SQL

(Structured Query Language)

DBA Lounge
Module 1 - Getting started with RDBMS & SQL
Session 1 - Introduction to RDBMS & SQL

Session 2 - Working with DDL - CREATE, ALTER, DROP

Session 3 - Working with DML - INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

Session 4 - SQL Data Modeling and SQL Intro Assignments (Practice Ses-
sion)

Session 5 - Working with DRL - SELECT

Session 6 - Working with DRL - Subqueries

Session 7 - DRL Assignments (Practice Session)

Module 2 - Advanced SQL Concepts

Session 1 - Built-In functions and Grouping result

Session 2 - Joins

Session 3 - Procedures

Session 4 - SQL - Functions, Subqueries, Grouping and Joins Assignments

(Practice Session)

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Module 1 - Getting started
with RDBMS & SQL

3
4
Session 1 - Introduction to
RDBMS & SQL

What is Database

To find out what database is, we have to start from data, which is the basic
building block of any DBMS.

Data Facts, figures, statistics etc. having no particular meaning (e.g. 1,

Sachin, 35 etc).

Record Collection of related data items, e.g. in the above example the
three data items had no meaning. But if we organize them in the following
way, then they collectively represent meaningful information.

Roll No Name Age

1 Sachin 35

Table or Relation

Collection of related records.

Roll No Name Age

1 Sachin 35
2 Saurav 32
3 Sehwag 35

The columns of this relation are called Fields, Attributes or Domains.

The rows are called Tuples or Records.

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Database

Collection of related relations. Consider the following collection of tables:

Table 1
Roll No Name Age
1 Sachin 35
2 Saurav 32
3 Sehwag 35
Table 2
Rollno Address
1 Mumbai
2 Kolkata
3 Delhi
Table 3
Rollno Year
1 III
2 II
3 I
Table 4
Rollno Hostel
1 H1
2 H2
3 H3
We now have a collection of 4 tables. They can be called a “related collec-
tion” because we can clearly find out that there are some common attributes
existing in a selected pair of tables. Because of these common attributes we
may combine the data of two or more tables together to find out the com-
plete details of a student. Questions like “Which hostel does the youngest
student live in?” can be answered now, although Age and Hostel attributes
are in different tables.

In a database, data is organized strictly in row and column format. The

rows are called Tuple or Record. The data items within one row may
belong to different data types. On the other hand, the columns are often
called Domain or Attribute. All the data items within a single attribute are
of the same data type.

What is Database Management System

A management system is a set of rules and procedures which help us to cre-

ate organize and manipulate the database. It also helps us to add, modify

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delete data items in the database.
The management system can be either manual or computerized.

The management system is important because without the existence of some

kind of rules and regulations it is not possible to maintain the database.
We have to select the particular attributes which should be included in a
particular table; the common attributes to create relationship between two
tables; if a new record has to be inserted or deleted then which tables should
have to be handled etc. These issues must be resolved by having some kind
of rules to follow in order to maintain the integrity of the database.

Relational Database Management System

A DBMS that is based on relational model is called as RDBMS. Relation

model is most successful mode of all three models. Designed by E.F. Codd,
relational model is based on the theory of sets and relations of mathematics.

Relational model represents data in the form a table. A table is a two dimen-
sional array containing rows and columns. Each row contains data related
to an entity such as a student. Each column contains the data related to a
single attribute of the entity such as student name.

Terminologies

Tuple/Row

A single row in the table is called as tuple. Each row represents the data of
a single entity.

Attribute/Column

A column stores an attribute of the entity. For example, if details of students

are stored then student name is an attribute; course is another attribute and
so on.

Primary Key

If you take STUDETNS table, it contains data related to students. For each
student there will be one row in the table.Each students data in the table
must be uniquely identified. In order to identify each entity uniquely in the
table, we use a column in the table. That column, which is used to uniquely
identify entities (students) in the table, is called as Primary Key.

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Composite Primary Key

In some tables a single column cannot be used to uniquely identify entities

(rows). In that case we have to use two or more columns to uniquely identify
rows of the table. When a primary key contains two or more columns it is
called as Composite Primary Key.

Foreign Key

In relational model, we often store data in different tables and put them
together to get complete information. For example, in PAYMENTS table
we have only ROLLNO of the student. To get remaining information about
the student we have to use STUDETNS table. Roll number in PAYMENTS
table can be used to obtain remaining information about the student.
The relationship between entities student and payment is one-to-many. One
student may make payment for many times. As we already have ROLLNO
column in PAYMENTS table, it is possible to join with STUDENTS table
and get information about parent entity (student). Roll number column of
PAYMENTS table is called as foreign key as it is used to join PAYMENTS
table with STUDENTS table. So, Foreign Key is the key on the many
side of the relationship.

