SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF KERALA
SECOND SEMESTER MBA (SDE)

SUBJECT CODE: MGT 207

RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGERS

Prepared by
Sujankumar K G

Asst. Professor of Commerce

Govt. College Nedumangad

Edited by
Dr.B.Shaji
Coordinator (MBA)
SDE
MGT 207 RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGERS

Objectives: This course will introduce to the student the need to undertake research, the
research process and the research reporting.

Unit I-Research: Definition, meaning and research as the application of scientific method,
Importance of research in managerial decision making; the Research Process and types of
Research, Defining the Research Problem: Problem Formulation and Statement of Research
Problem

Unit II-Research Design: Exploratory, Descriptive, Diagnostic/ Conclusive and Experimental

Researches - Details and applications, Operational and administrative structure for research,
Sampling and Sampling Designs.

Unit III-Methods & Techniques of Data Collection: Observational and other survey methods,
Development and designing of tools of data collection, Measurement scales, Measurement of
attitudes, Validity and Reliability of the tools of data collection.

Unit IV-Fieldwork in research and data processing, Classification and Tabulation, Analysis and
interpretation of Data, Testing of Hypothesis, Parametric and Non-parametric tests, Essential
ideas of Multivariate analysis of data, Factor analysis, Discriminant Analysis, Use of Statistical
Software Packages.

Unit V-Reporting of Research - Types of Reports - Substance of Reports - Format of Report,

Presentation of Reports.

Suggested Readings

1. Wilson, Jonathan, Essentials of Business Research (2010), Sage

2. Alan Bryman & Emma Bell, Business Research Methods (3rd Edn.), Oxford University
Press

3. Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology - Methods & Techniques, New Age international.

4. O.R. Krishnaswami & M. Ranganatham, Methodology of Research in Social Sciences,

Himalaya Publishing

5. Panneerselvam, Research methodology, Prentice Hall of India

 Module 1

Introduction to Research

Sl No. Unit Contents

Learning outcomes
1.1 Research: Definition, meaning
1.2 Characteristics of Research
1.3 Research as the application of scientific method
1.4 Importance of research in managerial decision making.
1.5 Application of research in business
1.6 The Research Process
1.7 Types of Research
1.8 Defining the Research Problem
Self assessment questions
Learning outcomes

 Understand the meaning of research

 Understand the need of scientific method in research
 Understand importance of research in business
 Identify various steps in research process.
 Understand various types of research
 Identify the appropriate method for a particular study

1.1 Research: Definition, meaning

The one best reason for all the progress that we have attained can be attributed to Research. It has
become an important aspect of human activity. It is through research that knowledge grows and
develops, ultimately leading to the extension of the boundaries of knowledge and scholarship. The
word ‘research’ consists of two syllables, re and search. The prefix re means again and the
suffix search means to examine, to test, or to probe. Thus, literally, research (re-search) means ‘to
search again’. It is the search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. But, such a search should
be scientific and systematic. Therefore, research can be viewed as a careful, systematic, patient
study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. It
is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

George A. Lundberg in his book, Social Research: A Study in Methods of Gathering Data, defined
research as a “scientific method consisting of observation, classification and interpretation of
data”. He noted that such a method should be formal, rigorous and verifiable.

According to Redman and Mory research is a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.

Fred N. Kerlinger in his popular book Foundations of Behavioural Research, has defined
scientific research as“a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.
. According to Clifford Woody, research comprises ‘defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypotheses’.

Roger D.Wimmer and Joseph R.Dominick have defined scientific research as “an organized,
objective, controlled, qualitative or quantitative empirical analysis of one or more variables”
1.2 Characteristics of Research
i. Systematic- Research is a systematic process. This implies that the procedure adopted to
undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in
a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.
ii. Unbiased and objective- Research should be objective. It means that we have taken each step
in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of our ability and without
introducing our own vested interest.
iii. Controlled- In research, there are many factors (variables) that affect an outcome of the study
and our intention is to establish cause and effect relationship among them. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, we set up our study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
iv. Valid and verifiable- This concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our
findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
vi. Empirical- This means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations. he findings should be adequately
supported with evidences.
vi. Critical- Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

1.3 Research as the application of scientific method

Research is the process of finding solution to problems. Mere solution is not enough. The solution
should be arrived at by scientific method. Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined
by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.” In
scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their
possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives,
and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher
or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;

3. It is committed to only objective considerations;

4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;

5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in testing the
conclusions through replication;

7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

1.4 Importance of research in managerial decision making.

The process of undertaking a detailed study of all the areas of a business including its customers
and the market and effectively using such information gathered in maximizing the sales and profit
of the business can be called as Business Research. Business research is the process of gathering
the necessary data for an industry to be successful. Business research is synonymous with market
research, but companies typically use every type of market research available to fully analyze their
business situation: industry analysis, product research, and even identifying key customer groups.

Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market and
competitors. Such a research helps companies to understand the demand and supply of the market.
Such a research will help businesses reduce costs, and create solutions or products that are
targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.
Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the upper
hand to stay ahead of them. Failures can be avoided by conducting such a research as it can give
the researcher an idea if the time is right to launch its product/solution. It will help understand the
brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to continuously innovate and
meet customer demands. This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business
research also helps recruit the ideal candidates for various roles in the company. By conducting
such a research a company can carry out SWOT analysis, i.e. understand the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats. With the help of this information, wise decisions can be
made to ensure business success.
Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business, to survive
or to excel in the market. The main reason why such a research is of utmost importance is because
it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share and brand value.
The business research process is necessary to assist managers in making major business decisions.
Its major advantages are;

1. Business research helps identify opportunities and threats.

2.It helps to identify problems and wise decisions can be made.

3. It helps to understand customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with the
customers or stakeholders.

4.Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.

5.Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using
business research.

6. Help track competition in the business sector.

.7.Business research can enable a company to stay up-to date with the market and its trends.

1.5 Application of research in business

The broad areas of research in Business management are:

a.Marketing

b. Finance

c. HR

d. Production

e. Entrepreneurship

a.Application of Research in Marketing:

- Decision making

- Market research

- Survey on demand

- Product research

- Customer research

- Sales research

- Promotional research
- Risk management on collaboration

- Research for market development

- Research on marketing and reach of competitors

- Research on formation of marketing strategy

- Research to build up competitive advantage

b. Application of Research in Finance:

- Break even analysis

-Capital Budgeting

- Ratio analysis

-Portfolio management

-Financial crisis management

- Decision making

- Risk perception

-Investment analysis

- Strategies for tax savings

c. Application of Research in HR:

- Training and development

- Recruitment

- Manpower planning

- Labour welfare study

- Administrative roles

-Performance appraisal system

- Leadership style

- Problem identification

- Conflict management
d. Application of Research in Production:

- Supply chain management

- Testing new products

- Prototype development

- In-house research is required for professional and self development of the workers through
training and mentoring

- Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure

- New technology approach

-Strategic module for overall production and distribution

- Operational module for production and sales synchronization

- R&D for fully utilization of the machines

e. Application of Research in Entrepreneurship

-Market analysis

- Barriers in start-ups

- Diversification and reverse strategy

- Existing competitors or substitutes

- Competitive advantage

- Differentiation from others

- Investment decisions

- Govt. rules and regulations

- Social culture and practices to utilize the opportunities

1.6 The Research Process

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process
is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method. The process
focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process.
The scientific research process is a multiple-step process that consists of;
1. Identification and selection of research problem
2. Review the Literature
3. Formulation of research problem
4. Preparation of research design
5. Construction of data collection instruments
6. Collection of data
7. Processing of data
8. Analysis of data
9. Writing and Presentation of report

1. Identification and selection of research problem

Research problem is the topic or title of the research. It is a phenomenon that the researcher
intends to explore. Research problem in business research may;

-a disturbing situation that needs to be solved

- A question that needs to be in answered

-A concept that the researcher wants to understand

- Cause and effect relationship the researcher wants to explore

Identification of research problem refers to the sense of awareness of a prevalent the business
problem, a social phenomenon or a concept that is worth. The researcher identifies such a research
problem through his observation, knowledge, wisdom and skills.

Problem identification is an important part of research. Most researches may initially find it
difficult to identify a researchable topic. The reason for this difficulty is not that there are
unlimited research problems but this difficulty arises due to inability to locate the researchable
problem. The other reason is to avoid duplication of earlier research studies and to come up with a
new and unique topic

The sources for identification of a research problem are as follows

i. subject area of the researcher

ii. knowledge of the current social Trends- issues and situations

iii. knowledge of political and economic trends- issues and situations

iv on-going programs and initiatives- evaluation of their effectiveness etc.

v. deep observation

vi. cause effect relationship of a phenomena

vii. awareness for social surrounding

viii. literature survey, and

ix. personal experiences- situations faced by the researcher.

After the identification of viable topic, the next step is to select the best affordable topic. While
selecting the researcher should consider the following;

i. One unique topic to avoid duplication of studies

ii. Researcher’s interest in the topic

iii. Subject area and expertise of the researcher

iv. Urgency to address the problem

v significance of the topic

vi. Resource availability - time and money

vii. Availability of enough literature- for initial theoretical understanding

viii. Applicability of methodology in the specific topic

ix. Ethical considerations of the topic

2. Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem.
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also
educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies
were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In short, a literature review has the
following functions:

a.It provides a theoretical background to the study.

b.It helps to establish the links between what we are proposing to examine and what has already
been studied.
c.It enables to show how the findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge .

d.It helps to integrate the research findings into the existing body of knowledge.

There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:

1. Searching for the existing literature in the area of study.

2. Reviewing the selected literature.

3. Developing a theoretical framework.

4. Developing a conceptual framework.

3. Formulation of a research problem

Formulation of a research problem refers to state the problem in a researchable manner. It
means to portray the topic in a way that it becomes ready for scientific investigation. Research
problem is simply a research topic. The researcher needs to refine the topic and clearly state what
is intended to explore about the topic. Formulation of research problem basically includes
narrowing down the research area and formulating the objectives. Once the research problem is
formulated, the topic becomes ready to undergo a scientific enquiry.

Problem formulation is the process of translating and transforming the selected problem into a
scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying what the research problem is
and why it is studied. The formulation of research problem consists of the following steps

i. identify a broad research area of your interest

ii.. divide the broad area into sub areas

iii. Select one of the sub areas

iv. Raise research questions

v. Formulate the objectives

i. Identify a broad research area- A researcher always start with identifying a broad research area.
Identification of a broad research area is depending on researcher’s interest, knowledge, speciality,
expertise and profession. For example, major research areas are, production, marketing, finance,
accounting, human resource, etc.

ii. Divide the broad area into sub areas

After selecting a broad area you need to narrow down the area into the specific topic that is
responsible and manageable for research. For this divide the broad area into sub areas. For
example, brand preference, customer satisfaction, pricing strategy, effectiveness of advertising etc.
come under the broad area of Marketing research.

iii. Select one of the sub areas

It is not it is not feasible for the researcher to study all areas due to the limited resources time and
monetary resources. Hence, select one the sub area that interest you more and is more visible and
manageable for you. This selected area should be relevant your subject knowledge it should also
have research significance.

iv. Raise research questions

After selecting specific raise important questions about the chosen sub area which need to be
answered in your research. There can be many questions but you have to choose the most
important.

v. Formulate the objectives

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a reader
of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically. Objectives should be listed as main objectives and sub-objectives.

The main difference between objectives and research questions is the way in which they are
written. Research questions are obviously that – questions. Objectives transform these questions
into behavioural aims by using action oriented words such as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to
ascertain’ and ‘to examine’.

4. Preparation of Research design

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research design helps to decide upon issues like
what, when, where, how much, by what means we can complete our research study. Thus, Research
design covers;

1. The nature of the study

2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
There are different types of research designs. The various designs have been classified by
examining them from three different perspectives:

1.On the basis of the number of contacts: (This based on the number of contacts with the study
population)

- The cross-sectional study design (one-short or status studies). Most commonly used. design in
social sciences. It suited to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitudes or issue.

- The before and after study design (pre-test/post-test design).

This can measure changes in situation, phenomenon, problem or attitude. It is the most commonly
used design in evaluation studies and the most appropriate design for measuring the impact or
effectiveness of a program. An example: The impact of increased funding on the quality of
teaching in universities.

- The longitudinal study design. This is used to determine the pattern of change in relation to time.
It is also useful when a researcher need to collect factual information on a continuing basis.

2.On the basis of the reference Period: This refers to the time-frame in which a study is exploring
a phenomenon, situation, event or problem.

- The retrospective study design. This investigates problems that have happened in the past, based
on available old data, or respondents' recall of the problem).

- The prospective study design. This investigates the prevalence of phenomenon in the future.

- The retrospective- prospective study design. This focuses on past trends in a phenomenon and
studies it in the future.

3. on the basis of nature of the Investigation:

- The experimental study design

-Non-experimental; and -Quasi or semi-experimental.

5. Construction of data collection instruments

At this stage we have to;
1. Identify the data needs
2. Delineate data sources
3. Drafting of data collection instruments such as, observation schedule, interview
schedule
 4. Check lists
5. Mailed questionnaire

The data collection tools should be pre tested and revised if required. The construction of a
research instrument is the most important aspect of any research endeavour as it determines the
nature and quality of the information. This is the input of your study and the output, the relevance
and accuracy of your conclusions, is entirely dependent upon it.

6.Collection of data
Once the data instruments are prepared, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research
question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the
literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of
words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature.
The data may be collected by experimental or field work. In the case of sample study, we have to
prepare a sample frame and make list of sample respondents. We can collect data either directly
or indirectly.
7.Processing of data
The processing of data involves editing, coding, transcription and tabulation.
The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors and omissions and to
correct them, if possible, so as to ensure legibility, completeness, consistency and accuracy.
Data transcription is the process of converting the data collected in form of audio or video into
written format.
Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or numerals or (both) to the
answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of classes or categories. The
classes should be appropriate to the research problem being studied. They must be exhaustive and
must be mutually exclusive so that the answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given
category. Further, every class must be defined in terms of only one concept. The coding is
necessary for the efficient analysis of data. It is highly important when the analysis is done with
help of software.
Tabulation is the process of converting the collected data in the form of tables. The tabulation is
used for summarization and condensation of data. It aids in analysis of relationships, trends and
other summarization of the given data. The tabulation may be simple or complex.

