Module I - Introduction to Occupational Health and Safety

Learning Content:
a. OHS and the BOHS Framework
• Overview of the BOHS and the importance of health and safety
• OHS and its three major fields
• Work hazards and risks and recommend control measures to reduce or
eliminate work-related accidents and illness
• Basic knowledge & skills on OHS, such as safe work practices, that will enable
you to plan/develop your company’s Safety and Health program.
b. OHS Situation in the Global and Local Levels
• OHS situation, both local and international
• Problems, issues and challenges associated with OHS conditions in the
country
c. Unsafe / Unhealthy Acts and Conditions
• Different unsafe and unhealthy acts and conditions in your workplace
• unsafe/unhealthy acts from unsafe/unhealthy conditions
• relationship between unsafe/unhealthy acts and unsafe/unhealthy
conditions
• Filipino traits and characteristics in the workplace which result in unsafe/
unhealthy acts and conditions accident and its causes and ways to promote
safety consciousness

Learning Outcomes:
• Discuss OHS situation
• identify the problems, issues and challenges associated with OHS
conditions in the country
• Identify the different unsafe and unhealthy acts and conditions in
your workplace
• Differentiate unsafe/unhealthy acts from unsafe/unhealthy
conditions
• Explain the relationship between unsafe/unhealthy acts and
unsafe/unhealthy condition
• Identify Filipino traits and characteristics in the workplace
which result in unsafe/ unhealthy acts and conditions
• Define accident and its causes and enumerate ways to
promote safety consciousness

A. Occupational health and safety

− the discipline concerned with preserving and protecting human resources in the
workplace.
− encompasses the social, mental and physical well-being of workers, that is, the
“whole person”.
− is a cross - disciplinary area and it interacts with other disciplines such as:
• occupational medicine,
• occupational or industrial hygiene,
( Learning Module in Basic Occupational Safety and Health
 • public health,
• safety engineering,
• ergonomics,
• toxicology,
• epidemiology,
• health physics,
• environmental health,
• industrial relations,
• public policy,
• industrial sociology,
• medical sociology,
• social law,
• labour law, and
• occupation health psychology

Three Major Fields of Occupational Health and Safety

• Occupational safety deals with understanding the causes of accidents at work and
ways to prevent unsafe act and unsafe conditions in any workplace.

• Occupational health is a broad concept which explains how the different hazards
and risks at work may cause an illness and emphasizes that health programs are
essential in controlling work-related and/or occupational diseases.

• Industrial hygiene discusses the identification, evaluation, and control of physical,

chemical, biological and ergonomic hazards.

“In its broadest sense, OHS aims at:

• the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental
and social well-being of workers in all occupations;
• the prevention of adverse health effects of the working conditions
• the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment
adapted to physical and mental needs;
• the adaptation of work to humans (and NOT the other way around).

Objectives of Occupational Health and Safety

The prime objective of OHS at a global level is to ensure that health and safety is
accessible to every worker employed in any sector across the economy. The World
Health Organization (WHO) since its inception has included elements of occupational
health in its policy. The need to protect the worker from occupational health hazards
and promote safety of all at the workplace has been emphasized in key documents of
WHO - the Constitution of the WHO, Declarations of Alma Ata Declaration, Global
Strategy on Occupational Health for All, WHO General Programmes of Work and several
resolutions of the World Health Assembly.

Principles of Occupational Health and Safety

Occupational health and safety are a multi-disciplinary field, covering issues
related to law, medicine, technology, economics and industry specific concerns.
The core occupational health and safety principles put forth by the ILO are as
( Learning Module in Basic Occupational Safety and Health
follows:
▪ All workers have rights. Workers, as well as employees and government,
must ensure that these rights are protected and foster decent conditions
of labour. As the International Labour Conference stated in 1984:

- Work should take place in a safe healthy environment;

- Conditions of work should be consistent with workers‟ well-being
and human dignity;
- Work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement, self-
fulfillment and service society1.

▪ Occupational health and safety policies must be established. Such

policies must be implemented at both the governmental and enterprise
levels. They must be effectively communicated to all parties concerned.