When a child table contains a row that doesnt refer to a corresponding

parent key, it is called as Orphan Record. We must not have orphan
records, as they are result of lack of data integrity.

Structured Query Language

Almost all relational database management systems use SQL (Structured

Query Language) for data manipulation and retrieval.
SQL is the standard language for relational database systems.SQL is a non-
procedural language, where you need to concentrate on what you want, not
on how you get it.
SQL Commands are divided into following categories, depending upon what
they do.
DDL (Data Definition Language): DDL commands are used to de-
fine, modify and delete the structure of database and its objects. Example:
CREATE, ALTER, DROP etc.
DML (Data Manipulation Language): DML commands are used to
insert, update and delete data to existing table. Example: INSERT, UP-
DATE, DELETE

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DCL (Data Control Language): DCL commands are used to grant and
revoke different privilege to/from user. Example: GRANT, REVOKE
TCL (Transaction Control Language): TCL commands are used to
complete a transaction. Example: COMMIT, ROLLBACK
DQL/DRL (Data Query/Retrieving Language): DQL/DRL com-
mand is used to select retrieve data from database. Example: SELECT

Advantages of Database Management System

We must evaluate whether there is any gain in using a DBMS over a situa-
tion where we do not use it. Let us summarize the advantages.

Reduction of Redundancy: This is perhaps the most significant advan-

tage of using DBMS. Redundancy is the problem of storing the same data
item in more than one place. Redundancy creates several problems like re-
quiring extra storage space, entering same data more than once during data
insertion, and deleting data from more than one place during deletion.
Sharing of Data: In a paper-based record keeping, data cannot be shared
among many users. But in computerized DBMS, many users can share the
same database if they are connected via a network.
Data Integrity: We can maintain data integrity by specifying integrity
constrains, which are rules and restrictions about what kind of data may be
entered or manipulated within the database. This increases the reliability
of the database as it can be guaranteed that no wrong data can exist within
the database at any point of time.
Data security: We can restrict certain people from accessing the database
or allow them to see certain portion of the database while blocking sensitive
information. This is not possible very easily in a paper-based record keeping.
Data Independence: Data independence means that “the application is
independent of the storage structure and access strategy of data”. In other
words, the ability to modify the schema definition in one level should not
affect the schema definition in the next higher level. There are two types of
Data Independence:
Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not
affect the logical level.
Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should not
affect the view level.
Data Abstraction: It means hiding implementation details (i.e. high level
details) from end user. e.g. In case of storage of data in database user can
only access the database, but implementation details such as how the data
is stored physically onto the disc is hidden from user. There three levels of

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abstraction:
Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are
stored.
Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data
are stored in database and what relationship among those data.
View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire
database.

Constraints

Data Integrity

SQL Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a
table, to maintain the accuracy and integrity of the data inside table.
Constraints are of two types:

• Column level Constraints:limits only column data.

• Table level Constraints: applicable to whole table.

Following are the constraints that can be applied to table.

NOT NULL Constraint:

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column NOT to accept NULL values.
NOT NULL can’t be applied to table level.

Example:
mysql¿ CREATE TABLE Persons( PID int NOT NULL, LastName var-
char(30) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(30), Address varchar(60));

UNIQUE Constraint:

The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database ta-

ble.Unique constraint can be applied to column level or table level.

Example:
mysql¿CREATE TABLE Persons(PID int ,LastName varchar(30),FirstName
varchar(30),Address varchar(70),UNIQUE (PID)); NOTE: Above constraint
is applied on table level.

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Defining UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE:

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the “PID” column when the table is

already created.

Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons ADD UNIQUE (PID);

Naming a Constraint:

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE con-

straint on multiple columns

Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT uc PersonID UNIQUE
(PID,LastName);
NOTE:uc PersonID is the Constraint name.

Dropping a Constraint:

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following command:

Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons DROP INDEX uc PersonID;

PRIMARY KEY Constraint:

A Primary Key uniquely identifies each record. A Primary Key must con-
tain unique values and it must not contain null value.

Example:
mysql¿ CREATE TABLE Persons(PID int ,LastName varchar(30),FirstName
varchar(30),Address varchar(70),PRIMARY KEY (PID));

Defining Primary Key Constraint on ALTER TABLE:

To create a Primary Key constraint on the “PID” column when the table is
already created.

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Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons ADD Primary Key (PID);

Naming a Constraint:

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE con-

straint on multiple columns

Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT uc PersonID Pri-
mary Key (PID,LastName);
NOTE:uc PersonID is the Constraint name.