.8.Analysis of Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate
in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be
answered. In the research design, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The
researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then
reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research questions. Then, the data
will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are
statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. In short,
analysis of data consists of statistical treatment, testing of hypotheses and interpretation of
findings.
9.Writing and Presentation of report
Writing the research report is the most crucial step in the research process as it communicates the
findings with the supervisor or the readers. Styles of research writing vary but all research reports
must be written clearly and concisely a badly written report can spoil all hard work had been put
into research study. Furthermore, scientific writing requires intellectual strictness and there are
certain obligations in terms of accuracy and objectivity. In the case of academic research, strict
adherence to report format is necessary.
1.7 Types of Research

1.Pure Research

Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.
Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual
curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of
knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory.
The development of various sciences owes much to pure research. The findings of pure research
enrich the knowledge repository that can be drawn upon in the future to formulate significant
practical researchers. Pure research lays the foundation for applied research. The findings of pure
research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam
engine, machines automobiles, electronic gadgets, telecommunication, etc, which have
revolutionized an enriched out human life.

2. Applied Research

An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a

business organisation, or the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such
researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.
It is thus problem oriented and action action-directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result,
e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new market or for studying the post-purchase
experience of customers.

3. Exploratory research

Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from an
unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. “it is ill-structured and much less
focused on pre-determined objectives.” It usually takes from of a pilot study. Explorative research
is also called formulative research as it helps to formulate a research problem from those areas
which are highly unexploited.

The purpose of an exploratory study may be:

-To generate new ideas

-To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem

- To make a precise formulation of the problem

- To gather information for clarifying concepts

-To determine feasibility of the study

4. Descriptive research

Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest

type of research. It focuses on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is
designed to gather descriptive information and provide information for formulating more
sophisticated studies. A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
community or institution or problem under study but it does not deal with the testing of
proposition or hypothesis. However, “it can reveal potential relationships between variables thus
setting the stage for more elaborate investigation later”.

Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being

studied. It addresses the "what" question and does not answer questions about how/when/why the
characteristics occurred. Here data are mainly collected by observation, interviewing and mail
questionnaire. All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. This method is applicable
to problems which satisfy certain criteria.

1. the problem must be describable and not arguable. For instance, philosophical and
controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive study.
2. the data should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and, if possible, quantitative
assemblage for reliability and significance.
3. it should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison.
4. it should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis of data.

5.Analytical research

Analytical research is one where the researcher has to use facts and information which are
available and after collecting these data the researcher can analyse and make a critical evaluation
on the materials in the method of analytical research. Analytical study is primarily concerned with
testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It employs advanced statistical
techniques like correlation and multivariate analysis.

6. Diagnostic Research

A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variable
are associated. This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why is it happening and what can be done about. It aims at
identifying the cases of a problem and the possible solutions for it. Though diagnostic Study and
descriptive study have some similarities, they differ from each other in some respects. First, a
diagnostic study is more directly concerned with casual relationships and with implications for
action that is a descriptive study. Second, while a descriptive study is oriented towards finding out
what is occurring, a diagnostic study is directed towards discovering not only what is occurring
but why it is occurring and what can be done about it. Last, a diagnostic study is more actively
guided by hypothesis than is a descriptive study.

7. Evaluation Research

Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented (e.g. Swachh Bharat Mission, MGNREGA) or for
assessing impact of developmental projects (e.g. irrigation project) on the development of the
project area. There are three types of evaluation study:

1 Concurrent evaluation : This is a continuous process and partakes the nature of an inspection or
social audit of an on going programme. It aims at the evaluation of the quality implementation and
services as a feed back for improving the performance.

2 Periodic evaluation : This is made after each distinct phase or state of a project has been
completed. In the case a medium period time bound programme like five year plan, this evaluation
may be done in the middle of the period and it may be called midterm/interim evaluation.

3 Terminal evaluation: This is done after the completion of a programme or project (e.g. an
irrigation project). This is designed to assess the extent of the achievement of its goals or
objectives. It may also involve a benefit-cost analysis. In the case of a project with long-gestation
period (e.g. an irrigation project), the appropriate methodology for terminal evaluation will consist
of a survey cum experimental design.

8. Action research

Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action

programme launched for solving a problem/for improving an existing situation. According to
OBrien “action research is a natural way of acting and researching at the same time”.

Prospero R. Covar categorizes action research in to five types:

Type I - Classical design:- Research and action are separate and independent. No interdependence

Type II - Interdependence of action and research- Action is carried out by an agency not
connected with a research institution. Research on action may be entrusted to an independent
research body. Some sort of interdependence between them
 Type III – Evaluate research built into an action programme- Here, research is dependent upon
action, and the action people define the scope of the research.

Type IV – Action for research- Here the activities of the action programme are designed and
modified to carry out tests of hypotheses of research.

Type V – Research-cum-action- Action and research go together as a joint endeavour. Researcher

and decision makers jointly design and launch the action programme and research on it.

9. Experimental research:

Experimental research assesses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the
other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner
variables are related to each other. The variable, which is influenced by other factors, is called a
dependent variable (DV) and the other variables, which influence the depended variable, are
known as independent variables (IDV). For experimental research two identical groups are
selected. One of the groups is taken as experimental group, and the other as control group.
Experimental group is exposed to an experimental variable by keeping the control group
unchanged. The difference between the experimental and control groups outcome is attributed to
the effect of the experimental variable.

10. Case study

A case study is an in-depth and comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a
process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit. It is a
method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full
analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals
with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is essentially an
intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study
method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality. Following are the characteristics of this method,

1. The number of unit to be studied is small.

2. It studies a social unit deeply and thoroughly.

3. It is qualitative as well as quantitative.

4. It covers sufficient wide cycle of time.

5. It has continuity in nature.

Because of its aid in studying behaviour in specific, precise detail, Burgess termed the case study
methods as ‘the social microscope.’ Now a day’s case study method is widely used in business
research.
 1.8 Defining the Research Problem

A Research Problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the
context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the problem
complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of
action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very
large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favourably
or unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may
be thought of in context of a research problem.

A problem well defined is half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research
problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to
be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and
similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and
find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus,
defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest
importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on
careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly
carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

Steps in the process of defining a Research problem

The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after
the other:
i. statement of the problem in a general way;
ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
1. Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the
subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is
considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake
 some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can
himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in
accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then
up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case
there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated
accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which
must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view
while stating the problem.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came
about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he
should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement
concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he
can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which
the problem is to be studied and understood.
3. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is
given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the
field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in
reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what
data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are
available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be
used.”. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or
whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each
other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the
theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the
field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise.
Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be
encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such
studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a
researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an
experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on
different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to
the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the
field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the
specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given
problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been
 defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been
surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a
difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms
as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses.
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:
 Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly
stated.
 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection
of the problem) should be provided.
 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by
the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be
mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Self Assessment questions

1. Define research and examine its characteristics.

2. Research should follow scientific method rather than arbitrary method.
Substantiate.
3. Can the scientific method be applied o the social science? Justify.
4. Explain the importance of research in managerial decision making.
5. Distinguish between pure research and applied research.
6. What is analytical research?
7. Explain the broad areas of business research.
8. Explain the various steps involved in research process.
9. Explain different types of research.
10. Prepare a note on case study.
11. Explain the process of defining a research problem.
12. Identify the best research method suitable for the following business
problems.

a. What kinds of people are buying our product? Who is buying our competitor’s
product?

b. Our sales are declining and we don’t know why?

c. Which of two advertising campaigns is more effective?

d. What features do consumers prefer in our product?
 e. Would people be interested in our new product idea?
f. Will buyers purchase more of our products in a new package?

13.Explain how research helps in making better decisions in the following cases:
a.Marketing research
b. Motivational research
c.Government policy and industry related operational problems
 Module II
Research Design
Sl No. Unit Contents
Learning outcomes
2.1 Research Design
2.2 Types of research design
2.3 Operational and administrative structure for research
2.4 Sampling
2.5 Sampling Designs
2.6 Types of sampling design
2.7 Types of Probability Sampling
2.8
Non-probability sampling design

Self assessment questions

Learning outcomes

 Understand concept of research design

 Identify various research design

 Understand the concept of sampling

 Identify various types of sampling design

 Compares probability and non-probability sampling designs

 Identify the appropriate sample design for a particular study

2.1 Research Design

According to Kerlinger, ‘ a research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so

conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete
scheme or programme of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data’.

Thus, a research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It
specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving
the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It
is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answer to research
question. The plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program
that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observation.

A research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions
validly, objectively, accurately and economically. According to Selltiz, Deutsch andCook,‘A
research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Through a
research design you decide for yourself and communicate to others your decisions regarding what
study design you propose to use, how you are going to collect information from your respondents,
how you are going to select your respondents, how the information you are going to collect is to
be analysed and how you are going to communicate your findings. In addition, you will need to
detail in your research design the rationale and justification for each decision that shapes your
answers to the ‘how’ of the research journey.

A research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or
development of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study. For this the
research design highlights decisions regarding;

1. The nature of the study

2. The purpose of the study

3. The location where the study would be conducted

4. The nature of data required

5. From where the required data can be collected

6. What time period the study would cover

7. The type of sample design that would be used

8. The techniques of data collection that would be used

9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and

10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

The second function of research design emphasises the importance of quality in these procedures
to ensure their validity, objectivity and accuracy. To ensure this, it is important that you select a
study design that helps to isolate, eliminate or quantify the effects of different sets of variable
influencing the independent variable.

2.2 TYPES OF REASERCH DESIGN

On the basis of objectives of the research, the research can be classified into (a) Exploratory
Research Design and (b) conclusive Research Design. The conclusive Research Design can be sub
divided into (i) Descriptive Research and (ii) casual or experimental research design. Descriptive
Research further divided into cross sectional design and longitudinal design. The cross sectional
design classified into single cross sectional design and multiple cross sectional design.

Exploratory research design

Exploratory research design deals with exploring into the phenomenon. According Burns and
Bush exploratory research design is referred as gathering information in an informal and
unstructured manner. The exploratory research design is proper when the researchers knows small
about the opportunity or issue. Exploratory research design is not limited to one specific paradigm
but may use either qualitative or quantitative approaches. At the exploratory design stage, the
information is loosely defined. Exploratory research design focuses on collecting either secondary
or primary data using an unstructured format or informal procedures to interpret them. Among all
the three classified research designs above, exploratory research designs incorporates the least
amount of scientific method and rigour because of aims and structure.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

1. Exploratory research is inexpensive, interactive, unrestricted, and open-ended in nature.

2. It is an unstructured type of research.

3. No pre-research is conducted to support exploratory research and even there is no prior

information available on the problem from the past researche

4. It enables a researcher to answer all questions like why, how, and what. Therefore, it helps
a researcher to know about the purpose of the research.

5. All the available material should be studied in detail.

6. It consumes a lot of time to conduct exploratory research and it might sometimes lead to
disappointments.

7. There is no standard format to carry out exploratory research. It is flexible, scattered, and
broad in nature.

8. There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.

 9. Make sure the problem you are going to conduct research about should have importance
and value.

10. Most of the time you will get qualitative data as an outcome of this research.

Exploratory research method includes secondary data sources, expert’s opinion, surveys, in depth
discussions, case studies and observation.
i) Secondary data sources: Exploratory Research using secondary sources of information many
companies who regularly conduct market research studies have maintained a record of research
finding over the years., the access to which is both quick and economical for a market researcher.
ii) Exploratory Research using expert opinions and ideas : Experts can give valuable insights
into a marketing problem because of their expensive with the problem hand, ability to act as an
observer and an ability to express ideas unlike any other individual. Despite the desire to find
individuals with ideas, it is important not to concentrate the investigation only among the better
educated or more articulate person.
iii) Depth Interviews :
There are one-to-one interviews because most people do not have clear ideas why they make
particular purchase decisions. Individuals normally do not report decisions. They normally do not
report socially unacceptable motives. So market researcher indepth interviews attempt to influence
respondents to talk freely about their subject of interest.
iv) Group Interviews :
When the management wants to get a first person feel of consumer reactions an its marketing mix
variables, a marketer researcher can convert a focus group with him acting as a moderator.
v) Projective Techniques :
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been
developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline
motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent
either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in
giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These
techniques helps the respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the
subject under study.

Conclusive research design

Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify findings of exploratory studies
and is generally more formal and structured as compared to exploratory research. Conclusive
research design is applied to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching conclusions.
In this type of studies research objectives and data requirements need to be clearly defined.
Conclusive research can be classified into descriptive research and casual or experimental
research.
Descriptive Research design

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, organisation or situation. Descriptive research design
answers the question, ‘what it is about?’ and it does not probe into the reasons behind the
population scenario towards defined variables. The research objectives in this types of research is
generally describing the characteristics of consumer segment viz, demographic and benefits
sought. Descriptive studies can also portray buyer perceptions of brands, audience profiles for
media types viz. TV, radio, newspaper, availability of distributors, product consumption patterns,
price sensitivity of consumers, market share, etc. The purpose and nature of descriptive research is
quite different from that of exploratory research. The Descriptive Research design has the
following steps;

1. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
2. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
3. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
4. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
5. Processing and analysing the data.
6. Reporting the findings

Descriptive studies are again classified into two types:

(a) Longitudinal

(b) Cross sectional

(a) Longitudinal research relies on panel data and panel methods. It involves fixing a panel
consisting of fixed sample of subjects that are measured repeatedly. The panel members are those
who have agreed to provide information at specific intervals over an extended period. For
example, data obtained from panels formed to provide information on market shares are based on
an extended period of time, but also allow the researcher to examine changes in market share over
time. New members may be included in the panel as an when there is a dropout of the existing
members or to maintain representativeness. Panel data is analytical and possess advantages with
respect to the information collected in the study. They are also considered to be more accurate
than cross sectional data because panel data better handle the problem associated with the errors
that arise in reporting past behaviour and the errors that arise because of the necessary interaction
between interviewer and respondent.