▪ There is a need for consultation with the social partners (that is, employers
and workers) and other stakeholders. This should be done during the
formulation, implementation and review of such policies.

▪ Prevention and protection must be the aim of occupational health and

safety programmes and policies. Efforts must be focused on primary
prevention at the workplace level. Workplaces and working environment
should be planned and designed to be safe and healthy.

▪ Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective

programmes and policies. The collection and dissemination of accurate
information on hazards and hazardous materials, surveillance of
workplaces, monitoring of compliance with policies and good practices,
and other related activities are central to the establishment and the
enforcement of effective policies.

▪ Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice.

Efforts must be made to enhance workers‟ physical, mental and social
well- being.

▪ Occupational health services covering all workers should be established.

Ideally all workers in all categories of economic activity should have
access to such services, which aim to protect and promote workers‟
health and improve working conditions.

▪ Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made

available to workers who suffer occupational injuries, accidents and
work-related diseases. Action must be taken to minimize the
consequences of occupational hazards.

▪ Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working

environments. Workers and employers must be made aware of the
importance and the means of establishing safe working procedures.
Trainers must be trained in areas of special relevance to different
industries, which have specific OHS concerns.

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 ▪ Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain
responsibilities, duties and obligations. For example, workers must follow
established safety procedures; employers must provide safe workplaces
and ensure access to first aid; and the competent authorities must devise,
communicate and periodically review and update occupational health
and safety policies.

▪ Policies must be enforced. A system of inspection must be in place to

secure compliance with occupational health and safety and other
labour legislation.

(ALLI 2001, p17-19)

Hazard and Risk

The terms hazard and risk are often interchanged.

Hazard – a source or situation with a potential to cause harm in terms of injury, ill health,
damage to property, damage to the environment or a combination of these.

Risk – a combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event with

specified period or in specified circumstances and the severity of injury or
damage to the health of people, property, environment or any combination
of these caused by the event.

The hazards affecting the workplace under each major area should be detected,
identified, controlled and, at best, prevented from occurring by the safety and health
officer of the company. Occupational safety and health should be integrated in every
step of the work process, starting from storage and use of raw materials, the
manufacture of products, release of by-products, use of various equipment and ensuring
a non-hazardous or risk-free work environment.

B. OSH Situation in the Global and Local Levels

Global OSH figures

The International Labour Organization (ILO) Safework Introductory Report in 2008

showed that close to 50% of work-related deaths occur in Asia. In developing
countries, fatality rates are five to six times higher than in industrialized nations and in
developing countries where, every year, around 170,000 agricultural workers and
320,000 people die from exposures to biological risks such as viral, bacterial, insect or
animal related risks.

( Learning Module in Basic Occupational Safety and Health

The latest ILO figures reveal that,

“Every 15 seconds, 160 workers have a work-related accident. Every 15 seconds, a

worker dies from a work-related accident or disease.

Everyday, 6,300 people die as a result of occupational accidents or work-related

diseases – more than 2.3 million deaths per year. Over 337 million accidents occur on
the job annually; many of these resulting in extended absences from work. The human
cost of this daily adversity is vast and the economic burden of poor occupational safety
and health practices is estimated at 4% of global Gross Domestic product each year.

The safety and health conditions at work are very different between countries,
economic sectors and social groups. Deaths and injuries take a heavy toll in developing
countries, where a large part of the population is engaged in hazardous activities such
as agriculture, fishing and mining. Throughout the world, the poorest and least
protected – often women, children and migrants – are among the most affected.”
(Safety and Health at Work, International Labour Organization, accessed September 6,
2011 http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/lang--en/index.htm
)

Philippine Labor and OSH statistics

According to the latest Labor Force Survey (LFS) of the National Statistics Office
(NSO), the Philippine labor force/ economically active population, which refers to
persons 15 years old and above who are employed or underemployed, totals 38.905M
in October 2010.

“Of the estimated 36.0 million employed persons in 2010, more than half (51.8%)
were engaged in services and about one-third (33.2%) were in agriculture. Most of those
who worked in the services sector were into wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor
vehicles, motorcycles and personal and household goods (19.5% of the total
employed).