Dropping a Constraint:

To drop a Primary Key constraint, use the following command:

Example:
mysql¿ ALTER TABLE Persons DROP Primary Key;

FOREIGN KEY Constraint:

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.

Illustration:

Let’s illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two
tables:
Person Table
PID Name City
1111 Sachin Mumbai
1112 Ganguly Kolkata
Orders Table
OID OrderNo PID
Note:
1 1234 1111
2 1235 1111
That the “PID” column in the “Orders” table points to the “PID” column

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in the “Persons” table.
The “PID” column in the “Persons” table is the PRIMARY KEY in the
“Persons” table.
The “PID” column in the “Orders” table is a FOREIGN KEY in the “Or-
ders” table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would de-
stroy links between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data from being
inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values
contained in the table it points to.

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the “PID” column when
the “Orders” table is created:
Example:
mysql> CREATE TABLE Orders( OId int ,OrderNo int ,PId int,PRIMARY
KEY (OId),FOREIGN KEY (PId) REFERENCES Persons(PId));

DEFAULT Constraint:

The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.

The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is spec-
ified.

Example:
mysql> CREATE TABLE Persons(PID int ,LastName varchar(25),FirstName
varchar(25),Address varchar(55),City varchar(55) DEFAULT ’Sandnes’);
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the “City” column when the table is
already created,use the following syntax:

mysql> ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City SET DEFAULT ’SANDNES’;

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following syntax:

mysql> ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;

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14
Session 2 - Working with
DDL - CREATE, ALTER,
DROP

How to connect to MySql

$ mysql u root p
Enter password: root

How to display available Databases

mysql>SHOW databases;

How to create a new Database

mysql> CREATE DATABASE demo;

How to connect to a particular Database

mysql> USE employee;

mysql> CONNECT employee;

How to know which Database user is connected

mysql>SELECT DATABASE() FROM DUAL;

How to display all tables available in connected Database

mysql>SHOW TABLES;

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Creating a Table

mysql> CREATE TABLE employee (empid INT, ename VARCHAR (20),

salary FLOAT (10, 2));

How to create a table by copying the structure and data of an

existing Table

mysql> CREATE TABLE student AS SELECT * FROM employees;

How to create a table by copying the structure only not the data
of an existing Table

mysql> CREATE TABLE student AS SELECT * FROM employees where

1=2;

How to describe the structure of a Table

mysql>DESC employee;

Alter

How to add a new column to existing Table

mysql>ALTER TABLE employee add address varchar(20);

mysql>ALTER TABLE employee add address varchar(20),add phone int;

How to modify structure of exisiting column of a Table

mysql> ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY address VARCHAR (40);

mysql> ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY ename VARCHAR (22), MOD-
IFY city VARCHAR (22);

How to drop exisiting column from a Table

mysql> ALTER TABLE employee DROP phone;

mysql> ALTER TABLE employee DROP ename, DROP salary;

How to rename existing column of a Table

mysql> ALTER TABLE employee CHANGE address newaddress VAR-

CHAR(30) ;

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mysql> ALTER TABLE employee CHANGE empid id VARCHAR (100),
CHANGE newaddress address VARCHAR (100);

How to rename an exisiting Table

mysql> RENAME TABLE employee TO newemployee;

mysql> RENAME TABLE newemployee TO employees,student TO stu-
dents, department TO departments;

Drop

How to drop existing Table

mysql>DROP TABLE employee;

How to delete all records of a table permanently

mysql>TRUNCATE employee;

Data Types

• SMALLINT: A small integer. The signed range is -32768 to 32767.

The unsigned range is 0 to 65535.

• MEDIUMINT: A medium-sized integer. The signed range is -8388608

to 8388607. The unsigned range is 0 to 16777215.

• INT: A normal-size integer. The signed range is -2147483648 to

2147483647. The unsigned range is 0 to 4294967295.

• BIGINT: A large integer. The signed range is -9223372036854775808

to 9223372036854775807. The unsigned range is 0 to 18446744073709551615.

• FLOAT: A small (single-precision) floating-point number. Permissi-

ble values are -3.402823466E+38 to -1.175494351E-38, 0, and 1.175494351E-
38 to 3.402823466E+38. These are the theoretical limits, based on the
IEEE standard. The actual range might be slightly smaller depending
on your hardware or operating system.

• DATE: A date. The supported range is ’1000-01-01’ to ’9999-12-31’.

MySQL displays DATE values in ’YYYY-MM-DD’ format.

