IB Physics SL/HL 1 Study Guide

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Fundamental Constants: Quantity / Symbol
- Acceleration of free fall / g
- Gravitational constant / G
- Avogadro’s constant / 𝑁𝐴
- Gas constant / R
- Boltzmann’s constant / 𝑘𝐵
- Stefan-Boltzmann constant / 𝜎
- Coulomb constant / k
- Permittivity of free space / 𝜖0
- Permeability of free space / 𝜇0
- Speed of light in vacuum / c
- Planck’s constant / h
- Elementary charge / e
- Electron rest mass / 𝑚𝑒
- Proton rest mass / 𝑚𝑝
- Neutron rest mass / 𝑚𝑛
- Unified atomic mass unit / u
- Solar Constant / S
- Fermi radius / 𝑅0

Measurement
- SI Units- Standard units of measurements consisting of the following:
- Length/ Meter/ m
- Time/ Seconds/ s
- Amount of substance/ Mole
- Electric Current/ Ampere/ A
- Temperature/ Kelvin/ K
- Luminous Intensity/ Candela/ cd
 - Mass/ Kilogram/ kg

- From here, units are derived, such as Joules, which is force∗distance, so 𝑁 ∗ 𝑚

Kinematics in One Direction

- Position of a particle is the position in respect to the origin, the unit being “s”
- This is called displacement, different from distance
- Displacement is a vector quantity, if it’s positive it has moved in the positive
direction, and if it’s negative it has moved in the negative direction
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

- Instantaneous Velocity is the velocity at the given moment

𝛥𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝛥𝑡→0 =
𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡
- Average Acceleration
𝛥𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑡
- Average Velocity
𝛥𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
- Constant acceleration (more equations to solve)
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢 2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
- Free Fall Acceleration
- We refer to motion vertically, and replace acceleration with g, which is the
magnitude of the free-fall acceleration
𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2

Vectors
- Scalers only contain magnitude
- Vectors have both magnitude and direction, and obey the rules of algebra
- Components of a Vector
 - Components are given by: 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

- We can also find magnitude and orientation of vector a with: 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2

Kinematics in Two and Three Directions

- Projectile Motion is the motion of a particle that is launched with an initial velocity
- During its flight, the particle’s horizontal acceleration is 0, and it’s vertical acceleration is
-g
𝑠𝑥 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑡
1
𝑠𝑦 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
- Uniform Circular Motion
- If a particle travels along a circle or circular arc of radius r at constant speed v, it
is in uniform circular motion and has an acceleration of constant magnitude
𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑟
- The direction of acceleration is towards the center of the circle or circular arc, and
the acceleration is centripetal
- T is the time for the particle to complete the circle, also called the period of
revolution, or period
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣
- Relative Motion
- When 2 frames of reference A and B are moving relative to each other at constant
velocity, the velocity of particle P as measured by an observer in frame A usually
differs from measured from frame B
𝑣𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵𝐴

Force and Motion

- Force is a vector quantity
- Net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body
- Newton’s First Law
 - An object in motion stays in motion, and an object at rest stays at rest unless acted
upon by an external, unbalanced force
- Newton’s Second Law
- The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force
applied.
- A free body diagram is a stripped down diagram in which only one body is
considered, the external forces on the body are drawn
- A gravitational force on a body is a pull by another body, usually the earth
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
- A normal force is the force on a body from the surface against which the body
presses, always perpendicular to the surface
- A Frictional force is the force on a body when the body slides along a surface,
always parallel to the surface
- Newton’s Third Law
- If object A exerts a force FA on a object B, then B simultaneously exerts a equal but

opposite force FB on A,

- Friction
- When a force tends to slide a body along a surface, a frictional force acts upon the
body
- If the body does not slide, the frictional force is a static friction
- If the body does slide, the frictional force is kinetic
- The magnitude of 𝐹𝑠 has a maximum value, given by
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
- Where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁
- Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction
- Uniform Circular Motion
- Net centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑅
Work and Kinetic Energy
- Kinetic Energy
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
- Work is the energy transferred from an object from a force acting on the object
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
- For a particle, the change in kinetic energy equals the net work done on the particle
- Spring force
- 𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥 (hooke’s law)
- K is the spring constant, and x is the displacement of the spring
- Work done by the spring
1 2
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥
2
- Power is the rate at which the force does work on an object
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑡
P = Fv