Of the total employed persons, the laborers and unskilled workers comprised the
largest group (32.3%). This was followed by farmers, forestry workers and fishermen
(16.0%); officials of government and special interest organizations, corporate executives,
managers, managing proprietors and supervisors (13.8%); and service workers, shop and
market sales workers (10.6%). The rest of the major occupation groups each comprised
less than 10 percent ranging from 0.4 percent to 7.7 percent.

The majority (54.4%) of the employed were wage and salary workers, most of whom
were in private establishments (40.4% of the total employed). Thirty percent were self-
employed without any paid employee, four percent were employer in own family-
operated business or farm while nearly 12 percent worked without pay in own family-
operated farm or business.

More than half (63.5%) of the total employed were full time workers or have worked
for at least 40 hours per week. On the average, employed persons worked 41.7 hours a
week in 2010.

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 The number of underemployed workers in 2010 was 6.8 million, representing an
annual underemployment rate of 18.7 percent. Underemployed workers are persons
who express the desire to have additional hours of work in the present job, or to have an
additional job, or to have a new job with longer working hours. The lowest
underemployment rate was observed in Central Luzon (9.1%) while the highest was
noted in Bicol Region (36.8%).

About 2.9 million Filipinos were unemployed in 2010 representing an unemployment

rate of 7.3 percent for the year. The unemployed persons who have attained high school
accounted for 45.2 percent of all unemployed. The proportion of unemployed males
was greater than that of their female counterparts (63.3% compared to 36.7%).” (2010
ANNUAL LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS, released February 8, 2011,
http://www.census.gov.ph/data/press release/2011/pr1111tx.html)

According to the July 2011 Current Labor Statistics of the DOLE Bureau of Labor and
Employment Statistics (BLES), there are 8M OFWs with 1.47M deployed in 2010. Of the
OFWs deployed in 2010, 1,123,676 are land based and 347,150 are sea-based.

After knowing these statistics, the question that comes to mind is “how many Filipino
workers are protected from accidents and illnesses while they work?”

Taken in 2007-2008 and released in 2010,

the latest Bureau of Labor and Employment
Statistics (BLES) Integrated Survey (BITS) on
cases of occupational injuries and diseases
that affected private sector establishments
covered 6,460 sample non-agricultural
establishments with 20 or more workers. It has
expanded its coverage 65 industries
including building and repairing of ships and
boats (manufacturing industry); bus line
operation (transport, storage and
communications); accounting, bookkeeping
and auditing activities; tax consultancy,
architectural, engineering and related
technical consultancy; call center activities,
medical transcription and related
outsourcing activities (real estate, renting
and business activities); and animated films
and cartoons production (other community,
social and personal service activities)
industries.

The BITS results reveal that a total of 44,800 occupational accidents occurred in
4,600 non-agricultural establishments employing 20 or more workers in 2007, a figure
lower by 14.7% than the 52,515 accidents that affected 4, 824 establishments in 2003.
Occupational injuries resulting from workplace accidents declined by 20.7% from 58,720
in 2003 to 46,570 in 2007.
Cases that required absence/s from work stood at 23,265 in 2003 and 20,386 in 2007
or a reduction of 12.4%. Almost all cases with workdays lost in 2007 were temporary
disabilities (20,109). This is 12.4% lower than the caseload of 22,964 in 2003.
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 Figure 2 Fatalities decreased by 31.8%
(from 170 in 2003 to 116 in 2007.
However those permanently
incapacitated increased by 23.7 %
(from 131 in 2003 to 162 in 2007).

Contributing factors to
occupational accidents and
injuries include machines,
equipment, hand tools, materials,
buildings,
structures and chemical
substances.

On the other hand, training on the proper handling and correct operation of
machines, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) precautions and carefulness in
work prevent accidents and promote safety in establishments.

The largest caseload of injuries with workdays lost in 2007 was recorded in
manufacturing establishments at 61.0% (12,427). This industry also posted the biggest
share at 61.9% four years earlier. The rest of the industries had lower shares ranging from
0.2% (financial intermediation) to 9.2% (hotels and restaurants) in 2007 and from 0.3%
(mining and quarrying) to 11.6% (wholesale and retail trade) in 2003. (Table 1).

