Action Research
Action Research
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Action research
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Perspectives about language direction and asymmetries from signed language interpreters in Switzerland and the United States View project
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Nicodemus, B., & Swabey, L. (2015). Action research. In C. V. Angelelli and B. J. Baer
(Eds.) Researching translation and interpreting. New York: Routledge.
Action Research
1
At its core, the goal of action research is for people to increase the effectiveness of the
work in which they are personally engaged (Stringer 2014). This is achieved by
examining the particular dynamics present in a local setting, taking a specified action
within that setting, and evaluating the results of that action. This process of planning,
taking action, and evaluating leads to further planning, action, and evaluation (Burns
1999; Coghlan and Brannick 2010). Throughout this process, community and
organizational members collectively reflect upon the descriptions and explanations that
emerge. In a recursive manner, new actions are then planned and taken, which are once
again reviewed (Kemmis, McTaggart, and Nixon 2014).
Action research is regarded as a qualitative approach to inquiry. A number of
textbooks describe how to conduct action research projects (e.g., Brydon-Miller,
Greenwood and Maguire 2003; Craig 2009; Mills 2014), and there has been an increase
in the number of master theses and dissertations that use an action research approach (Lee
and Wang 2012). Data in action research projects are generally taken from a variety of
sources (e.g., observations, scores, interviews, survey responses, grades, and
conversations) and commonly involve three phases: 1) pre-study planning, 2)
implementation of action, and 3) post-study analysis (Craig 2009).
When proposing an action research study, Institutional Review Boards may show
resistance to aspects of the approach that are non-traditional, such as participation by the
2
It is generally accepted that action research emerged in the United States during the
1940s through the work of social psychologist Kurt Lewin. In his work, Lewin (1946)
promoted shared decision-making by stakeholders in the workplace and the establishment
of community action programs. While others, including John Collier and Jacob Moreno,
have also been credited with the rise of action research, it was Lewin’s work and
reputation that gave impetus to action research movements in many different disciplines.
In the 1950s, action research was taken up in educational circles, specifically by the
teaching profession, and was advanced by Stephen Corey in his book Action Research to
Improve School Practices (1953). Use of action research went into decline in the United
States in the late 1950s, perhaps because of a focus on new research models and technical
excellence in the “space age.” In contrast, the approach began to gain momentum in the
U.K. only in the 1970s, mainly through the influence of Lawrence Stenhouse, who was
working in the context of teacher education. Stenhouse argued that teachers in classrooms
should be supported by higher education personnel and wrote that the “fruitful
development in the field of curriculum and teaching depends upon evolving styles of co-
operative research by teachers and using full-time researchers to support the teachers’
work” (1975: 162).
Another researcher, Stephen Kemmis, became active in action research in
Australia and gained worldwide influence by developing ideas with a critical and
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4
Given the roots of action research in education, it is not surprising to find a parallel in
Translation and Interpreting Studies. The use of this approach in T&I is relatively new
and primarily appears in the literature on interpreter education and translator education.
However, the literature contains more musings about the potential for this type of
research than published studies that actually use this approach. Liu (2011), in a
methodological review of 48 articles published in the journal Interpreting during the
period of 2004-2009, identified only one article that used action research as an approach,
and it was a study related to educating interpreters. She pointed out the need for action
research to identify new problems and additional questions. Pöchhacker (2011) also
commented on the promising possibilities of action research, both for interpreting
practice and for the development of techniques to use in teaching interpreting. Other
references alluding to the importance and potential of action research are found earlier in
the signed language interpreting literature (Napier 2005b; Turner 2005).
Action research has also been discussed in the translation literature, particularly in
regard to translator education, where it is becoming more widely used to identify
problems and answer a variety of practical questions. Fraser (2004) is often quoted,
suggesting the need for a better model for translation research. Perhaps, Fraser states, “we
need to start from practice and work back from it to theory” (2004: 59) and, in doing so,
more aptly mirror the actual work of practitioners. In his recent book Teaching and
Researching Translation, Basil Hatim carries this idea further, proposing “action research
as an ideal methodology with which to study translation, and thus question the
assumption that theory and practice are separate and distinct” (2013: 3).
Cravo and Neves (2007) identified benefits to using action research in translation
studies that are similar to those identified in interpreter education and interpreting studies,
including narrowing the gap between theory and practice, identifying new issues or
practices, and making connections between scholars and practitioners. They described the
benefits of researchers and translators working together, while also identifying some of
the challenges and problems of this particular approach.
Angelelli (2008) suggested that action research projects conducted collaboratively
between researchers and interpreting associations could advance the profession. One
example of a project suggested by Angelelli is the exploration of how interpreters enact
5
This section highlights three studies that use action research to examine and improve
interpreter education. Although the three studies tackle different problems, they share a
number of features. Each describes a real world problem in a classroom, program, or
community, and the pursuit of a solution relevant to the stakeholders. The research was
not conducted “on” a randomly selected group of participants. Rather, the researchers
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were directly involved in the programs or classrooms described. For example, one
researcher (Napier) not only conducted the study but also established the program, taught
courses in the program, and served as the program coordinator. Each study exemplifies
the cyclical nature of action research, with every stage in the process–planning, taking
action, and evaluation–influencing the next cycle.