Potential Energy and the Conservation of Energy

- A force is a conservative force is the net work it does on a particle moving around any
closed path, from an initial point and then back to the point is zero
- Kinetic frictional force is a non conservative force
- Potential energy is the energy that is associated in which a conservative force acts
- Gravitational potential energy is the potential energy associated with a system consisting
of the earth, and a nearby particle is the GPE
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
- Where h is the height
- If there is a turning point where the particle reverses its motion, the kinetic energy is
equal to 0
- Work done on an external force 𝑊 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝐸𝑝
- Elastic Potential Energy
1 2
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥
2
- Mechanical Energy
 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝐸𝑝
- Conservation of Energy
- The total energy E of a system can only chance by amounts of energy that are
transferred to or from the system
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑖 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣 2𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓
2 2
- Where i is initial, and f is final

Linear Momentum
- p = mv
- Impulse
𝐽 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑚
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 𝛥𝑣
𝛥𝑡
- Conservation of Linear Momentum
- If a system is isolated so that no net external force acts on it, the linear momentum
of the system remains constant
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓
- Inelastic Collision in One Dimension
- In an inelastic collision of 2 bodies, the kinetic energy of the two-body system is
not conserved
- If the system is closed and isolated, the total linear momentum of the system must
be conserved
𝑃1𝑖 + 𝑃2𝑖 = 𝑃1𝑓 + 𝑃2𝑓
- If the motion of the bodies is along a single axis and the collision is one
dimensional:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
- If the bodies stick together, the collision is completely inelastic collision
and the bodies have the same final velocity
- Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
- A special type of collision in which the kinetic energy of a system of the colliding
bodies is conserved
- If system is closed and isolated, the linear momentum is also conserved
- Collisions in Two Dimensions
 𝑃1𝑖 + 𝑃2𝑖 = 𝑃1𝑓 + 𝑃2𝑓
- If the collision is also elastic, 𝐾1𝑖 + 𝐾2𝑖 = 𝐾1𝑓 + 𝐾2𝑓

Rotation
- Angular Position
- To describe the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, called the rotation axis,
we assume there is a reference line in the body, perpendicular to the axis and
rotating with the body
𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟
- 1 revolution = 360° = 2𝜋rad
- Angular Displacement
𝛥𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1
- Angular Velocity and Speed
- If a body rotates through an angular displacement in a time interval, its average
angular velocity is
𝛥𝜃
𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑡
- We use the right hand rule to see the direction of the velocity, thumbs up, facing
the direction of the current, fingers facing direction of magnetic field

- Another right hand rule is known as the fleming’s right hand rule when force is
involved

- Angular Acceleration
 𝛥𝜔
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑡
- Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy
- If the body rotates through an angle, the point moves along an arc with length s
given by: 𝑠 = 𝜃𝑟
- The linear velocity of the point is tangent to the circle, and the point’s linear speed
is given by: 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
- The linear acceleration of the point has both tangential and radial components, the
tangential component is: 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛼𝑟
- The radial component is: 𝑎𝑟 = 𝜔2 𝑟
- If the point moves in uniform circular motion, the period T of the motion for the
2𝜋
point and the body is: 𝑇 =
𝜔

Gravitation
- The Law of Gravitation
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
- G = 6.67∗ 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
- Gravitational Potential Energy
- The gravitational potential energy of a system of two particles with masses M and
m separated by a distance of r
𝐺𝑀𝑚
- GPE= −
𝑟

- Gravitational Acceleration
𝐺𝑀
𝑎𝑔 =
𝑟2
- Kepler’s Laws
- The law of orbits
- All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus
- The law of areas
- A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals
- The law of periods
 - The square of the period T of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis a of its orbit
4𝜋 2 3
𝑇2 = ( )𝑟
𝐺𝑀