(b) Cross-sectional research is the most predominantly and frequently used descriptive research
design in marketing. It involves a sample of elements from the population of interest. The sample
elements are measured on a number of characteristics. There are two types of cross-sectional
studies: Field studies and Surveys It may appear that field studies and surveys are no different but
the same. However, for practical reasons, they are classified into two categories cross sectional
research. The fundamental difference lies in the depth of what these research cover. While survey
has a larger scope, field study has greater depth. Survey attempts to be representative of some
known universe and filed study is less concerned with the generation of large representative
samples and is more concerned with the in-depth study of a few typical situations. Cross sectional
design may be either single or multiple cross sectional design depending on the number of
samples drawn from a population. In single cross sectional design, only one sample respondents
are drawn whereas in multiple cross sectional designs, there are two or more samples of
respondents.

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research designs are the primary approach used to investigate causal (cause/effect)
relationships and to study the relationship between one variable and another. This is a traditional
type of research that is quantitative in nature. In short, researchers use experimental research to
compare two or more groups on one or more measures. In these designs, one variable is
manipulated to see if it has an effect on the other variable. Experimental designs are used in this
way to answer hypotheses. A hypothesis is a testable statement that is formulated by the
researcher to address a specific question. The researcher designs an experimental study which will
then support or disprove the hypothesis. Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of
a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be
conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further,
Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative
experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of
a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the
researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-
fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment. Through experiment we are
trying to measure the impact of independent variables on depended variable.

Dependent And Independent Variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The
concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative
variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative
phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s)
considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are
known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be
expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are
also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number
of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes
in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables
that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or
exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent
variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like
income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to
the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is
determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of
substitutes.

Extraneous Variables: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of
the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance,
assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable
and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school
performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by
the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the
extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’.
Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of
independent variable/s is clearly evident.

Experimental and Control Groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an

experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when
the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’.
In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as
experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the
groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the
experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.

Principles of Experimental Designs

Principle of Replication

According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the
effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose, we may divide the field into two parts and grow
one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of
the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication
to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of
these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the
two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more
reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication.
The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Conceptually
replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. For example, if an
experiment requiring a two-way analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require a three-way
analysis of variance since replication itself may be a source of variation in the data.
Principle of Randomisation

The Principle of Randomisation provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the
effect of extraneous factors by randomisation. In other words, this principle indicates that we
should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous
factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.” For instance, if we grow one
variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other
half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to
the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the
variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
technique, i.e., we may apply randomisation principle and protect ourselves against the effects of
the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the given case).

Principle of Local Control

The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the
experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total
variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in
our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error. In other words,
according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous
parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of
treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field
into several homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which
we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability
of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local
control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.

Types of experimental research designs

i.Post-test Only Design – This type of design has two randomly assigned groups: an experimental
group and a control group. Neither group is pretested before the implementation of the treatment.
The treatment is applied to the experimental group and the post-test is carried out on both groups
to assess the effect of the treatment or manipulation. This type of design is common when it is not
possible to pretest the subjects.

ii.Pretest-Post-test Only Design - The subjects are again randomly assigned to either the
experimental or the control group. Both groups are pretested for the independent variable. The
experimental group receives the treatment and both groups are post-tested to examine the effects
of manipulating the independent variable on the dependent variable.
iii.Solomon Four Group Design – Subjects are randomly assigned into one of four groups. There
are two experimental groups and two control groups. Only two groups are pretested. One pretested
group and one unprotested group receive the treatment. All four groups will receive the post-test.
The effects of the dependent variable originally observed are then compared to the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable as seen in the post-test results. This method is
really a combination of the previous two methods and is used to eliminate potential sources of
error.

iv.Factorial Design – The researcher manipulates two or more independent variables (factors)
simultaneously to observe their effects on the dependent variable. This design allows for the
testing of two or more hypotheses in a single project. One example would be a researcher who
wanted to test two different protocols for burn wounds with the frequency of the care being
administered in 2, 4, and 6 hour increments.

v.Randomized Block Design – This design is used when there are inherent differences between
subjects and possible differences in experimental conditions. If there are a large number of
experimental groups, the randomized block design may be used to bring some homogeneity to
each group. For example, if a researcher wanted to examine the effects of three different kinds of
cough medications on children ages 2-16, the research may want to create age groups (blocks) for
the children, realizing that the effects of the medication may depend on age. This is a simple
method for reducing the variability among treatment groups.

vi.Cross over Design (also known as Repeat Measures Design) – Subjects in this design are
exposed to more than one treatment and the subjects are randomly assigned to different orders of
the treatment. The groups compared have an equal distribution of characteristics and there is a
high level of similarity among subjects that are exposed to different conditions. Crossover designs
are excellent research tools, however, there is some concern that the response to the second
treatment or condition will be influenced by their experience with the first treatment. In this type
of design, the subjects serve as their own control groups.

2.3 Operational and administrative structure for research

An operational structure describes a logical and chronological structure of an operation of single

sequences and events in processes. A symbolic illustration of sequences and events over an
absolute or relative timeline is typical for an operational structure.

Administrative structures involve the management and operation of the respective systems/entities
and their leadership. The resources of a society reside within and are managed by any number of
administrative entities. Some of these include:
 1. Governmental institutions and agencies Governmental units are responsible for the health
and safety of their citizens and for visitors within the territory which it governs. There are
many forms and levels of government requiring an organisational structure at each level
(local, county, tribe, province, state, nation).

2. intergovernmental organisations An intergovernmental organisation (IGO)

or multigovernmental organisation is an agency set up by two or more states (countries) to
carry out projects and plans in common interest, an institution made up of the governments
of member states who have joined to cooperate on common goals

3. nongovernmental organisations A nongovernmental organisation (NGO) is a single

association or a federation of various organisations without governmental or state ties and
not belonging to or associated with a government

4. commercial private sector The commercial private sector is the private economy that is not
under state control [8]. Included in the private sector are banks, some hospitals and
medical clinics, construction companies, private transportation companies, energy
acquisition and distribution, and/or are engaged in the acquisition, processing, delivery,
and sales of organisations, businesses, farms, fisheries, security companies, etc. The
private sector is in the business of making a profit

5. academic institutions. Educational institutions constitute a major reservoir of persons with

special expertise that may contribute extensively to the planning and preparedness for and
responses to crises. Faculty and staff from such institutions should be involved in the
evaluation of interventions and disaster research. Further, academic institutions have a
major role in the education and training of responders, planners, managers, as well as the
public.

2.4 Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome regarding
the bigger group. The theory of sampling is guided by three principles:

Principle one: In a majority of cases where sampling is done there will be a difference between
the sample statics and the true population mean, which is attributable to the selection of the units
in the sample.

Principle two: The greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the estimate of the true
population mean.
 Principle three: The greater the difference in the variable under study in a population, for a given
sample size, the greater will be the difference between the sample statistics and the true population
mean.

Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:

1. Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a census
study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
2. Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally conducted
by trained and experienced investigators.
3. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
4. Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study.
5. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining
information concerning some characteristic of the population
Concepts in sampling

Universe/Population: Generally, there is no difference between population and universe, and as

such the two terms are taken as interchangeable. But from a statistical point of view, the term
‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry, whereas the term
‘population’ refers to the total of items about which information is desired. The attributes that are
the object of study are referred to as characteristics and the units possessing them are called as
elementary units. The aggregate of such units is generally described as population. Thus, all units
in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of one
characteristic or more) constitute population.

The population or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it consists
of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. For instance, the
number of car owners in a city, the number of students in a college is examples of finite
populations. The symbol ‘N’ is generally used to represent a finite population.
An infinite population is that population in which it is impossible to list all the elements with in a
reasonable period of time.. Eg. the number of stars in a sky. Practically, we use the theoretical
concept of infinite population as an approximation of a very large finite population.

Sampling frame: The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the basis of
sampling process are called sampling units. A list containing all such sampling units is known as
sampling frame. Thus sampling frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be
drawn.

Sampling design: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling
frame. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sample units from which inferences about the population is to be drawn.

Statisitc(s) and parameter(s): A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is

a characteristic of a population. Thus, when we work out certain measures such as mean, median,
mode or the like ones from samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they describe the
characteristics of a sample. But when such measures describe the characteristics of a population,
they are known as parameter(s).
The prime objective of sampling is to obtain the estimate of a parameter from a statistic.

Sampling error: As sample study follows the study of a small portion of the population, there
would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling
error or error variance. In other words, sampling errors are those errors which arise on account
of sampling and they generally happen to be random variations (in case of random sampling) in the
sample estimates around the true population values. The meaning of sampling error can be easily
understood from the following diagram:

Sampling error = Frame error + Chance error + Response error

Sampling errors occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction. The magnitude of
the sampling error depends upon the nature of the universe; the more homogeneous the universe,
the smaller the sampling error. Sampling error is inversely related to the size of the sample i.e.,
sampling error decreases as the sample size increases and vice-versa.
A measure of the random sampling error can be calculated for a given sample design and size and
this measure is often called the precision of the sampling plan. Sampling error is usually worked
out as the product of the critical value at a certain level of significance and the standard error.

Non-sampling error
Non-sampling errors are those errors creep in during the process of collecting actual data and such
errors occur in all surveys whether census or sample. These are also known as measurement error.
If we add measurement error or the non-sampling error to sampling error, we get total error. But
we have no way to measure non-sampling errors.

Precision: Precision is the range within which the population average (or other parameter) will lie
in accordance with the reliability specified in the confidence level as a percentage of the estimate ±
or as a numerical quantity. For instance, if the estimate is Rs 4000 and the precision desired is ±
4%, then the true value will be no less than Rs 3840 and no more than Rs 4160. This is the range
(Rs 3840 to Rs 4160) within which the true answer should lie. But if we desire that the estimate
should not deviate from the actual value by more than Rs 200 in either direction, in that case the
range would be Rs 3800 to Rs 4200.

Confidence level and significance level: The confidence level or reliability is the expected
percentage of times that the actual value will fall within the stated precision limits. Thus, if we take
a confidence level of 95%, then we mean that there are 95 chances in 100 that the sample results
represent the true condition of the population within a specified precision range against 5 chances
in 100 that it does not. Precision is the range within which the answer may vary and still be
acceptable; confidence level indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall within that range, and
the significance level( or alpha level) indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall outside that
range.

Sampling distribution: We are often concerned with sampling distribution in sampling analysis.
If we take certain number of samples and for each sample compute various statistical measures
such as mean, standard deviation, etc., then we can find that each sample may give its own value
for the statistic under consideration. All such values of a particular statistic, say mean, together
with their relative frequencies will constitute the sampling distribution of the particular statistic,
say mean. Accordingly, we can have sampling distribution of mean, or the sampling distribution of
standard deviation or the sampling distribution of any other statistical measure. It may be noted
that each item in a sampling distribution is a particular statistic of a sample. The sampling
distribution tends quite closer to the normal distribution if the number of samples is large. The
significance of sampling distribution follows from the fact that the mean of a sampling distribution
is the same as the mean of the universe. Thus, the mean of the sampling distribution can be taken
as the mean of the universe.

Sample Size
Sample size refers to the number of units to be included in the sample. It is important that the
sample size should be adequate enough to make meaningful inferences. In other words, it is the
minimum sample size that is needed to estimate the true population proportion with the required
margin of error and confidence level. As such, the determination of the appropriate sample size is
one of the recurrent problems in sampling study. The size of sample should neither be excessively
large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the
requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. Size of the sample should
be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following points:
1. Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature. If the items
of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But if the items are
heteogenous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can be termed as the
dispersion factor.
2. Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be formed, a
large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give a reasonable
number of items in each class-group.
3. Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample should be
small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.
4. Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of the
sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly selected
sample.
5. Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of acuracy or the level of
precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample. For doubling the
accuracy for a fixed significance level, the sample size has to be increased fourfold.
6. Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire, availability
of trained investigators, the conditions under which the sample is being conducted, the time
available for completion of the study are a few other considerations to which a researcher must
pay attention while selecting the size of the sample.

2.5 Sampling Designs

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample
design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs
from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply
 than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must consider to the following points:
1. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of
objects ie, Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite.
2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it
may be an individual.
3. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains
the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.
4. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
5. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest.
6. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. One must
select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling
error.

2.6 Types of sampling design

Mainly, there are two types of sample designs, probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability
sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.

Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance

sampling’. This is a sampling which permits every single item from the universe to have an equal
chance of presence in the sample. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample. For example by adopting a lottery method, sample units
are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but randomly. Here it is blind chance alone
that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or
random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of
estimation or the significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out
the superiority of random sampling design over the non random sampling design. Random
sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average the sample
chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the
universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting
a representative sample.
2.7 Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling required number of samples are drawn either by lottery method or
with the help of random tables after assigning numbers to each items in the population. For
example, if a simple random sample of 100 individuals is required from a sample frame of 8,500
individuals (listed from 1- 8,500) , a straight forward selection could be made using a computer
table of random numbers or some other generator of random numbers to produce a 100 different
numbers within the same range. Despite this being a simple process, simple random sampling is
not commonly used by researchers. There are also concerns about its accuracy. A major risk of
random sampling is when some individuals with important characteristics to the study are left out.
Such a situation could arise as a result of under sampling or because certain individuals will not be
available during sample selection and will therefore, be excluded.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling in which every unit or individual is
selected according to a predetermined sequence from a list. The researcher first determines the
number of entries on a list and the desired sample size before computing the sampling interval (k)
by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample size (5). If the researcher wishes to
select a sample of 100 individuals from a list of 8,500 individuals, he or she will divide 8,500 by
100 to generate the sampling interval which equals 85 . The first unit is typically selected at
random anywhere between 1 and 85 to ensure a chance selection process. Commencing from the
randomly selected number between 1 and 85, a sample of 100 individuals is then selected. The
attraction of systematic sampling is that the researcher does not need to have a complete list of all
the sampling units. Yet, caution is needed when using systematic sampling. Although systematic
sampling is considered a functional equivalent of simple random sampling and is usually easier to
use, researchers need to pay special attention to ordering of the sample frame by any characteristic
or some recurring pattern that will affect the sample.
Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling the universe is divided into several sub group of population that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population (the sub-populations differences are
called strata) and select items will be selected from each stratum to generate a sample in this case
each of the stratum will be more homogeneous with the population, more precise estimate will be
generated from each for stratum. We get the estimate of the population from each stratum when
there is better accuracy from each of the component; we get a better estimate of the whole. The
stratified sampling gives more reliable and detailed information about the sample. The forming of
strata is informed of purposive system from a well experience and special judgment of a
researcher. The strata are defined by the population characteristics of the estimate.
Here, within the strata, there is homogeneity and heterogeneity among the strata. The samples can
be drawn proportionally or disproportionally.
Cluster sampling
When the total area of the research is too large a better way for the researcher is to divide the area
in to smaller part of the same or equal and then select randomly from the smaller units. it is
expected that that the total population is to be divided in to relatively a smaller number which are
still from the clusters of smaller units and then some of this cluster unit will be selected randomly
so that it will be included in the general sampling. One of the advantages of using the cluster
sampling is economical in reducing cost by concentrating on the selected clusters it gives less
precision than the simple random sampling.
Multi-stage sampling
This is an additional progress of the belief that cluster sampling have. Normally in multi-stage
sampling design is applicable in a big inquires of geographical area, for the entire country.
Multistage sampling has to with the combination of the various methods of probability sampling
in most effective and efficient approach.
Area sampling
This s a design sampling that deals with subdivision of environment that represents clusters of
unit’s that centred on terrestrial location
2.8 Non-probability sampling designs
Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling, judgment sampling and purposive
sampling. Non probability samplings do not follow the theory of probability in the choice of
elements from the sampling population. Non-probability sampling designs are used when the
number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. In such
situations the selection of elements is dependent upon other considerations. In such a design,
personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator
may select a sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view and if that happens,
the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering into this type
of sampling technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of
deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there is no
assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included. Sampling error in
this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great or small, is always there.
As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in small
inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative
advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling.
There are five commonly used non-random designs, They are:
1. Quota sampling;
2. Accidental sampling;
3. Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling;
4. Expert sampling;
5. Snowball sampling.
Quota Sampling
Under this sampling, the researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with
certain restrictions imposed on how they should be selected. In other words, the actual selection of
the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very
convenient and is relatively less expensive. They are essentially judgment samples and inferences
drawn based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
Accidental sampling
Accidental sampling is also called convenience sampling. It is based upon convenience in
accessing the sampling population. Here, we stop collecting data when we reach the required
number of respondents decided to have in the sample.

Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling

This sampling design is based on the judgement of the researcher as to who will provide the best
information to succeed for the objectives study. Here the researcher only go to those people who
in his opinion are likely to have the required information and be willing to share it.
Expert sampling
The researcher here seeks for the consent of those that are expert or known expert in the area of
study, and begin the process of collecting his information directly from individual or group of
respondent. It also involves sample assembling of group of people that can demonstrate using their
experience or those that specialised in part of the areas. The reasons for using expert sampling are
to have a better way of constructing the views of individuals that are expert in a definite area.
Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is the process of selecting a sample using networks. To start with, a few
individuals in a group or organisation are selected and the required information is collected from
them. They are then asked to identify other people in the group or organisation, and the people
selected by them become a part of the sample. Information is collected from them, and then these
people are asked to identify other members of the group and, in turn, those identified become the
basis of further data collection. This sampling technique is useful if the researcher know little
about the group or organisation he wishes to study. Here, you need only to make contact with a
few individuals and they can then direct you to the other members of the group.

Self Assessment questions

1. What is research design?

2. How would you classify research design?
3. Why should one prepare a research plan for the study?
4. State the meaning and need for exploratory study.
5. What is the meaning and nature of descriptive study?
6. What are the principles of experimental research design?
7. Evaluate the experimental method of investigation.
8. What is sampling? Why it is used in business research?
9. Differentiate between probability sampling and non-probability sampling?
10. Distinguish between; a.Sample and population b. Statistic and parameter
11. What you meant by sampling design?
12. Explain the concept of sampling error
13. Differentiate between confidence level and significance level.
14. What are the different types of sampling designs?
15. Explain different types of sampling methods.
 Module III
Methods & Techniques of Data Collection
Sl No. Unit Contents
Learning outcomes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Primary data
3.3 Secondary data
3.4 Methods of collecting primary data.
3.5 Measurement scales
3.6 Measurement of attitudes
3.7 Validity and Reliability of the tools of data collection
Self assessment questions
Learning outcomes

 Understand the data sources

 Understand different methods of collecting primary data

 Understand the concept of data measurement

 Compares various measurement scales

 Compares various attitude scales

 Understand the concept of validity and reliability.

 Acquiring skill in the construction of questionnaire

3.1 Introduction
Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a variable. Data is viewed to be the
lowest unit of information from which other measurements and analysis can be done. Data can be
numbers, images, words, figures, facts or ideas. Data in itself cannot be understood and to get
information from the data one must interpret it into meaningful information. Data is the most
important and vital aspect of any research studies. Researchers conducted in different fields of
study can be different in methodology but every research is based on data which is analyzed and
interpreted to get information. Obviously, the quality of research depends upon the quality of data.
Generally, data are classified into primary data and secondary data.

3.2 Primary data

Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources, using methods like
surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with the research project in mind, directly
from original sources. Primary data are original in nature and directly related to the issue or
problem and current data. Primary data are the data which the researcher collects through various
methods like interviews, surveys, questionnaires etc. The primary data have own advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages of primary data

- The primary data are original and relevant to the topic of the research study so the degree of
accuracy is very high.

- Primary data is that it can be collected from a number of ways like interviews, telephone
surveys, focus groups etc. It can be also collected across the national borders through emails and
posts. It can include a large population and wide geographical coverage.

- Moreover, primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher about
the topic under consideration.

- Reliability of primary data is very high because these are collected by the concerned and reliable
party.

Disadvantages of primary data

- For collection of primary data where interview is to be conducted the coverage is limited and for
wider coverage a more number of researchers are required.

-A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection. By the time the data collected, analysed
and report is ready the problem of the research becomes very serious or out dated. So the purpose
of the research may be defeated.

- It has design problems like how to design the surveys. The questions must be simple to
understand and respond.

- Some respondents do not give timely responses. Sometimes, the respondents may give fake,
socially acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the realities.

-In some primary data collection methods there is no control over the data collection. Incomplete
questionnaire always give a negative impact on research.

-Trained persons are required for data collection. In experienced person in data collection may
give inadequate data of the research.

3.3 Secondary data

Secondary data refers to data which is collected by someone who is someone other than the user.
Common sources of secondary data for business research include annual reports of companies,
reports of government departments, reports of stock exchanges, organizational records
and data that were originally collected for other research purposes. These may be available in
written, typed or in electronic forms. A variety of secondary information sources is available to
the researcher gathering data on an industry, potential product applications and the market place.
Secondary data is also used to gain initial insight into the research problem.

Secondary data is classified in terms of its source – either internal or external. Internal, or in-house
data, is secondary information acquired within the organization where research is being carried
out. External secondary data is obtained from outside sources.

Advantages of Secondary Data:

- It is cheaper and faster to access.

-Secondary data gives a frame of mind to the researcher that in which direction he/she should go
for the specific research.

- Secondary data save time, efforts and money and add to the value of the research study.

-High level of accuracy if the source is reliable.

Disadvantages of Secondary data

- The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and accuracy of
data go down.

-Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable environmental
factor.

-With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old

-Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data a special
care is required to amend or modify for use

3.4 Methods of collecting primary data

There are several methods to collect primary data. The most important ones are:

i. observation method,

ii. interview method,

iii. questionnaire method

Observation method

Observation is one way to collect primary data. Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. There
are many situations in which observation is the most appropriate method of data collection; for
example, when we want to learn about the interaction in a group, study the dietary patterns of a
population, ascertain the functions performed by a worker, or study the behaviour or personality
traits of an individual.

Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may
himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if
observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is
currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively
less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the
interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with
respondents who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the
information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

There are two types of observation:

1. participant observation;

2. non-participant observation.

Participant observation is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities of the group being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being
observed.

Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when you, as a researcher, do not get involved in
the activities of the group but remain a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and
drawing conclusions from this.

Observation may also be Controlled or uncontrolled. Observation takes place in the natural setting, it
may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.

Interview method

According to Burns, ‘an interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone
may be used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or opinions from another
person’. An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people .The use of
interviews help to gather valid and reliable data that are relevant to the research. Interviews may
be highly formalised and structured, using standardised questions for each research participant or
they may be informal and unstructured conversations. Interviews may be;

structured interviews;

semi-structured interviews;

unstructured or in-depth interviews.

Structured interviews use an interview schedule based on a predetermined and ‘standardised’ or

identical set of questions. Here, the interviewer read out each question and then record the
response on a standardised schedule, usually with pre-coded answers. One of the main advantages
of the structured interview is that it provides uniform information, which assures the
comparability of data. Structured interviewing requires fewer interviewing skills than does
unstructured interviewing.

In semi-structured interviews the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be
covered, but does not have common interview schedule. This means that the interviewer may omit
some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organisational context that is encountered
in relation to the research topic. The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow
of the conversation.

Unstructured interviews are informal. Researcher uses these to explore in depth a particular area
of study. Therefore, it is referred to as ‘in-depth interviews’. There is no predetermined list of
questions to work through in this situation. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely
about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area, so that this type of interview is
sometimes called ‘non-directive’. The strength of unstructured interviews is the almost complete
freedom they provide in terms of content and structure.

For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully selected,
trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and impartial and must possess the
technical competence and necessary practical experience. Occasional field checks should be made to
ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for
performing their job efficiently. In addition, some provision should also be made in advance so that
appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or are not
available when an interviewer calls upon them.
In fact, interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every effort should be made to
create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while talking
to and discussing with the interviewer. The interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently
and must record the responses accurately and completely. At the same time, the interviewer must
answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter
has. The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased. The
interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer but he must keep the
direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and must make all
possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

Telephone interviews

This is a method of conducting interviews by contacting respondents over telephones. It is not a

very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed
regions. The main advantages of this method are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.

3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively
low.

4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.

5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.

6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.

7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.

9. No field staff is required.

10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Questionnaire method

Under this method data are collected using a questionnaire directly from the respondents or by
sending the same by mail. A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are
recorded by respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers. The main advantages of this method are;

1. This is economical even when the population is large and is widely scattered.

2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.

3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

Essentials of a good questionnaire

Questionnaire is a ‘tool’ used for collecting and recording data for a research project. In research
studies, questionnaire not only comprises of a set of questions but also with clear instructions and
space for answers or administrative details. Questionnaires have a definite purpose related to the
objectives of the research and are clear from the outset of the findings. a questionnaire has the
following three main sections.

Demographic: This section gathers information on the respondent’s basic details like age, gender,
income, education etc.

General background: This section identifies the respondent’s knowledge about the issue at hand
thereby evaluating their suitability for executing the study further. This section may include 4-5
questions.

Inferential: This section deals with the main questions perennial to the aim of the study. This
section should be made much clear in line with the conceptual framework of the study where the
independent and dependent variables are clearly marked down. A separate set of question for both
these variables must be made within this section.

While preparing questionnaire we have to consider the following;

1.Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple.

2.Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.
3. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a
questionnaire:
i. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
ii.. questions of a personal character;
iii. questions related to personal wealth, etc.

4.Technical jargons should be avoided in a questionnaire.

5. Do not use ambiguous questions. An ambiguous question is one that contains more than one
meaning and that can be interpreted differently by different respondents.
6.Do not ask double-barrelled questions. A double-barrelled question is a question within a
question eg. How often and how much time do you spend on each visit?
7. Do not ask leading questions. A leading question is one which, by its contents, structure or
wording, leads a respondent to answer in a certain direction. Eg. Unemployment is increasing,
isn’t it?
8.Do not ask questions that are based on presumptions. In such questions the researcher assumes
that respondents fit into a particular category and seeks information based upon that assumption.
eg. How many cigarettes do you smoke in a day?
9. Use closed ended questions and avoid open ended questions as far as possible as it is difficult to
analyse.

3.5 Measurement scales

Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numerals to characteristics of objects, persons,

state, or events according to rules. What is measured is not the object, person, state or event itself
but some characteristic of it. For example, we do not measure the object itself but some
characteristics of being present. We never measure people, only their age, height, weight, or some
other characteristic. According to Steven measurement is 'the assignment of numerals to objects or
events according to rules.'

Purposes of Measurement:

Following are the functions or purposes of measurement which are not necessarily mutually
exclusive but they are inter-related and complementary to each other.

1. It facilitates empirical description of social and psychological phenomenon.

2. Measurement renders data amenable to statistical manipulation and treatment.

3. Measurement facilitates testing of theories and hypotheses.

4. Measurement enables researchers to differentiate between objects or people.

Types of measurement scales

a.Nominal or classificatory scale:

Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them.
For example, an assignment of 1 and 2 for the boys and girls respectively, in a class in order to
identify their gender. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale
for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular
group and as such have no quantitative value ie, 1 + 2 has no meaning. Also 1 is not greater than
or less than the other number. Numbers are assigned only to categorize the objects or events.
Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned
to another. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when
a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of central
tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi-square test is
the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the measures of
correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out. Nominal scale is the least powerful
level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin.

Example- Gender, Brand numbers, Numbering of players, social security numbers

b.Ordinal or ranking scale:

The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The ordinal scale
places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of
some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena. A student‘s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an ordinal
scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about scores based on ordinal scales. For
instance, if X’s position in his class is 10 and Y’s position is 40, it cannot be said that X‘s position
is four times as good as that of Y. The statement would make no sense at all. Ordinal scales only
permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and
the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can be said is that one
person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but more precise comparisons cannot be made.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than‘ or ‘less than‘ (an equality
statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real
difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6.
Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of central
tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion.
Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of statistical significance are
restricted to the non-parametric methods.