Relative to their specific industry totals, private education injury cases with
workdays lost had multiplied by as much as three times its 2003 level (from 132 in 2003 to
436 in 2007). Other noticeable percentage increases were recorded in mining and
quarrying at 58.3% (from 60 in 2003 to 95 in 2007) and in hotels and restaurants at 57.1%
(from 1,195 in 2003 to 1,877 in 2007). On the other hand, remarkable decreases were
noted in other community, social and personal service entities at 66.1% (from 546 in 2003
to 185 in 2007) and in financial intermediation activities at 52.0% (from 100 in 2003 to 48
in 2007).

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Definition of Terms:

Occupational accident - an unexpected and unplanned occurrence, including acts

of violence arising out of or in connection with work which results in one or more
workers incurring a personal injury, disease or death. It can occur outside the
usual workplace/premises of the establishment while the worker is on business
on behalf of his/her employer, i.e., in another establishment or while on travel,
transport or in road traffic.

Occupational injury - an injury which results from a work-related event or a single

instantaneous exposure in the work environment (occupational accident).
Where more than one person is injured in a single accident, each case of
occupational injury should be counted separately. If one person is injured in
more than one occupational accident during the reference period, each case
of injury to that person should be counted separately. Recurrent absences due
to an injury resulting from a single occupational accident should be treated as
the continuation of the same case of occupational injury not as a new case.

Temporary incapacity - case where an injured person was absent from work for at least
one day, excluding the day of the accident, and 1) was able to perform again
the normal duties of the job or position occupied at the time of the
occupational accident or 2) will be able to perform the same job but his/her
total absence from work is expected not to exceed a year starting the day after
the accident, or 3) did not return to the same job but the reason for changing
the job is not related to his/her inability to perform the job at the time of the
occupational accident.

Permanent incapacity - case where an injured person was absent from work for at least
one day, excluding the day of the accident, and 1) was never able to perform
again the normal duties of the job or position occupied at the time of the
occupational accident, or 2) will be able to perform the same job but his/her
total absence from work is expected to exceed a year starting the day after
the accident.

Fatal case - case where a person is fatally injured as a result of occupational accident
whether death occurs immediately after the accident or within the same
reference year as the accident.

Injuries incurring days away from work recorded a Frequency Rate (FR) of 2.79
in 2007. This was 1.28 percentage points lower than the FR of 4.07 in 2003. Expectedly,
this was coherent to the 12.4% reduction in the number of cases of occupational injuries
to 20,386 in 2007 from 23,265 in 2003.

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 Categories by incapacity for work on cases with workdays lost recorded
frequency rates as follows:

Frequency Rate (FR) – refers to cases of occupational injuries with workdays lost per
1,000,000 employee-hours of exposure.
Incidence Rate (IR) – refers to cases of occupational injuries with workdays lost per 1,000
workers.
Severity Rate (SR) – refers to workdays lost of cases of occupational injuries resulting to
temporary incapacity per 1,000,000 employee-hours of exposure.
Average Workdays Lost – refer to workdays lost for every case of occupational injury
resulting to temporary incapacity.

Cases of occupational diseases in non-agricultural establishments employing 20 or

more workers decreased by 14.8% from 55,413 in 2003 to 47,235 in 2007. Incidences of
occupational diseases decreased in almost all types of diseases in 2007 except in
bronchial asthma (+29.9%), occupational dermatitis (+18.6%) and essential hypertension
(+7.8). Work-related musculoskeletal diseases were most prevalent in non-agricultural
establishments employing 20 or more workers both in 2003 and 2007. This type of disease
accounted for 37.2% (2003) and 28.1 % (2007) of the totals. Other types which made up
more than 10% of the total diseases in 2007 were bronchial asthma (18.5%), infections
(13.8%), essential hypertension (13.0%) and
occupational dermatitis (12.6%).
Source of data: Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics, BLES Integrated Survey
(2003/2004 and 2007/2008).

The present local data does not present a total picture of OSH situation in the
Philippines. As you can see, the BITS survey is limited only to the 6,460 companies covered
out of the estimated 780,500 existing establishments in the country. Many companies do
not report accidents and injuries.

