right limits of f px q at a exist and are equal.

In this case, the limit of f px q at a equals to the common value of

the left and right limits of f px q at a.

The theorem also provides us a method to show that a limit

doesn’t exist:
Corollary:
If lim f px q  lim f px q, then lim f px q doesn’t exist.
x Ña
x Ña x Ña

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 5 (10 min)

The absolute value function is

$
& x if x ¥ 0,
|x | : %

x if x   0.
What is lim |x | ? Notice that |x | is not defined at x  0. Does
x Ñ0x x

this matter in computing lim x ? |x|

x Ñ0

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 5: Solution
For x approaching 0 from the left, |x | 
x and we have

lim
|x |  x Ñlim0

xx 
1.
x Ñ0
x

For x approaching 0 from the right, |x |  x and we have

lim
|x |  lim
x
 1.
x Ñ0
Ñ0 x x x

Since lim |xx | 
1  1  lim |xx | , so lim |x | doesn’t exist.

x Ñ0
x Ñ0 x Ñ0

By the definition of limits, the value of lim f px q doesn’t depend

x Ña
on the value of f paq. So it doesn’t matter whether |x | is defined
x
at x  0 in computing lim |xx | .
x Ñ0
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Continuity

Definition:
A function f is continuous at x  a if xlim
Ñ a f px q  f p a q. Other-
wise, f is discontinuous at a / has a discontinuity at a.

Note that there are 3 conditions in the definition of continuity:

f paq is defined,
xlim
Ña f px q exists,
xlim
Ñ a f p x q  f pa q.

Definition:
A function f px q is continuous if it is continuous at every point in
its domain.

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Other useful results for continuous functions

1. If f px q and g px q are continuous at a point a, then
f px q g px q, f px q
g px q and f px q g px q are also continuous
at a. Furthermore gf ppxxqq is also continuous at a if g paq  0.
2. If f px q is continuous at lim g px q, then
x Ña


lim f pg px qq  f lim g px q .
x Ña x Ña
3. Any polynomial P px q is continuous for all values of x.
P px q
4. Any rational function R px q  Q px q where P px q and Q px q
are polynomials is continuous for all values of x for which
Q px q  0.
5. Exponential functions f px q  C x , logarithmic functions
g px q  logC x (will be taught later), hpx q  x C and all
trigonometric functions sin, cos, tan, csc, sec, cot are
continuous on their domain.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Limits and continuous functions

What’s the use of the previous slide?

If you know that f px q is continuous using the previous slide,

then computing lim f px q for a in the domain of f is a piece of
Ña
 a into f px q to compute the limit!
x
cake! You just need to plug x

E.g.:
 
 2
13 
13
lim  x
1 e cos x 
x
 π2
1
eπ cos π
x Ñπ x 2 π 2

13
π2
1
 π 2

eπ .

35 / 40
Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 6 (10 min)

There are two types of air drags: laminar air drag which occurs
at low velocity and turbulent air drag which occurs at high
velocity. We can model the air drag F pv q in terms of velocity v
as $
'
av
'
'
if 0 ¤ v   10,
'
&
F pv q 
'
b if v  10,
'
'
'
%

5v 2
¡ 10. if v
Find the constants a and b such that F pv q is continuous.

36 / 40
Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Activity 6: Solution
Since F pv q 
av for 0 ¤ v   10 and F pv q 
5v 2 for v ¡ 10,
F is continuous on r0, 10q Y p10, 8q.

For F to be continuous at v  10, we need

1. lim F pv q exists. For the limit to exist, we must have
v Ñ10
lim F pv q  lim F pv q
v Ñ10
v Ñ10
ðñ v
lim
Ñ10


av  v Ñlim10
5v 2
ðñ
10a 
500
ðñ a  50.
2. F p10q is defined. F p10q  b.
3. lim F pv q  F p10q. For this equality to hold, we must have
v Ñ10

500  b.
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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Summary
What we have learned
The intuitive idea and ε-δ definition of the limit of a function
at a point.
Laws of computing limits and the squeeze theorem.
When do limits not exist.
Left and right limits.
Continuous functions and their properties.
Additional resources:
Simmons: read 2.5 and try problems 1-18. Read 2.6 (only
on continuous functions) and try problem 1.
Hughes-Hallett: 1.8, 1.7 (only on continuity).

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Discontinuity

When f px q is discontinuous at x  a, the graph of f px q has a

"break" at x  a. We can categorize the discontinuity into the
following:

a a

lim f px q  8 or lim f px q  8
x Ña
x Ña
Infinite discontinuity

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Limits Limit Laws Limits that Do Not Exist Left and Right Limits Continuity Summary Appendix

Discontinuity
pq
f x f xpq
L L

a a
x Ña
pq pq
lim f x exists but f a is not defined f ap q  xlim
Ña f px q
Removable discontinuity Removable discontinuity

pq
f x
pq
f x

L L

a a
lim f x
x Ña

p q  x Ñlima f px q x
pq
lim f x doesn’t exist
Ña
Jump discontinuity Essential discontinuity
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