Example- Market position, Quality rankings, Ranking of products, Social class

c.Interval scale:

In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been
established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts
the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not
possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The
primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to
measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an
interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and cannot do with it. One can say that an
increase in temperature from 30° to 40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase
from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the
temperature of 30° because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set
arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio of the two temperatures, 30°
and 60°, means nothing because zero is an arbitrary point. Interval scales provide more powerful
measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of
interval. As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales. Mean is the
appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard deviation is the most widely used
measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate and the generally
used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t‘ test and ‘F‘ test.

Example-Attitudes, opinions, Temperature

d.Ratio scale:
A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales and it also has a starting
point fixed at zero. Therefore, it is an absolute scale – the difference between the intervals is
always measured from a zero point. This means the ratio scale can be used for mathematical
operations. The measurement of income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A
person who is 40 years of age is twice as old as a 20-year-old. A person earning Rs.60 000 per
year earns three times the salary of a person earning Rs.20 000.
Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as
weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with
ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out
with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other
scales mentioned above. Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central
tendency and coefficients of variation may also be calculated. Thus, proceeding from the nominal
scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most precise), relevant information is
obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the researcher should use the scale
that provides the most precise description. Researchers in physical sciences have the advantage to
describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioural sciences are generally limited to describe
variables in interval scale form, a less precise type of measurement

Example –Sales, Market share, length, Weight

Scale Characteristics Permissible statistics

Nominal Scale No order, distance or origin Percentage, Mode
Ordinal Scale Order but no distance or origin Percentile, median
Interval Scale Both order and distance but no Mean, Range, Standard
origin deviation
Ratio Scale Order distance and origin Geometric Mean , All
others

3.6 Measurement of attitudes

Attitude is a perceptual orientation and response readiness in reaction to a particular object or
class of object. Louis Leon Thurstone defines attitude as “the degree of positive or negative
feeling associated with some psychological object like symbol, phrase , slogan , person ,
institution , idea towards which people can differ in varying degree'' Attitude scales provide a
quantitative measurement of attitudes, opinions or values by summarising numerical scores given
by researchers to people's responses to sets of statements exploring dimensions of an underlying
theme.
The following are the commonly used scales for measuring attitudes of respondents;
1.Graphic Rating Scales: the respondent has to give a position or view point on a particular
problem on a graph line which indicates both extremes. As graphs and figures are easy to grasp,
graphic rating scales are applied in consumer survey, employee appraisal surveys and skill surveys
etc. It requires an evaluator to indicate on a scale the degree to which an employee demonstrates a
particular trait, behaviour or performance result. In this technique, whole system is very easy but
the respondent can express his viewpoint to the nearest accuracy.
2. Comparative Rating Scale: Under this method, the respondent is required to compare certain
aspects of the life of the people with whom he is closely associated or to whom he very well
knows. Example- 1) We can ask a question like 'Do you feel that Mr. A is more honest in his
dealings as compared with Mr. B. or 2) We can ask students a question such as 'Do you like A
teacher more than B teacher'. Where comparison is between more than two parties, we can give
percentages. The respondents can select a certain percentage.

3. Itematized Rating Scales: This scale presents a series of statements (5 to 7) from which
respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. The statements are listed in graded
manner. Definiteness linked with the need of the study and also on the nature of the material
available for the study.

4. Rank Order Scale: It includes (a) method of paired comparison and (b) method of rank order.
Under the method of paired comparison, the respondent can express his attitude by making a
choice between two objects. The respondents are asked to rank their choices, under the method of
rank order. It is difficult to rank the items when there are many items for ranking.

5. Likert's Scale or Summative Scale: Likert's scale is a popular method which allows the
researcher to quantify items based on opinion. Questions are grouped together and rated or
responded to, based on a five-point scale. It is a bipolar scaling method which measures either
positive or negative response to a statement. Scale may be developed in the following forms:

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

agree disagree
5 4 3 2 1

6 Arbitrary Scales: Arbitrary scales are designed largely through the researcher’s own subjective
selection of items. ‘An arbitrary scale is constructed by assigning arbitrarily numerical values to
the responses to a set of questions appropriate to a given attribute. The values are summed up to
secure the attribute scale’ (Krishnaswami and Rangnatham, 2009). For example, a college’s image
among its students may be measured through the following items:

How do you regard your college’s reputation?

1. as a place of learning? Good…..Bad

2. as a source of guidance? Good…..Bad

3. as a provider of job opportunities Good…..Bad

4. for concern of student welfare? Good…..Bad

Each of these attributes may be scored from 0 to 4 according to the degree of favourableness
reported. The total of scores of all respondents for each item may be made and studied. The
overall image may also be studied by combining the scores of each respondent for the four items.
As far as advantages of this technique are concerned,

(a) it can be developed easily and quickly,

(b) it is relatively less expensive,

(c) it can be designed highly specific to contents of interests and (d) it is quite adequate.

As far as disadvantages of this technique are concerned, it’s scoring is arbitrary and it is based on
respondents’ subjective logic.

7. Thurstone Differential Scales: It is a differential scales or judgement scaling. Thurstone (1929)

has made great contribution to attitude scale construction The selection of items is made by a
panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and
unambiguous in implication. This scale consists of a number of statements whose position on the
scale has been determined previously to be a ranking operation performed by judges. 3 to 7 point
scale is used. The respondent is asked to make a (x) mark in the particular column against each
statement, which best describes his feeling.

3.7 Validity and Reliability of the tools of data collection.

Questionnaires, interview schedules, check lists, rating scales etc. are the various tools
used by the researcher to measure the variables of the study. The real question is how far
these tools could help us to measure what exactly we want to measure? For this, we need
to understand the concepts of validity and reliability.
Validity
In the context of measurement procedure, validity refers to the ability of an instrument to
measure what it is designed to measure. Smith defined validity ‘as the degree to which
the researcher has measured what he has set out to measure’. According to Babbie,
‘validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real
meaning of the concept under consideration’ Now here arise two key questions ie, Who
decides whether an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to measure? and How
can it be established that an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to measure? The
answer for the first question is the researcher and experts in the field. The second
question can be answered in two ways; either on the logic that underpins the construction
of the research tool or on the basis of statistical evidence that is gathered using
information generated through the use of the instrument.

There are three types of validity in quantitative research:

1. face and content validity;
2. concurrent and predictive validity;
3. construct validity.
face and content validity
The judgement that an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to is primarily based
upon the logical link between the questions and the objectives of the study. Hence, one of
the main advantages of this type of validity is that it is easy to apply. Each question or
item on the research instrument must have a logical link with an objective. Establishment
of this link is called face validity. It is equally important that the items and questions
cover the full range of the issue or attitude being measured. Assessment of the items of
an instrument in this respect is called content validity. In addition, the coverage of the
issue or attitude should be balanced; that is, each aspect should have similar and adequate
representation in the questions or items.
concurrent and predictive validity
Predictive validity is judged by the degree to which an instrument can forecast an
outcome. Concurrent validity is judged by how well an instrument compares with a
second assessment concurrently done.
Construct validity
Construct validity is a more sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of an
instrument. It is based upon statistical procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the
contribution of each construct to the total variance observed in a phenomenon. Suppose
you are interested in carrying out a study to find the degree of job satisfaction among the
employees of an organisation. You consider status, the nature of the job and
remuneration as the three most important factors indicative of job satisfaction, and
construct questions to ascertain the degree to which people consider each factor
important for job satisfaction. After the pre-test or data analysis you use statistical
procedures to establish the contribution of each construct (status, the nature of the job
and remuneration) to the total variance (job satisfaction). The contribution of these
factors to the total variance is an indication of the degree of validity of the instrument.
The greater the variance attributable to the constructs, the higher the validity of the
instrument.

Reliability

The reliability of an instrument refers to its ability to produce consistent measurements

each time. When we administer an instrument under the same or similar conditions to the
same or similar population and obtain similar results, we say that the instrument is
‘reliable’ – the more similar the results, the greater the reliability. You can look at
reliability from two sides: reliability (the extent of accuracy) and unreliability (the extent
of inaccuracy).
Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument
The wording of questions – A slight ambiguity in the wording of questions or
statements can affect the reliability of a research instrument as respondents may interpret
the questions differently at different times, resulting in different responses.
The physical setting – In the case of an instrument being used in an interview, any
change in the physical setting at the time of the repeat interview may affect the responses
given by a respondent, which may affect reliability.
The respondent’s mood – A change in a respondent’s mood when responding to
questions or writing answers in a questionnaire can change and may affect the reliability
of that instrument.
The interviewer’s mood – As the mood of a respondent could change from one
interview to another so could the mood, motivation and interaction of the interviewer,
which could affect the responses given by respondents thereby affecting the reliability of
the research instrument.
The nature of interaction – In an interview situation, the interaction between the
interviewer and the interviewee can affect responses significantly. During the repeat
interview the responses given may be different due to a change in interaction, which
could affect reliability.
The regression effect of an instrument – When a research instrument is used to
measure attitudes towards an issue, some respondents, after having expressed their
opinion, may feel that they have been either too negative or too positive towards the
issue. The second time they may express their opinion differently, thereby affecting
reliability.
There are external and internal consistency procedures for determining reliability in
quantitative research. Test/retest and parallel forms of the same test are the two
procedures that determine the external reliability of a research instrument, whereas the
split-half technique is classified under internal consistency procedures.
Self Assessment questions

1. Define data. Discuss the importance of data in research.

2. Differentiate between primary data and secondary data.
3. Explain different methods of collecting primary data.
4. Define observation as a method of data collection.
5. Distinguish between participant observation and non participant observation.
6. Explain the importance of interviewing as a method of data collection.
7. Explain the advantages of telephonic interview
8. Explain the role of questionnaire method of data collection.
9. Differentiate between questionnaire and schedule
10. What is the purpose of measurement?
11. Explain the types of measurement scales.
12. Explain the how the attitudes can be measured and what are the different scales
available?
13. Explain the concept of validity and reliability of data collection instruments.
14. Construct a questionnaire for measuring
a. the satisfaction level of customers of bank.
b. Brand preference of mobile phones
 Unit IV
Data processing and Data Analysis

Sl No. Unit Contents

Learning outcomes
4.1
Introduction
4.2 Fieldwork in research
4.3 Classification and Tabulation
4.4 Tabulation of Data
4.5 Analysis and interpretation of Data
4.6 Considerations/issues in data analysis
4.7 Testing of Hypothesis
4.8 Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
4.9
The level of significance (α-level)
4.10
Type I and Type II errors
4.11
Two-tailed and One-tailed tests
4.12 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
4.13 Parametric and Non-parametric tests
4.14
Non-parametric or distribution-free tests
4.15
Differences Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests
4.16 Essential ideas of Multivariate analysis of data
4.17 Factor analysis
4.18 Discriminant analysis
4.19 Use of Statistical Software Packages
Self assessment questions
Learning outcomes

 Understand role of fieldwork in research

 Understand the concept of Classification and Tabulation of data

 Understand the concept of Hypotheses

 Understand different parametric and nonparametric tests

 Compares parametric and nonparametric tests

 Understand the concept of multivariate analysis

 Identify different Statistical Software Packages

 4.1 Introduction
In the earlier modules we discussed various aspect of research up to a planning level. We saw
different methods of research, data collection methods, data collection instruments. Now, we have
to see how these can be applied.

4.2 Fieldwork in research

Field work is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures, behaviour and
natural environments. Field work is conducted in the exact place rather than in the semi-controlled
environments of a lab or classroom. This allows researchers to collect data about
the dynamic places, people, and species around them. Field work enables researchers to examine
the way scientific theories interact with real life. Field work is important in both the social and
natural sciences. Initial field work is done for pre-testing the tools for data collection. Main field
work is launched after the tools are ready for use. Field work requires proper planning and
administration. It consists of several activities:

1.Selection and training of investigators.

2. Selection of geographical area with in which the data are collected.

3.Preparation of the list of respondents

4.Planning filed work logistics

5.Field operation for data collection

6. Field administartion

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all
fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.

Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate
data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of
appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.

Consequences from improperly collected data include;

 inability to answer research questions accurately

 inability to repeat and validate the study

  distorted findings resulting in wasted resources

 misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation

 compromising decisions for public policy

 causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of
investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results are
used to support public policy recommendations.

4.3 Classification and Tabulation

The collected data, also known as raw data or ungrouped data are always in an un organised form
and need to be organised and presented in meaningful and readily comprehensible form in order to
facilitate further statistical analysis. It is, therefore, essential for an investigator to condense a
mass of data into more and more comprehensible and assimilable form. The process of grouping
into different classes or sub classes according to some characteristics is known as classification,
tabulation is concerned with the systematic arrangement and presentation of classified data. Thus
classification is the first step in tabulation

Objectives of Classification:

The following are main objectives of classifying the data:

1. It condenses the mass of data in an easily assimilable form.

2. It eliminates unnecessary details.

3. It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant aspect of data.

4. It enables one to get a mental picture of the information and helps in drawing inferences. 5. It
helps in the statistical treatment of the information collected.

Guiding principles (rules) of classifications

Following are the general guiding principles for good classifications

a) Exhaustive: Classification should be exhaustive. Each and every item in data must belong to
one of class. Introduction of residual class (i.e. either, miscellaneous etc.) should be avoided.

b) Mutually exclusive: Each item should be placed at only one class

c) Suitability: The classification should confirm to object of inquiry.

d) Stability: Only one principle must be maintained throughout the classification and analysis.

e) Homogeneity: The items included in each class must be homogeneous.

f) Flexibility: A good classification should be flexible enough to accommodate new situation or

changed situations

Types of classification:

Statistical data are classified in respect of their characteristics. Broadly there are four basic types
of classification namely

a) Chronological classification

b) Geographical classification

c) Qualitative classification

d) Quantitative classification

a) Chronological classification: In chronological classification the collected data are arranged

according to the order of time expressed in years, months, weeks, etc., The data is generally
classified in ascending order of time.

b) Geographical classification: In this type of classification the data are classified according to
geographical region or place. For instance, the production of paddy in different states in Iraq,
production of wheat in different countries etc.,

c) Qualitative classification: In this type of classification data are classified on the basis of same
attributes or quality like sex, literacy, religion, employment etc., Such attributes cannot be
measured along with a scale. For example, if the population to be classified in respect to one
attribute, say sex, then we can classify them into two namely that of males and females. Similarly,
they can also be classified into ‘married or ‘ single’ on the basis of another attribute ‘marital
status’. Thus when the classification is done with respect to one attribute, which is dichotomous in
nature, two classes are formed, one possessing the attribute and the other not possessing the
attribute. This type of classification is called simple or dichotomous classification.