Oscillations
- Frequency
- The frequency f is the number of oscillations per second, measured in hertz
- Period
- The period T is the time required for one complete oscillation or cycle
1
𝑇=
𝑓
- Angular Frequency is related to the period and frequency of the motion by: 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
- Linear Oscillator
- A particle with mass m that moves under the influence of a Hooke’s law restoring
force exhibits simple harmonic motion with
𝑘
- 𝜔 = √𝑚 (angular frequency)

𝑚
- 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (period)
𝑘

- Pendulums
- Simple Pendulum: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐿/𝑔
- Resonance
- The velocity amplitude of the system is greatest in resonance
Waves
- Transverse and Longitudinal waves
- Mechanical Waves can only exist in material media and are governed by
Newton’s laws of motion
- Transverse mechanical waves are waves in which it oscillates perpendicular to the
waves direction of travel
- Longitudinal waves oscillates parallel to the wave’s direction of travel
- Sinusoidal waves
 - y = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) *Notations may differ from textbook to textbook
- Where A is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular wave number, 𝜔is the
angular frequency, and kx-𝜔𝑡is the phase
2𝜋
- The wavelength is: 𝑘 =
𝜆
𝜔 𝜆
- The wave speed is: 𝑣 = = 𝑇 = 𝜆𝑓
𝑘

- Resonance
- Standing waves on a string can be set up by a reflection of traveling waves from
the ends of the string
- If an end is fixed, it must be the position of a node
- This limits the frequencies at which standing waves will occur on a given
string
- Each possible frequency is a resonant frequency, and the corresponding standing
wave pattern is an oscillation mode
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓= =𝑛
𝜆 2𝐿
- Sound intensity
- The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average rate per unit area which
energy is transferred by the wave through or onto the surface:
𝑃
𝐼=
𝐴
- The intensity at a distance r from a point sources that emits sound waves of power
P is:
𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑟 2
- Doppler Effect
- The doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave when the
source or the detector moves relative to the transmitting medium
𝑣 ± 𝑣𝐷
𝑓′ = 𝑓
𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑆
- Where 𝑣𝐷 is the speed of the detector relative to the medium, and 𝑣𝑆 is that of the
sources
- f’ tends to be greater for motion towards, and less for motion away
- Simple Harmonic Motion
 - Occurs when something is in its equilibrium point
- Force is proportional to displacement from equilibrium
- Frequency is the number of sound waves
- Sound with single frequency is a pure tone
- Under 20 Hz is infrasonic
- Above 20 Hz is ultrasonic
- The pitch is the brain’s interpretation of frequency
- The pressure amplitude is the magnitude of maximum change in pressure
measured relatively to undisturbed atmospheric pressure
- Loudness is the amplitude of the wave
- Application in medicine
- Ultrasounds, pulses, doppler flow meter
- The sensitivity of the human ear

- The principle of linear superposition

- When 2 or more waves are present simultaneously at the same place, the resultant
disturbance is the sum of the disturbance from the individual waves
- Constructive and destructive interference of sound waves
- Constructive interference is when 2 waves meet condensation-condensation or
rare-rare
 - Destructive interference is when 2 waves meet rare-condensation
- Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles
- Single slit- first medium
𝜆
- Sin 𝜃=
𝐷

- Circular opening
𝜆
- Sin 𝜃 = 1.22 𝐷

- Transverse Standing
- Each pattern is a transverse wave pattern
- Nodes = no vibration
- Antinodes = maximum
- Superposition
- When 2 or more waves are at the same place and collide and create a resulting
wave
 z

Temperature
- Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body C (the
thermometer), then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other
- The Kelvin Temperature Scale
- Standard SI unit, where the freezing point of water is 273.16 K
- Heat Capacity
- If heat Q is absorbed by an object, the object’s temperature change is related by
𝑄 = 𝐶(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) where 𝑇𝑓 is the final temperature and𝑇𝑖 is the initial temperature
- If object has mass m, then
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
- Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
 - The celsius temperature scale is defined by: 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑇 − 273.15
- T is in kelvins
9
- Fahrenheit temperature is defined by: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑐 + 32
5

- Radiation
- Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromagnetic energy
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜖𝐴𝑇 4
- Everything with temperature gives us thermal radiation
- Above absolute zero is vibrational energy
𝑄/𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜖𝜎𝐴𝑇 4