Two of these studies (Slatyer 2006; Napier 2005a) were undertaken purposefully
as action research projects. In the third study, Hansen and Shlesinger (2007) report that
they did not begin their project with an action research approach. Instead, they described
seeing the “action research spiral” emerge almost inadvertently as they planned,
developed, implemented, and evaluated interventions for their program, and then, based
on insights and evidence, started the cycle again. These three studies also exemplify other
common characteristics of action research: the studies were all practical and
participatory; they were all conducted in the local environment; data collection was from
a variety of sources (e.g., scores, focus groups, teacher evaluations, grades); the process
was iterative; evaluation, and making changes based on evaluation, was key; and each
study involved collaboration with stakeholders, including students, teachers and, in the
case of the first study, community partners.
Two of the studies described here are about interpreting curriculum development
and change that came out of Australia. The first is an example of action research with the
aim of collaboratively developing a curriculum for teaching ad hoc interpreters of
languages of lesser diffusion (Slatyer 2006). The problem investigated was the use of
untrained interpreters, often other community members, for new and emerging migrant
and refugee language groups. Although Australia has a well-developed system for
providing interpreting service for most languages, serving emerging language
communities, as well as individuals who use languages of limited diffusion, is an on-
going challenge. In this project, collaboration was key and was achieved by inviting the
major stakeholders–the service providers that hire interpreters, the professional
interpreting organization, migrant and refugee groups, and educators–to provide input on
the curriculum planning and pilot course delivery. A three-phase interpreting curriculum
was developed and piloted, which included a week of intensive instruction on campus, a
six-week period of mentored and supervised fieldwork, and then another week of
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intensive instruction on campus. Slatyer described the benefits of using an action research
approach, citing, in particular, the on-going collection and analysis of data from a variety
of sources, including the end-users of the curriculum. The cycles of planning, information
gathering, implementation, and evaluation provided evidence for modifications of the
pilot curriculum. The project resulted in a model curriculum that allowed novice
interpreters to achieve the minimum level of competence needed for professional
practice.
In another study from Australia, Napier (2005a) used an action research approach
to make effective changes in a curriculum and delivery mode for a post-graduate diploma
program for signed language interpreters. The specific problems that motivated the study
were both external and systemic, with a need to reach potential students from all parts of
Australia who were unable to attend the program in a more traditional format. The
proposed solution involved making changes to the curriculum and format (e.g.,
teaching/learning strategies, materials, locations, modes) so that the program could be
effectively offered in a distance mode. After establishing this objective, an action plan
was established with four phases: 1) sensing (identifying the need for change), 2) reading
(literature review, focus groups with faculty/staff stakeholders, student questionnaires), 3)
matching (recommendations for change), and 4) acting (implementation of change).
Evaluation was cited by Napier as an important reason for choosing an action research
approach, and a variety of formative and summative assessments were used to evaluate
the revised educational delivery format (e.g., teacher evaluations of workload for each
unit, the amount of student participation online, and evaluation of student grades for each
unit). Students also evaluated the revised delivery format after each teaching block, with
changes implemented in the next block. At the end of the semester, all teacher and
student evaluations were analyzed to make further changes in future course offerings. As
the program grows, the faculty will monitor the need for additional changes.
A final example of action research in interpreter education (at the Copenhagen
School of Business) comes from Hansen and Shlesinger (2007). The specific problems
that motivated this study included a high rate of failure on final exams and ineffective
student self-study materials. The proposed solution involved revamping the language lab
to increase its versatility and functionality, as well as improving the availability of
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6. Further Reading
McNiff and Whitehead (2011) and Stringer (2014) provide clear guidelines that enable
novice practitioner researchers to move through the process of action research inquiry.
Craig (2009) offers a practical blueprint of action research based on her experiences with
students. For doctoral students using an action research approach, Herr and Anderson
(2005) offer a useful start-to-finish description of the research process. Reason and
Bradbury’s (2008) extensive (over 700 pages) edited volume contributes numerous
perspectives on the grounding, practices, and skills needed, as well as “exemplars” of
action research projects. Within the context of social science research, Noffke and
Somekh (2005) describe action research as a welcome approach that can impact local
communities.
7. Sample Studies
In addition to the studies reviewed under section 4, Cravo and Neves (2007: 92–107)
acknowledge the complexity of using action research in Translation Studies and address
many of the issues encountered in using this new approach in studies of translation,
translator education and translator teacher education. Fraser (2004: 57–61) looks broadly
at translation and interpreting research and makes a strong case for the incorporation of
action research, particularly in order for theory to reflect more accurately the experience
of practitioners.
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