The classification, where two or more attributes are considered and several classes are formed, is
called a manifold classification. For example, if we classify population simultaneously with
respect to two attributes, e.g sex and marital status, then population are first classified with respect
to ‘ sex’ into ‘ males’ and ‘ females’ . Each of these classes may then be further classified into ‘
married’ and single on the basis of attribute ‘ employment’ and as such Population are classified
into four classes namely. (i) Male married (ii) Male single (iii) Female married (iv) Female single
Still the classification may be further extended by considering other attributes like marital status
etc.
d) Quantitative classification: Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data
according to some characteristics that can be measured such as height, weight, etc.,

4.4 Tabulation of Data

The process of placing classified data into tabular form is known as tabulation. A table is a
symmetric arrangement of statistical data in rows and columns. Rows are horizontal arrangements
whereas columns are vertical arrangements. It may be simple, double or complex depending upon
the type of classification.

Types of Tabulation

(1) Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation

When the data are tabulated to one characteristic, it is said to be a simple tabulation or one-way
tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on the population of the world classified by one
characteristic like religion is an example of a simple tabulation.

(2) Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation

When the data are tabulated according to two characteristics at a time, it is said to be a double
tabulation or two-way tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on the population of the world
classified by two characteristics like religion and sex is an example of a double tabulation.

(3) Complex Tabulation

When the data are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is said to be a complex
tabulation. For example: Tabulation of data on the population of the world classified by three or
more characteristics like religion, sex and literacy, etc.

4.5 Analysis and interpretation of Data

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik
various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and
distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations)
present in the data”..

4.6 Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data analysis.
These include:

1.Having necessary skills to analyze

A tacit assumption of investigators is that they have received training sufficient to demonstrate a
high standard of research practice. Unintentional ‘scientific misconduct' is likely the result of poor
instruction and follow-up.

A common practice of investigators is to defer the selection of analytic procedure to a research

team ‘statistician’. Ideally, investigators should have substantially more than a basic
understanding of the rationale for selecting one method of analysis over another. This can allow
investigators to better supervise staff who conduct the data analyses process and make informed
decisions

2.Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis

While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for determining
appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process and should not be an
afterthought. According to Smeeton and Goda, “Statistical advice should be obtained at the stage
of initial planning of an investigation so that, for example, the method of sampling and design of
questionnaire are appropriate”.

4.Drawing unbiased inference

The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring as either reflecting a true
effect versus a false one. Any bias occurring in the collection of the data, or selection of method of
analysis, will increase the likelihood of drawing a biased inference. Bias can occur when
recruitment of study participants falls below minimum number required to demonstrate statistical
power or failure to maintain a sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate an effect .

5.Following acceptable norms for disciplines

Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. it is prudent for
investigators to follow these accepted norms. the norms are based on two factors:

(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),

(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random distribution,
independence, sample size, etc.).

6.Determining significance

While the conventional practice is to establish a standard of acceptability for statistical

significance, with certain disciplines, it may also be appropriate to discuss whether attaining
statistical significance has a true practical meaning, i.e., ‘clinical significance’.
7.Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements

No amount of statistical analysis, regardless of the level of the sophistication, will correct poorly
defined objective outcome measurements. Whether done unintentionally or by design, this
practice increases the likelihood of clouding the interpretation of findings, thus potentially
misleading readers.

8.Provide honest and accurate analysis

The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error. Common
challenges include the exclusion of outliers(Extreme values) filling in missing data, altering or
otherwise changing data, data mining, and developing graphical representations of the data.
9.Manner of presenting data

At times investigators may enhance the impression of a significant finding by determining how to
present derived data (as opposed to data in its raw form), which portion of the data is shown, why,
how and to whom.

10.Environmental/contextual issues

The integrity of data analysis can be compromised by the environment or context in which data
was collected i.e., face-to face interviews vs. focused group. The interaction occurring within a
dyadic relationship (interviewer-interviewee) differs from the group dynamic occurring within a
focus group because of the number of participants, and how they react to each other’s responses.
Since the data collection process could be influenced by the environment/context, researchers
should take this into account when conducting data analysis.

11.Reliability and Validity

Researchers performing analysis on either quantitative or qualitative analyses should be aware of

challenges to reliability and validity. For example, in the area of content analysis, Gottschalk
identifies three factors that can affect the reliability of analyzed data:

 stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way
over a period of time

 reproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in

the same way

 accuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or

norm statistically
The potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot consistently
demonstrate stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysis

4.7 Testing of Hypothesis

Hypothesis testing or significance testing is a method for testing a claim or hypothesis about a
parameter in a population, using data measured in a sample. In this method, we test some
hypothesis by determining the likelihood that a sample statistic could have been selected, if the
hypothesis regarding the population parameter were true.

Kerlinger (1973) defined ‘a hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or
more variables’. A statistical hypothesis is an assertion or conjecture about the distribution of one
or more random variables. If a statistical hypothesis completely specifies the distribution, it is
referred to as a simple hypothesis; if not, it is referred to as a composite hypothesis. . In order to
be useful in any study, the hypothesis needs to be stated in such a way that it might be subjected to
empirical testing.

Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.

2. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many

a time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by
researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other
deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation.”

3. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational

hypothesis.

4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember
that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.

5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.

6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept
as being the most likely.
 7. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use
even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one
cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.

8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means
that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be
able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what
it claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.

4.8 Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed
on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null
hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or the method B is
inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is
generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis as Ha.

The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn (the
researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data that he collects and then
testing the hypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the following
considerations are usually kept in view:

 Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis we are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents all other
possibilities.

 If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it is
taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is a (the
level of significance) which is chosen very small.

 Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or
approximately a certain value.

4.9 The level of significance (α-level)

This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some
percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case
we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H 0 will be rejected when the
 sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if H 0 is
true.
4.10 Type I and Type II errors
While testing a hypothesis, there is a possibility of two types of errors. We may reject H0 when
H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true. The former is known as Type I error
and the latter as Type II error. In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which
should have been accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have
been rejected. Type I error is denoted by α (alpha)known as a error, also called the level of
significance of test; and Type II error is denoted by β (beta) known as β error. In a tabular form
the said two errors can be presented as follows:

4.11 Two-tailed and One-tailed tests

Depending upon the nature of null hypotheses there are two types of tests, they are; Two-tailed
and One-tailed tests.
The two-tailed test is described as a hypothesis test, in which the region of rejection or say the
critical area is on both the ends of the normal distribution. It determines whether the sample tested
falls within or outside a certain range of values. Therefore, an alternative hypothesis is accepted in
place of the null hypothesis, if the calculated value falls in either of the two tails of the probability
distribution.
In this test, α is bifurcated into two equal parts, placing half on each side, i.e. it considers the
possibility of both positive and negative effects. It is performed to see, whether the estimated
parameter is either above or below the assumed parameter, so the extreme values, work as
evidence against the null hypothesis.
In a two-tailed test, there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve which can be
illustrated as under:

One-tailed test alludes to the significance test in which the region of rejection appears on one end
of the sampling distribution. It represents that the estimated test parameter is greater or less than
the critical value. When the sample tested falls in the region of rejection, i.e. either left or right
side, as the case may be, it leads to the acceptance of alternative hypothesis rather than the null
hypothesis. It is primarily applied in chi-square distribution; that ascertains the goodness of fit.
In this statistical hypothesis test, all the critical region, related to α, is placed in any one of the two
tails. One-tailed test can be:

 Left-tailed test: When the population parameter is believed to be lower than the assumed
one, the hypothesis test carried out is the left-tailed test.
 Right-tailed test: When the population parameter is supposed to be greater than the
assumed one, the statistical test conducted is a right-tailed test.
 

4.12 Steps in Hypothesis Testing

The testing of a statistical hypothesis is the application of an explicit set of rules for deciding
whether to accept the hypothesis or to reject it. The method of conducting any statistical
hypothesis testing can be outlined in six steps;

1. Decide on the null hypothesis H0- The null hypothesis generally expresses the idea of no
difference. The symbol we use to denote a null hypothesis is H 0

2. Decide on the alternative hypothesis H1 -The alternative hypothesis, which we denote by H1 ,

expresses the idea of some difference. Alternative hypotheses may be one-sided or two-sided.
Usually the setting of the problem determines the alternative even before the data has been
collected.
3. Calculate the appropriate test statistic - The test statistic is a mathematical formula that allows
researchers to determine the likelihood of obtaining sample outcomes if the null hypothesis were
true. The value of the test statistic is used to make a decision regarding the null hypothesis. This is
a value that we will calculate from the sample data.

4. Decide on the significance level or the critical P-value All hypothesis testing is liable to errors.
There are two basic kinds of error:

• Type I error : Reject H0 when it is, in fact, true; the probability of committing a type I error is
denoted by α.

• Type II error : Reject H1 when it is, in fact, true; the probability of committing a type II error is
denoted by β. The objective in all hypothesis testing is to set the Type I error level, also known as
the significance level, at a low enough value, and then to use a test statistic which minimises the
Type II error level for a given sample size. As we fix the Type I error level, it is best to devise the
test in such a way that the Type I error is most serious, in terms of cost.

A critical P -value is the probability that is set by the person doing the test; it is the threshold for
the P-value that the tester will use to decide whether the sample is unusual enough, compared to
the hypothesised population, to indicate that the null hypothesis should be rejected in favour of the
alternative.

6.The P-value or critical region of size α. The calculated test statistic is compared to the sampling
distribution that the statistic would have if the null hypothesis were true. The comparison is
summarised into a probability called a P-value : this is the probability, if the null hypothesis is
true, that the statistic would be at least as far from the expected value as it was observed to be in
the sample. The P-value ranges from 0.0 to 1.0. As it approaches 0.0, it indicates that the sample is
a rare outcome if the population is as hypothesized. The closer the P-value is to zero, the stronger
the evidence against the null hypothesis. When we are testing the null hypothesis H 0 : µ = 60
against the two-sided alternative hypothesis H1 : µ =/= µ0 , the critical region consists of both tails
of the sampling distribution of the test statistic. Such a test is a two-tailed test. On the other hand,
if we are testing the null hypothesis Ho : µ = µo against one-sided alternative H1 : µ < 60 or H1 : µ
> 60 , the critical regions are the left tail or right tail of the sampling distribution of the test
statistic respectively.

6. Statement of conclusion- A decision is made based on the size of the P-value. When the P-value
is small (i.e. less than the critical P-value), we reject the null hypothesis. When it is not small
(greater than the critical P-value), we accept the null hypothesis. In the same way, if the value of
the test statistic falls in the critical region, we reject the null hypothesis. The conclusion should, as
far as possible, be devoid of statistical terminology. However the significance level should be
stated. The assumption of this test is that the variable is approximately normally distributed. This
assumption is less critical the larger the sample size. In the next section we will explain this
 hypothesis testing procedure in a variety of situations. The criteria that distinguish between the
procedures are :

(a) the statistic used to summarise the sample. This in turn depends on the hypothesis to be tested.

(b) the size of the sample

(c) knowledge about the population before the sampling is done

(d) the number of populations sampled

(e) the number of variables observed

4.13 Parametric and Non-parametric tests

Hypothesis testing helps to decide on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the
population is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypotheses
(also known as the tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypotheses which can be
classified as:
a. Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses; and

b. Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw
samples. Assumptions like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large,
assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variance, etc., must hold good before
parametric tests can be used. But there are situations when the researcher cannot or does not want
to make such assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypotheses
which are called non-parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about
the parameters of the parent population. Besides, most non-parametric tests assume only nominal
or ordinal data, whereas parametric tests require measurement equivalent to at least an interval
scale. As a result, non-parametric tests need more observations than parametric tests to achieve the
same size of Type I and Type II errors.

Major assumptions of parametric tests

 Normality: Data have a normal distribution (or at least is symmetric)

  Homogeneity of variances: Data from multiple groups have the same variance

 Linearity: Data have a linear relationship

 Independence: Data are independent

The important parametric tests are:

1. z-test;
2. t-test;
3. χ2-test(chi-square-test), and
4. F-test.
All these tests are based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source of data is considered to be
normally distributed. In some cases the population may not be normally distributed, yet the tests
will be applicable on account of the fact that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling
distributions closely approach normal distributions.
Z-test
Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of
several statistical measures, particularly the mean. The relevant test statistic, z, is worked out and
compared with its probable value (to be read from table showing area under normal curve) at a
specified level of significance for judging the significance of the measure concerned. This is a
most frequently used test in research studies. This test is used even when binomial distribution or
t-distribution is applicable on the presumption that such a distribution tends to approximate
normal distribution as ‘n’ becomes larger. z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a
sample to some hypothesised mean for the population in case of large sample, or when population
variance is known. z-test is also used for judging he significance of difference between means of
two independent samples in case of large samples, or when population variance is known. z-test is
also used for comparing the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or
for judging the difference in proportions of two independent samples when n happens to be large.
Besides, this test may be used for judging the significance of median, mode, coefficient of
correlation and several other measures.
t-test

t-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of
a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference between the means of two samples in
case of small sample(s) when population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of
the sample as an estimate of the population variance). In case two samples are related, we use
paired t-test (or what is known as difference test) for judging the significance of the mean of
difference between the two related samples. It can also be used for judging the significance of the
coefficients of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test statistic, t, is calculated from the
sample data and then compared with its probable value based on t-distribution (to be read from the
table that gives probable values of t for different levels of significance for different degrees of
freedom) at a specified level of significance for concerning degrees of freedom for accepting or
rejecting the null hypothesis. It may be noted that t-test applies only in case of small sample(s)
when population variance is unknown.