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

- Average translational kinetic energy per particle
3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇
2
- Internal Energy of a Monatomic ideal gas
3
𝑈= 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2
- The distribution of molecular speeds
- Particles travel at different speeds, but it's possible to have an average particle
speed
- Avogadro’s Number
- One Mole of a substance contains 𝑁𝐴 elementary units
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 ∗ 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
- Ideal Gas
- pV = nRT
- Can also be written as pV = NkT
𝑅
- Where k, the boltzmann constant, is 𝑘 = 𝑁 = 1.38 ∗ 10−23 𝐽/𝐾
𝐴

- The number of moles n contained in a sample of mass consisting of N molecules is given

𝑁 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑚 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑚
by: 𝑛 = = =
𝑁𝐴 𝑀 𝑚𝑁𝐴
Coulomb’s Law
- Conductors
- Materials in which a significant number of electrons are free to move
- Coulomb’s Law describes the electrostatic force between two charged particles
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= = 2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
- Where 𝜖0 is the permittivity constant
- Conservation of Charge
- The net electric charge of any isolated system is always conserved
- Like charges repel, opposites attract
- Charged objects can be created by friction

Electric Fields and Electric Forces

- Like mass, electric charge is an intrinsic property 𝑒 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19 𝐶
- Law of conservation of electric charge
- During any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system remains constant
 - Conductors and Insulators
- Conductors are substances that readily conduct
- Ex. metal
- Insulators are materials that conduct charge poorly
- Ex. plastic, rubber
- Charging by contact and induction
- Contact is directly touching
- Induction is charging without physical contact
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞0
- Electric Field Lines
- Help visualize the direction and magnitude of electric fields
- The field vector at any point is tangent to a field line through that point
- The density of field lines in any region is proportional to the magnitude of the
electric field in that region
- From positive charges to negative charges

- Field due to a point charge

1 𝑞
𝐸= = 2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
- Force on a point charge in an electric field
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸

Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential

- The electric potential v at a given is the EPE of a small test charge q situated at that point
divided by the charge itself
𝐸𝑃𝐸
𝑣=
𝑞
- Relation between charge and potential difference for a capacitor
- Magnitude q of the charge on each plate of a capacitor is directly proportional to
the magnitude v of the potential difference between places
𝑞 = 𝑐𝑉
- The electric potential difference
- 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸is the electric force
- The work depends on charge 𝑞0
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝐸𝑃𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝑃𝐸𝐵
= −
𝑞0 𝑞0 𝑞0
- A positive charge accelerates from a region of higher EPE towards a region of
lower EPE
- 1 electron volt is the amount by which the potential energy of an electron changes
when the electron moves through the potential difference of 1 volt
1𝑒𝑉 = 1.60 ∗ 10−19 𝐽
- The EP difference created by point charges
𝑘𝑞𝑞0 𝑘𝑞𝑞0
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = −
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
→
−𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = = −
𝑞) 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
𝑘𝑞
- Potential of a point charge 𝑣 =
𝑟

- When 2 or more charges are present, the potential due to all the charges is
obtained by adding together the individual potentials
- Equipotential surfaces and their relation to the electric field
- An equipotential surface is a surface where EP is the same everywhere
- The net force does 0 work as charge moves on the equipotential surface
- EF is everywhere perpendicular to associated equipotential surfaces and points in
the direction of the decreasing potential
- Capacitors and Dielectrics
 - A capacitor: 2 or more conductors, no physical contact
- Dielectric: Electrically insulating material
𝐸0
- Dielectric constant 𝑘 =
𝐸