Data gathering has been problematic because of the following conditions:

• Under reporting of work-related accidents and illnesses. Rule 1050 of the
Philippine Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS) requires all
employers to report all work accidents or occupational illnesses resulting to
disabling conditions to the DOLE Regional Office in their area. However, very few
companies submit reports.
• Limited coverage of the OSH information and education and OSHS
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 implementation. Vulnerable groups such as the informal sector (which amounts
to 28M or 80% of the Filipino workforce) are often left out in the OSH education,
information and program implementation because they are do not have the
capacity to pay for trainings and most of the time are not even aware that they
can protect themselves from accidents and illnesses. Many of them think that the
diseases and accidents they experience is part of the nature of their work and
cannot be prevented. On a positive note, OSHC has been doing a lot of OSH
awareness campaigns for informal workers.
• Inadequate number of trained OSH personnel. There has been an upsurge of
OSH awareness worldwide and companies both here and abroad require
companies to hire trained OSH personnel. This has caused an exponential
increase in the number of workers who have undergone and are wanting to avail
of OSH trainings but because accidents continue to happen, more dedicated
and trained personnel are needed.
• Absence of strict penalties. There is no system of fines for violations of the different
provisions of the OSHS.
• Weak enforcement of OSH laws –problem is traceable also to the absence of
strict penalties on violations of OSH standards.
• Fragmented OSH administration. There is no central authority to coordinate all
OSH efforts.
• Public apathy on OSH concerns. Most people do not generally pay attention to
OSH concerns.
• Low priority on OSH concerns by both management and labor. The former is
more concerned about profit while the latter is with wages and other monetary
benefits.

Emerging issues in OSH

• Aside from the problems already identified, participants should also be aware
that there are emerging OSH issues – such as women workers’ issues, OSH and child
labor, OSH in the informal sector, agriculture, in schools and lifestyle diseases such
as AIDS and diabetes, and many others.
• Women are often faced with multiple burdens. They have take on the burden of
the home they perform the role of a wife and a mother. These may also affect
her performance at the workplace and add to the stresses that come with the
job. The hazards that a women worker is exposed to while at work to can affect
her reproductive health and for a pregnant worker, her unborn child.
• There are 250 million child laborers around the world of which 3.7 million are
found in the Philippines. Of these, 2.2M are in hazardous jobs. Employing children
in these types of work greatly affects the quality of their life and in serious cases,
may even cause serious disabilities or death. The OSHC researches on the
footwear industry, fishing, mining, and agriculture, helped in the formulation of
policies, in advocacy campaigns to take children out of hazardous work.
• The use of pesticides in farms is also another issue. Farmers or farm workers who
handle pesticides may be unaware of the hazards that they are exposed to.
Constant exposure of a worker, has enormous adverse effects his or her health.
Workers handling pesticides may even bring home residues of the chemicals
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 and, affecting their families and the community.
• There is also little mechanism on OSH for the informal sector considering that they
represent more than half of the total workforce and is the sector badly in need
of OSH information since they have the tendency to ignore such concerns just to
get their daily incomes.
• In schools, students are also exposed to hazards such as chemicals and
electricity, while bullying and hazing (both psycho-social issues) are becoming
more common. Many school buildings are also risks themselves.

Although the number of work-related accidents and illnesses has decreased in the
recent years here in the Philippines, cases of occupational injuries and diseases continue
to occur. We at the OSHC subscribe to the principle that “one life lost is one too many.”
Everyone must therefore be involved in the effort to contain OSH concerns to enhance one’s
working life. After all, most of us work mainly for economic purposes - “ang hanap-buhay
ay para ikabuhay, hindi para ikamatay.”

C. Unsafe / Unhealthy Acts and Conditions

What are unsafe/unhealthy acts and conditions?

To be able to define this, let us first go back to the work system composed of various
elements: workers, raw materials, tools and equipment and the work environment. The
interplay of these elements results in the performance of specific tasks like production of
goods. But when an accident happens, the task/s will not be accomplished or will be
delayed.

Accidents
- is an unexpected, unforeseen, unplanned and unwanted occurrence or event that
causes damage or loss of materials or properties, injury or death.