χ2-test

χ2-test is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample
variance to a theoretical population variance.
F-test
F-test is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent
samples. This test is also used in the context of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for judging the
significance of more than two sample means at one and the same time. It is also used for judging
the significance of multiple correlation coefficients. Test statistic, F, is calculated and compared
with its probable value (to be seen in the F-ratio tables for different degrees of freedom for greater
and smaller variances at specified level of significance) for accepting or rejecting the null
hypothesis.
4.14 Non-parametric or distribution-free tests
A non parametric test (sometimes called a distribution free test) does not assume anything about
the underlying distribution (for example, that the data comes from a normal distribution). That’s
compared to parametric test, which makes assumptions about a population’s parameters (for
example, the mean or standard deviation); When the word “non parametric” is used in stats, it
doesn’t quite mean that you know nothing about the population. It usually means that you know
the population data does not have a normal distribution. The main non-parametric tests are:

 One sample sign test. Use this test to estimate the median of a population and compare it
to a reference value or target value.

 One sample Wilcoxon signed rank test. With this test, you also estimate the population
median and compare it to a reference/target value. However, the test assumes your data
comes from a symmetric distribution

 Friedman test. This test is used to test for differences between groups with ordinal
dependent variables. It can also be used for continuous data if the one-way ANOVA
with repeated measures is inappropriate (i.e. some assumption has been violated).

 Goodman Kruska’s Gamma: a test of association for ranked variables.

 Kruskal-Wallis -H test. Use this test instead of a one-way ANOVA to find out if two or
more medians are different. Ranks of the data points are used for the calculations, rather
than the data points themselves.

 The Mann-Kendall Trend Test looks for trends in time-series data.

 Mann-Whitney -U Test. Use this test to compare differences between two independent
groups when dependent variables are either ordinal or continuous.

 Mood’s Median test. Use this test instead of the sign test when you have two independent
samples.

 Spearman Rank Correlation.Use when you want to find a correlation between two sets
of data.

Advantages and disadvantages of Non-parametric tests

Compared to parametric tests, nonparametric tests have several advantages, including:

1.More statistical power when assumptions for the parametric tests have been violated.
When assumptions haven’t been violated, they can be almost as powerful.

2.Fewer assumptions (i.e. the assumption of normality doesn’t apply).

3.Small sample sizes are acceptable.

4.They can be used for all data types, including nominal variables, interval variables, or
data that has outliers or that has been measured imprecisely.

However, they do have their disadvantages. The most notable ones are:

1.Less powerful than parametric tests

2.More labour-intensive to calculate by hand

4.15 Differences Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests

The fundamental differences between parametric and nonparametric test are;

1.A statistical test, in which specific assumptions are made about the population parameter is
known as the parametric test. A statistical test used in the case of non-metric independent
variables is called nonparametric test.

2.In the parametric test, the test statistic is based on distribution. On the other hand, the test
statistic is arbitrary in the case of the nonparametric test.

3.In the parametric test, it is assumed that the measurement of variables of interest is done on
interval or ratio level. As opposed to the nonparametric test, wherein the variable of interest are
measured on nominal or ordinal scale.

4.In general, the measure of central tendency in the parametric test is mean, while in the case of
the nonparametric test is median.
5.In the parametric test, there is complete information about the population. Conversely, in the
nonparametric test, there is no information about the population.

6.The applicability of parametric test is for variables only, whereas nonparametric test applies to
both variables and attributes.

7.For measuring the degree of association between two quantitative variables, Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation is used in the parametric test, while spearman’s rank correlation is used
in the nonparametric test.
4.16 Essential ideas of Multivariate analysis of data

Multivariate analysis

Multivariate analysis refers to a collection of methods for analysing the data where a depended
variable is represented in terms of several independent observations available to define such an
association. According to Jagdish N Seth, “Multivariate analysis includes those statistical
techniques which focus upon and bring out in bold relief, the structure of simultaneous
relationships among three or more phenomena”

Objectives of Multivariate analysis

Multivariate techniques convert mass observations into smaller number of composite score in
order to reflect as much information as possible from the raw data based on business research.
The fundamental objectives of multivariate analysis are to;

1.Siginify the collection of huge set of data in a simplified manner, by transforming vast amount
of data into smaller composite scores.

2. Categorize objects or individuals into two or more mutually exclusive as well as exhaustive
groups on the basis of a set of independent variables

3. Forecast the variability of dependent variables on the basis of its covariance with all the
independent variables

Advantages of multivariate analysis

The main benefit of multivariable analysis is that conclusions drawn are more accurate, as it takes
in to account more than one factor/element of independent variable which affects the variability of
the dependent variable. Thus, conclusions are more realistic and closer to real life situations.

Disadvantages of multivariate analysis

1. Involves Complex calculations to arrive at suitable conclusions

2. Due to the previous disadvantage many operations for many variables have to be collected and
tabulated. As such, multivariate analysis is very time consuming

3. Thus, at times due to the above disadvantages, multivariate analysis prove to be an expensive
proposition

4. The use of multivariate analysis calls for expert and skilled staff to process and analyse
complex data, adding to the cost factor

Applications of multivariate analysis

Multivariate techniques are effectively employed in the following areas

1. Fiscal decision making- e.g. impact of penalty rates, tax structure ,duties etc. on government
revenue.

2. Sociological decision making- e.g. social demography, divorce rates and their cause and effect
relationship with marriage, and income levels

3. Decision making in Economics- e.g. impact of inflation, money circulating, lowering of tarrif
etc. on price rise

4. Agricultural forecast- e.g. impact of rain, fertilizers and mechanization on agriculture yield per
acre

5. Industrial feasibility –e.g. plant location depending on the infrastructure, availability of raw
materials, distribution channel,etc

6. Drug testing- e.g. impact of a new drug on main disease and its side effects, etc.

Techniques of multivariate analysis

The main techniques of multivariate analysis are as follows

1. Factor analysis

2. Cluster analysis

3. Discriminate analysis

4. Conjoint analysis

Guidelines for use of multivariate analysis in business research

 The following are the guidelines given by Jagadish n sheth for the use of multivariate analysis in
business research

1. The researcher should not try to be technique oriented. if he or she develops likings for one or
two particular techniques and uses the discriminatory without checking their suitability the context
of a given case then, it may harm the interest of research. It may also bring about the downfall of
multivariate method.

2. The researcher should not be carried away with building models, disregarding the fact that
multivariate models are information inputs to facilitate management in the process of decision
making.

3. The researcher should remember that multivariate models are not substitute for his skills and
imagination in design of research. These are necessary in conceptualizing the problem.

4. The researcher should not overlook the need for lucid communication with the management. A
first rate study using sophisticated techniques make come to naught if the management is unable
to understand it

5. The researcher should not make statistical inference about the parameters of multivariate
models. Such inferences are not possible on account of the sizable existence of non sampling or
measurement errors in the data in the Social Sciences. Such techniques should not be seen as
descriptive Statistical Techniques for reducing large data to summarised and meaning full form

6. sometimes, the researcher may be carried away by a random relationship among the variables
and put sustentative meanings into the data, which may not be true. this is especially true for
some multivariate models such as cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling and conjoint
measurement as there is no sampling theory behind them. Therefore, these are heuristics. To
guard oneself against this error, it may be advisable to use at least two different techniques.

7. Finally, the researcher should exploit the complementary relationship inherent in the structural
and functional multivariate methods. In other words, he or she should know to substantiate a
number of judgements which he has to make with structural multivariate analysis of the data. For
example it is advisable to use cluster analysis first to specify mutually exclusive group before
using a multiple discriminate analysis.

4.17 Factor analysis

Factor analysis is useful and the popular analysis of interdependence technique. A factor is a
linear combination of variables and is a construct which can be observed through the input
variables. In factor analysis, all the variables are equal length and the analysis is concerned with
the end effect of relationship among the variables that characterize the objects as a whole. This
techniques help in grouping variables in the factors based on their correlation and the derived can
be and treat as variables for further study, whose values are derived by totalling the values of
original variables forming that particular factor
 Factor analysis focuses on the complete set of interrelationship shown by the variables. it is a
procedure that takes a huge amount of variables objects and the searchers out of the factor which
accounts for the inter correlation between variables. For example one can characterize the
association between the attributes of Coca-Cola and the factor of acidity for the association
between grades secured by a student in the science stream to his intelligence factor.

Application of factor analysis in business research

There are many applications of factor analysis in business research. Some are data reduction,
structure identification, scaling as well as business management.

1. Data reduction- factor analysis is used for producing a large amount of data to the convenient
and controllable stage. Like, the business researcher who has collected data pertaining to 100
attributes of a car. The analysis as well as understanding of collected data may be aided by
reducing 100 attributes and having only some attributes, maybe 20 or 30, ie, multiple variables
have been grouped into factors.

The analysis is used to filter the original set of items by separating those items that do not reflect
a Universal hub and the dimensions confined by the measure. factor analysis facilitate to study the
lifestyles and psychographic research problems in which it is helpful in developing stakeholder
profile that reflect response attitude interest activities perceptions open in and performance sauce
to better predict their consumption and purchase behaviour.

3. Structure identification- it may be used to understand the basic constitution of the

structure, underlying the set of measures. For example, 100 attributes may be reduced to 20 or 30
factors identified by the investigator.

4. Scaling- a business researcher can even develop a scale for the research area based on his
convenience. a problem that might occur in a developing a particular scale is in waiting the
variables being combined to form the scale. Factor analysis can be used to reduce a set of
statements to a concise instrument, ensuring that retain the statements adequately represent critical
aspects of the measured constructs

5. Business management- factor analysis is greatly used for pricing studies, quality studies, new
product developments, branding studies, advertisement studies, cost cutting, business
Optimisation, product acceptance studies, etc.

Assumptions in factor analysis

1. Data should be metric, ie. If should have either interval or ratio scale le

2. Responses from different skills should be standardized

3. Price of sample respondents should be 4-5 times more than number of variables
4. Variables should be highly correlated; we can be checked through correlation matrix and
Bartlett test of Sphericity- a statistics for determining correlation between variables.

5. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)- index used for measuring appropriateness of factor analysis-

should be greater than 0.5, Since smaller values mean that correlation between variables cannot
be explained by other variables.

Methods of factor analysis

There are three important methods for conducting factor analysis

1. Centroid method

2. Principal components method

3. Maximum likelihood method

Limitations of factor analysis

1. Time and cost- this technique called for the analysis of many factors, owing to which the
researcher has to spend a lot of time. Therefore, it is seen as a costly analysis.

2 reliability- analyses already begin with a set of imperfect data changes. Due to changes in the
sample changes in data gathering procedures for other measurement errors, consequently, result of
the analysis are always less than absolutely dependable.

3. inadequacy- factor analysis is inadequate supported by Statistical Techniques.

4. quantity- analysis requires a large quantity of attributes to be studied.

5. understanding- often Complex factors are used, which are much complicated to understand
4.18 Discriminant analysis

Discriminant analysis is suitable with the nominal dependent variable and the interval
independent variables. it is a technique to analyse data when the Criterion or dependent variable is
categorical and the predictor or independent variables are interval in nature. For example a
satisfied/ unsatisfied consumer, service seeker/ non service seeker consumer.

Objectives of Discriminant analysis

The objectives of Discriminant analysis can be listed as follows

1. To discover linear combination of variables to facilitate the discrimination between categories

of dependent variable in a feasible manner.
2. To establish statistical significance of Discriminant function and examine whether the
significant difference exist among the groups, based on predictor variables.

3. To find out the independent variables that are relatively better in discriminating between the
groups

4. To build the procedure for assigning new objects for individual whose profile is known to one
of the two groups

5. Process of classification

Procedure for Discriminant analysis

1. Formulate the problem.

2. Estimate Discriminant function coefficients.

3. Determine significance of Discriminant function

4. Interpret the results

5. Assess the validity of Discriminant analysis.

Applications of Discriminant analysis in business research

Discriminant analysis is widely used in business research. It can be used the following situations;

1. Identification of new buyer groups

2. Consumer behaviour towards new products for brands

3. Brand loyalty study

4. Relationship between variables

5. Checklist of properties of new products

4.19 Use of Statistical Software Packages.

The subject Statistics is widely used in almost all fields like Biology, Botany, Business
Commerce, Medicine, Economics, Education, Physics, Chemistry, Bio-Technology, Psychology,
Zoology etc. While doing research in the above fields, the researchers should have some
awareness in using the statistical tools which helps them in drawing rigorous and good
conclusions. The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analysing
its data and drawing conclusions there from. Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data
which must be suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for further
analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker, even though he
may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and ramifications. Classification
and tabulation, as stated earlier, achieve this objective to some extent, but we have to go a step further
and develop certain indices or measures to summarise the collected/classified data. Only after this we
can adopt the process of generalisation from small groups (i.e., samples) to population. If fact, there
are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive
statistics concern the development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics
concern with the process of generalisation. Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics
and are mainly concerned with two major type of problems; the estimation of population parameters
and the testing of statistical hypotheses. But, the computation of several statistical tools requires
expert knowledge and mastery. In this context, the statistical software helps the researcher a lot.
Statistical software are specialized computer programs for the statistical analysis of data in
research. In the last two decades more and more software packages have been designed to help
with data analysis. The software is designed for questionnaire-based research, called quantitative
research, and for other types of research, such as interviews and focus groups, which is called
qualitative research. The various advantages of using statistical softwares are,

1.Less Time consuming

2.High level of accuracy

3.All want to do is initial data entry

4.Advanced statistical tools can be applied with ease, help menu is available

5.Outputs are available in different formats

6.Data are stored in a highly secured form and can access from anywhere.

7.Some software are available online

There are a wide range of software packages to analyse data - from Access or Excel to dedicated
packages, such as SPSS, Stata and R for statistical analysis of quantitative data,
Nvivo for qualitative (textual and audio-visual) data analysis (QDA), or ArcGIS for
analysing geospatial data are available today.

For Quantitative data analysis

SPSS

A general-purpose statistical package widely used in academic research for editing, analysing and
presenting numerical data. It is compatible with all file formats that are commonly used for
structured data such as Excel, plain text files and relational (SQL) databases.

STATA

STATA powerful and flexible general-purpose statistical software package used in research,
among others in the fields of economics, sociology, political science. It's capabilities include data
management, statistical analysis, graphics, simulations, regression, and custom programming.