Electric Currents
- Electromotive force and current
- The mas potential difference is the electromotive force (EMF)
- Flow of chart = electric current
𝛥𝑞
𝐼=
𝛥𝑡
- If the charge moves in the same direction, the current is direct current
- If the charge mores in 1 direction, then switches directions, it’s in an alternating
current
- The conventional current is a hypothetical flow of positive charges that would
have the same effect in a circuit as the movement of negative charges
- Ohm’s Law
- Resistance = voltage / current
- Current is in Ampere A
- Voltage is in Volts V
- Resistance is in Ohms 𝛺
- Electric Power
- The power is equal to the current multiplied by the voltage
- Alternating current
𝑣2
𝑃=
𝑅
- Series Writing
- Devices are connected in a way so that there is same electric current in each
device
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 𝑅𝑠
- 𝑅𝑠 =equivalent resistance
- Series resistor = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 . ..
 - Parallel writing
- Devices are connected so that voltage is the same
𝐼
𝐼=𝑉
𝑅𝑝
1 1 1
= + . ..
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2

- Kirchhoff’s rules
- Junction rule
- At any junction in the electrical circuit, the sum of the currents flowing
into the junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of the
junction
- Loop rule
- Around closed circuit loop, the sum of the potential drop is the sum of the
potential rise

Magnetic Fields
- North magnetic pole vs south magnetic pole, opposites attract and likes repel
- The force that a magnetic field exerts on a moving charge
- The charge must be moving
- Velocity must have component that is perpendicular to direction of the magnetic
field
 - The motion charged particle in a field
- Charged particle is perpendicular to the field
- Magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity and directed towards center
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

Electromagnetic Waves
- The oscillating current I in the antenna wires create magnetic field B at point P that is
tangent to the circle centered on the wires
- The field is directed into the page when the current is upward and out of the page when
the current is downwards

- As oscillating current changes, the magnetic field changes accordingly

- An electromagnetic field wave is transverse
- Can travel through a vacuum or material substance
- All waves move through vacuum at speed c, which is the speed of light in a
vacuum
- 𝑐 = 3.00 ∗ 108 m/s
- Electromagnetic spectrum
- Lower frequency waves generally produced by electric oscillator circuits
- Higher frequency waves are generated using electron tubes called klystrons
- The energy carried by electromagnetic waves
- A measure of the energy stored in the electric field E of an electromagnetic wave
is provided by the electromagnetic identity
- As electromagnetic waves move through space, it carries energy
- The intensity
- S is the electromagnetic intensity
𝑃
𝑆=
𝐴
- The volume of space which the wave passes is ctA
𝑐
- The total energy in the volume is 𝑆 = 𝐵2
𝜇0

- Polarization
- Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, so they can be polarized
- Wave is linearly polarized
- Vibrations always occur in one direction
- This direction is called the direction of polarization
- Malus’ law
- Once light has been polarized with a piece of polarizing material, it’s
possible to use a second piece to change polarization direction and to
adjust to the intensity of light
 𝑆 = 𝑆0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

The Refraction of Light, Lenses, and Other Optical Instruments

- The index of refraction
- Change in speed as ray of light goes from 1 material to another
- Causes ray to deviate from the “incident direction”
- This change is called refraction
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐
𝑛= =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣
- Snell’s law and the refraction of light
- When light travels from material with refractive index 𝑛1 into a material with
refractive index 𝑛2 , the refractive ray, the incident ray, and the normal to the
interface all lie in the same plane
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
- Apparent Depth
- An object underwater appears closer than it actually is
𝑛2
𝑑′ = 𝑑
𝑛1
- Where d’ is the apparent depth, d is the actual depth
- Total internal reflection
- When the angle of incident reaches a certain value, its critical angle is an angle of
refraction, 90 degrees
- The total internal reflection occurs only when light travels from higher to lower
medium index
𝑛2
- Critical angle: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1

- Polarization and the reflection and refraction of light

- For incident angles other than 0 , unpolarized light becomes partially polarized in
reflecting from a nonmetallic surface such as water
- There is 1 special angle where reflected light is completely polarized parallel to
the surface and the reflected ray is only partially polarized: Brewster’s angle 𝜃𝐵
𝑛2
- Tan 𝜃𝐵 =
𝑛1

- The spreading of light into color components is dispersion

Thanks for using the Simple Studies study guide! For the official IB physics equation sheet, click here:
http://www.iisjaipur.org/International_Wing/physics_Data_booklet.pdf
This is the annotated version:
https://ibphysicsnotes.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/annotated-physics-data-booklet-2016.pdf