Common types of accidents:

fall from height and fall from the same level (slips and trips)
struck against rigid structure, sharp or rough objects
struck by falling objects
caught in, on or in between objects
electrocution
fire

Costs of accidents
Corollary to accidents are costs that companies have to bear whether directly or
indirectly. The cost of accidents can be best explained by the Iceberg Theory. Once an
accident happens, money has to be spent for medical expenses of the injured
worker/workers, insurance premiums and, in some cases, for penalty and litigation
expenses. Companies also spend huge amounts to replace damaged equipment and
wasted raw materials. These are what we consider as the direct costs of accidents. But
these are just the tip of the iceberg.

The larger and more dangerous part of the iceberg however is the part that lies
beneath the water. This represents the indirect costs of an accident which have a more
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damaging impact to the worker, their families, the company and the community in
general. Indirect costs include:
1. Lost or lesser productivity of the injured – workers lose their efficiency and income
due to work interruption on the day of the injury.
2. Loss of productivity among other employees due to work stoppage when
assisting the injured worker, inspection or merely out of curiosity. The
psychological impact of the accident reduces the workers’ productivity.
3. Loss of productivity among supervisors because instead of focusing on
managing people and the work flow, they spend their time assisting the injured,
investigating the accident and preparing inspection reports.
4. Hiring and training replacement workers
5. Downtime due to equipment damage

Apart from these are humane aspects of accidents such as sorrow due to loss,
hardships and inconveniences, physical pain and discomfort and psychological problems.

Accident causation
After knowing what accidents are and the costs that will be incurred when these
happen, we will now look at the primary causes of accidents. Understanding this topic will
help you identify appropriate measures to prevent accidents from happening.

Are these phrases familiar to you?

– "Oras na niya"
– "Malas niya lang"
– “Tanga kasi”
– “Kasama sa trabaho”

People usually utter the abovementioned phrases or statements when someone gets
injured or dies in an accident. However, these are not the real causes of accidents but
mere excuses of people who do not understand the concepts of occupational safety and
health. Accidents are primarily caused by unsafe and unhealthy acts and conditions.

Unsafe/unhealthy Act: the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines this
as “any human action that violates a commonly accepted safe work procedure or
standard operating procedure.” This is an act done by a worker that does not conform or
departs from an established standard, rules or policy. These often happen when a worker
has improper attitudes, physical limitations or lacks knowledge or skills.

Examples of unsafe acts:

− horse playing,
− smoking in non-smoking areas,
− using substandard/defective tools,
− non - wearing of goggles/gloves,
− driving without license,
− reporting to work under the influence of liquor or drugs, and
− improper storage of paints and hazardous chemicals among others.

Unsafe/unhealthy Condition: ANSI defines this as the physical or chemical property of a

material, machine or the environment which could possibly cause injury to people,
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damage to property, disrupt operations in a plant or office or other forms of losses. These
conditions could be guarded or prevented.

Examples of unsafe conditions:

− slippery and wet floors,
− dusty work area,
− congested plant lay-out,
− octopus wiring, scattered objects on the floor/work area,
− poor storage system,
− protruding nails and sharp objects,
− unguarded rotating machines/equipment, etc.

Can accidents be prevented?

Herbert William Heinrich, an American industrial safety pioneer who worked as an
Assistant Superintendent of the Engineering and Inspection Division of Travelers Insurance
Company, did a study on the insurance claims. After reviewing thousands of accident
reports completed by supervisors, who generally blamed workers for causing accidents
without conducting detailed investigations into the root causes, Heinrich found out that
98% of workplace accidents are preventable and only 2% are non- preventable. Of the
98% preventable accidents, 88% is due to unsafe/unhealthy acts or “man failure” and 10%
is due to unsafe/unhealthy conditions. This study explains the rationale for focusing
interventions on changing the behaviors and attitudes of workers and management
towards safety and health.

How do you prevent yourself from performing unsafe/unhealthy acts that will cause
unsafe/unhealthy conditions at work?
It is important to raise everybody’s consciousness to such a degree that we all begin to
realize that our actions affect other people in the workplace, even if these appear to have
nothing to do with them. If you agree that we are part of the problem, then, probably we
can be part of the solution, too.

Module in Basic Occupational Health and Safety