R is a free software environment for statistical computing and graphics. It compiles and runs on a
wide variety of UNIX platforms, Windows and MacOS. R provides a wide variety of statistical
(linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification,
clustering, etc.) and graphical techniques, and is highly extensible. R is freely available online.

For Qualitative data analysis

Software packages comprised of tools designed to facilitate a qualitative approach to qualitative

data, which include texts, graphics, audio or video. These packages (sometimes referred as
CAQDAS - Computer Assisted/Aided Qualitative Data Analysis) may also enable the
incorporation of quantitative (numeric) data and/or include tools for taking quantitative
approaches to qualitative data.

Here are some more popular packages –

NVivo

A qualitative data analysis (QDA) computer software package produced by QSR International. It
has been designed for qualitative researchers working with very rich text-based and/or multimedia
information, where deep levels of analysis on small or large volumes of data are required.
MAXQDA
MAXQDA – The Art of Data AnalysisAn alternative to Nvivo and handles a similar range of data
types allowing organisation, colour coding and retrieval of data. Text, audio or video may equally
be dealt with by this software package. A range of data visualisation tools are also included.

Atlas.ti

Software for the qualitative analysis of large bodies of textual, graphical, audio and video data. It
offers a variety of tools for accomplishing the tasks associated with any systematic approach to
"soft" data, i.e. material which cannot be analysed by formal, statistical approaches in meaningful
ways.

Self Assessment questions

1. State the role of field work in research.
2. Define data collection.
3. Define classification. Explain the objectives of classification.
4. Explain the general principles of classification of data.
5. Explain different types of classification.
6. What is meant by tabulation of data?
7. What are the major issues a researcher has to address while data
analysis?
8. What is a hypothesis? Explain its characteristics.
9. Explain null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
10. Explain Type I and Type II error.
11. Distinguish between one tailed test and two tailed test.
12. Explain the steps in hypothesis testing.
13. Differentiate between parametric and non-parametric tests
14. Explain different parametric tests and non-parametric tests
15. State the objectives of Multivariate analysis.
16. Explain factor analysis
17. Explain role of discriminant analysis in business research.
18. Explain various statistical softwares used for data analysis.
 Module V
Reporting of Research
Sl No. Unit Contents
Learning outcomes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Reports
5.3 Characteristics of a Good Research Report
5.4 Planning of research report writing
5.5 Format of Report
5.6 APA format
5.7 Presentation of Report
Self assessment questions

Learning outcomes

 Understand the importance of research report

 Identifies different types of reports
 Identifies the Characteristics of a Good Research Report
 Understand the format of a research report
 Acquire skill to prepare project report.
5.1 Introduction

The final stage in the process of research is preparation and presentation of research report.
Research report is a formal record of the research process and its results. The purpose of Research
report is to communicate the methodology and the result of the study to the interested persons in
such a manner to understand the research process and to determine the validity of the conclusions.
A report is not a complete description of what has been done during the period of survey/research.
It is only a statement of the most significant facts that are necessary for understanding the
conclusions drawn by the investigator. Thus, “a report by definition is simply an account”. The
report thus is an account describing the procedure adopted, the findings arrived at and the
conclusions drawn by the investigator of a problem. A well written research report perform
several functions, such as;

1. It acts as a means for presenting the problem studied, Methodology followed in an organised
manner.

2. It serves as a basic reference material for future use in developing research proposals in the
same or related area.

3. A report serve as a means for judging the quality of completed research project

4. It is a means for evaluating the researcher’s ability and confidence to do research

5. It provides factual base for formulating policies and strategies relating to the subject matter
studied.

6. It provide systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed

5.2 Types of Reports

Technical report
A technical report is a comprehensive report primarily meant for academic community. It is a
formal report covering all the aspects of the research process: description of the problem studied,
the objectives of the study, methods and techniques used, a detailed account of sampling, field
and other research procedures, sources of data, tools of data collection and analysis, detailed
findings and conclusions and suggestions. There is also a technical appendix for Methodological
details, copies of instruments used and the like. A technical report is essentially technical in nature
and follow a technical language and it follows the exact format are suggested by the concerned
academic institution.

Popular Report

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness and meant for
general public. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of
technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive
layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is
another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on
practical aspects and policy implications.

Interim Report

In the case of research that takes a long time to complete, the researcher has to prepare interim
reports to the sponsor of the research. It contains a narration of what has been done so far and
what was its outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that study which has been
completed.

Executive summary/ summary report

An executive summary is a short document or section of a document produced

for business purposes. It summarizes a longer report or proposal or a group of related reports in
such a way that readers can rapidly become acquainted with a large body of material without
having to read it all. It usually contains a brief statement of the problem or proposal covered in the
major document(s), background information, concise analysis and main conclusions. An executive
summary differs from an abstract in that an abstract will usually be shorter and is typically
intended as an overview or orientation rather than being a condensed version of the full document.

Research Abstract

Research abstract is a short summary of a technical report. It contains a short description of the
statement of the problem, the objectives of the study, methodology used and an over view of the
report.

5.3 Characteristics of a Good Research Report

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report. A
good report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it should have the
following characteristics/qualities.

1.It must be clear in informing the what, why, who, whom, when, where and how of the research
study..

2.It should be neither too short nor too long. One should keep in mind the fact that it should be
long enough to cover the subject matter but short enough to sustain the reader’s interest.

3.It should be written in an objective style and simple language, correctness, precision and clarity
should be the watchwords of the scholar. Wordiness, indirection and pompous language are
barriers to communication.

4.A good report must combine clear thinking, logical organisation and sound interpretation.

5.It must be accurate. Accuracy is one of the requirements of a report. It should be factual with
objective presentation. Exaggerations and superlatives should be avoided.

6.Clarity is another requirement of presentation. It is achieved by using familiar words and

unambiguous statements, explicitly defining new concepts and unusual terms.
7.Coherence is an essential part of clarity. There should be logical flow of ideas (i.e. continuity of
thought), sequence of sentences. Each sentence must be so linked with other sentences so as to
move the thoughts smoothly.

8.Readability is an important requirement of good communication. Even a technical report should

be easily understandable. Technicalities should be translated into language understandable by the
readers.

9.A research report should be prepared according to the best composition practices. Ensure
readability through proper paragraphing, short sentences, illustrations, examples, and section
headings, use of charts, graphs and diagrams.

10.Draw sound inferences/conclusions from the statistical tables. But don’t repeat the tables in
text (verbal) form.

11.Footnote references should be in proper form. The bibliography should be reasonably complete
and in proper form.

12.The report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean whether typed or printed.

13.The report should be free from mistakes of all types, viz., language mistakes, factual mistakes,
spelling mistakes, calculation mistakes etc.

5.4 Planning of research report writing

Proper planning and organization of study materials are important while preparing the research
report. At the writing stage, a researcher will have accumulated a mass of data and information
that will have to be prudently and carefully used. Well conceived planning and organisation
facilities the writing of the report, with a proper emphasis on the different aspects of the study.
Planning in report writing is nothing but planning of arrangement of ideas in a logical and
coherent manner within the framework of a report format laid down. The following are the
important stages in writing an academic report.

i. Systematic analysis of the subject

 ii. Drawing outline of the report
iii. Preparation of the rough draft
iv. Enrichment of final draft
v. Preparation of final bibliography
vi. Finalising the complete draft.

5.5 Format of Report

A technical report has a number of clearly defined sections and the format may slightly differ from
the universities or institutes. Here we are discussing the format which is suggested as per the
syllabus of SDE, University of Kerala and you are requested follow this format while preparing
your project report.

General instructions:

- The report shall be printed and bound (preferably hard paper bound) with not less than 100
(A4 size) pages.

- Matter should be typed with Double line spacing

- Fond Size should be 12 with style Times New Roman

- One Inch Margin should be left on Top and Bottom of the page, as well as Left and Right
side of the typed pages.

- Both primary and secondary data may be used for the study

- Statistical tools should be used for data analysis in the appropriate context.

As per your requirement, your project report must be in the following format;

A. Preface Section:

i.Title Page of the Report- This page should contain

a. The title of the study

b. Name of the degree for which it is submitted

c. Name of the researcher

 d. Name of the university on which the report is submitted

e. Month and year of Presentation.

ii.Declaration by the student - The Declaration may be in the following format;

DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis entitled …………………………………………………………. is a record

of the bona fide research work carried out by me under the supervision and guidance of
……………………………This has not been previously submitted for the award of any diploma,
degree, associateship of similar title

Place Name of the researcher

iii.Certificate from Supervisory Faculty counter Signed by Head of the Institution.- This a
certificate by the researcher supervisor that this is a record of independent work done by the
student.

CERTIFICATE

I certify that the thesis entitled ……………………………………………………….. is a

bona fide record of the research work carried out by ……………….. …………. under my
supervision and guidance. This has not been previously submitted for the award of any
degree, diploma, associate ship or other similar title

Place Name of the Research Supervisor

iv.Acknowledgements- The researcher acknowledges the assistance, help and support received
from individuals and organisations in the conduct of the work.

v.Table of Content- A table of contents gives an outline of the contents of the report. It contains a
list of chapters and sub-titles with page numbers.

Table of Contents

Chapter No. Title of the Chapter Page No.

vi.List of Tables.- This is a list of tables used in the report. All the tables should be serially
numbered like 1, 2, ... or with reference to chapters like 1.1, 1.2..2.1, 3.2 ..etc. It can be presented
in the following format.

List of Tables

Table Number Title of the table Page No.

vii. List of Graph/ Chart/ Figure – If there are many graphs, charts and figures are presented in the
report, then a list of such graph/chart/figures are to be given after the list of tables in the following
format.

List of Graph/ Chart/ Figure

Sl. Number Title of the Graph/ Chart/ Figure Page No.

B.Executive Summary-

An executive summary is a thorough overview of a research report that synthesizes key points for
its readers, saving them time and preparing them to understand the study's overall content. It is a
separate, stand-alone document of sufficient detail and clarity to ensure that the reader can
completely understand the contents of the main research study.

C.Chapterisation

Chapter-I

Introduction-

-Theoretical back ground of the study

-statement of the Problem,

- Significance or Scope of the study

-Objectives of the study

-Hypothesis, if any

- Methodology of the study-sample design and size, data source, tools used for analysis etc

-Chapterization of the report- it shows how the report is divided into chapters and a brief
description of each chapter content.
- Limitations of the study.- Here you can openly state methodological weakness, sampling
imperfections, measurement deficiencies etc. A frank statement of limitations is one of the
hallmarks of an honest and competent researcher.

Chapter-II

Review of related Literature- This review provides a summary of the current state of knowledge in
the area of study and also shows the ‘research gap’.

Chapter-III

Profile of the industry and Organization/Unit of Study

Chapter-IV
Data analysis and Interpretation- should be presented with adequate tables and supporting
statistics. The results should be reported as accurately and completely as possible. While making
interpretation from the table never use ‘from the above table, below table etc,.’ rather use ‘ see
table no.....’
Chapter-V
Findings, recommendations and Conclusions- You can give brief account findings from the
previous chapter it should be arranged in logical order. Your recommendations/ suggestions
should be specific and in tune with your objectives of the study. Never make vague or loose
statements , your recommendation should indicate ‘what’, ‘how’ and other aspects of the action
required.
D.Annexure:
-Questionnaire/ Schedule, detailed sampling plan, statistical computations, other supporting
documents, if any attached here.
-Bibliography (in APA format)- Bibliography is list of books, journals, reports and reference
materials used/referred for the study in alphabetical order. There are different formats for the
compilation of bibliography. But you have to follow APA format. Bibliography is different from
footnotes. Footnotes are used to cite authority for the specific statement quoted or paraphrased and
are given in the exact pages where the quoted matter is located.

5.6 APA format

APA format is standard format for basic bibliographic information recommended by the American
Psychological Association (APA). Format and examples are given below;
1.Books
Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information.
City of publication: Publishing company.
Examples:
Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic
Society.
Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random
House.
Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating
tables. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
2.Journals, Magazine & Newspaper Articles
Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume
number(issue number if available), inclusive pages.

Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical
includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp."
If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers.
Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA
style.
Examples:

Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of

Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1.

3.Website
Format:
a.Online periodical:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number,
Retrieved month day, year, from full URL
b.Online document:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL

Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is
undated, use "n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that
goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online
documents. There is no period following a URL.
Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.

Examples:

Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved
January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html
Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998,
from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website:
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html

5.7 Presentation of Report.

For the proper presentation of research report the researcher should ensure the following;
1.is the format of the report appropriate?
2.Does the report have headings and sub-headings that facilitate reading and understanding it?
3.Is the chapter scheme based on the objectives of the study?
4.Is the textual discussion clear, concise and convincing?
5.Is the style of writing smooth and simple?
6.Is the presentation logical and objective?
7.Is it free from spelling and grammatical errors?
8. Is the bibliography exhaustive.

Self Assessment questions

19. Define a research report and explain its purpose.

20. What are the characteristics of a research report? What functions does it
perform?
21. Why literature review is is included in a research report?
22. Distinguish between footnote and bibliography.
23. What are the various categories of target audience for research reports?
What may be their requirements?
24. Explain different types of reports
25. How a popular report differs from Technical report?
26. What is the purpose of interim report?
27. What you mean by research abstract?
28. What are the different points the researcher should consider while
presenting the report?
29. Give APA format for books and journal for writing bibliography.
30. What should be the main consideration while making recommendations in
research?
31. What are essential things bear in mind while preparing a report?
32. Describe the layout of a research report?
Suggested Activities
1. Visit https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in and download and read research thesis of your
area of interest and see how the methodological requirements discussed were applied.
 2. Find research papers from International journal of management and social sciences
(www.ijmss.com) to acquaint yourself with practical research.

References
1. Methodology of research in social sciences- Dr. O.R. Krishnaswami- Himalaya Publishing
House.
2. Research methodology a step-by-step guide for beginners- Ranjit Kumar- Pearson
Publishers.
3. Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology - Methods & Techniques, New Age international
4. Research Methods for Business StudentsFifth edition- Mark Saunders -Philip Lew -Adrian
Thornhill-Pearson
5. Business Research Methods -Donald Cooper Pamela Schindler -Pearson