• TIME : A time. The range is ’-838:59:59’ to ’838:59:59’. MySQL

displays TIME values in ’HH:MM:SS’ format.

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• DATETIME: A date and time combination. The supported range
is ’1000-01-01 00:00:00’ to ’9999-12-31 23:59:59’. MySQL displays
DATETIME values in ’YYYYMM-DD HH:MM:SS’ format.

• YEAR[(2—4)]: A year in two-digit or four-digit format. The default

is four-digit format.In four-digit format, the permissible values are
1901 to 2155, and 0000. In two-digit format, the permissible values
are 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069.MySQL displays
YEAR values in YYYY format.

• TIMESTAMP: A timestamp. The range is ’1970-01-01 00:00:01’

UTC to ’2038-01-19 03:14:07’ UTC.

• CHAR :The length of a CHAR column is fixed to the length that you
declare when you create the table. The length can be any value from
0 to 255.

• VARCHAR: The length can be specified as a value from 0 to 255

before MySQL 5.0.3, and 0 to 65,535 in 5.0.3 and later versions.

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Session 3 - Working with
DML - INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE

Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data
within schema objects (e.g. table).

It includes Inserting, Updating and deleting of data.

Insert Statement

INSERT statement allows you to insert one or more rows to the table.It is
possible to write INSERT INTO in two forms:
The first form doesn’t specify the column names where the data will be
inserted, only their values. It is used where users need to insert values to all
available columns of a table.
Syntax
INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);
Example
mysql> INSERT INTO student VALUES (1,‘Ajay’,‘Hyderabad’);
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be
inserted. It is used where users need to insert value to specific column(s) of
a given table.
Syntax
INSERT INTO tablename (column1, column2,column3,...) VALUES (value1,
value2, value3,...)
Example
mysql> INSERT INTO student (Rollno, Name)VALUES (2, ‘Rahul’);

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Update Statement

SQL UPDATE statement is used to update existing data in database tables.

It can be used to change values of single row, group of rows or even all rows
in a table.
The SET clause determines the column(s) name and the changed value(s).
The changed values could be a constant value, expression or even a subquery.
WHERE clause determines which rows of the tables will be updated. It is
an optional part of SQL UPDATE statement. If WHERE clause is ignored,
all rows in the tables will be updated.
In employees table, if you want to update the email of Mary with employ-
eeid 1 with the new email as [email protected], you can execute the
following query.
Syntax UPDATE tablename SET columnname=value [where condition];
Example mysql> UPDATE employees SET email =‘[email protected]’
WHERE employeeid = 1;
The following syntax will update the email of all employees with the new
email as [email protected].
mysql> UPDATE employees SET email =‘[email protected]’;

Delete Statement

The DELETE FROM statement is used to delete records from a database

table. The WHERE clause in DELETE statement specifies condition to
limit which rows you want to remove.
Syntax DELETE from tablename [where condition];
Example DELETE from employees where salary=10000;

The following syntax will delete all records from employees.

Syntax DELETE from tablename;
Example DELETE from employees;

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Session 4 - SQL Data
Modeling and SQL Intro
Assignments (Practice
Session)

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22
Session 5 - Working with
DRL - SELECT

The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from a table. SELECT

statement has many optional elements that we can use. The order of FROM,
WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY and LIMIT has to be in the
sequence mentioned. To select all columns in a table you can use asterisk
(*) notation instead of listing all column names in the SELECT statement.
For example, if you need to query all the columns in “employees” table, you
can use the following query:
mysql> SELECT * FROM employees;
SELECT statement also allows you to view partial data of a table by listing
columns’ name after the SELECT keyword. This is called Projection.

For example if you need to view only “firstname”, “lastname” and “jobti-
tle” of employee in the “employees” table, you can use the following query:
mysql> SELECT firstname, lastname, jobtitle FROM employees;

Where Clause

WHERE clause of the SELECT statement enables you to select particular

rows which match its conditions or search criteria. You use WHERE clause
to filter the records based on a certain conditions. For example, you can
find the details of president of company by using the following query:
mysql> SELECT firstname, lastname, email FROM employees WHERE
jobtitle=“president”;

Distinct Clause

With DISTINCT clause, you can eliminate the duplicate records while dis-
playing the result. For example, to find how many job titles of all employees
in the employees table, you use DISTINCT keyword in SELECT statement
as follows:
mysql> SELECT DISTINCT jobtitle FROM employees; mysql> SELECT

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DISTINCT (jobtitle) FROM employees;

The DISTINCT clause can be applied with more than one column. In this
case, the combinations of all columns are used to define the uniqueness of a
record in the return result set.
For example, to get all cities and states of customers in the customers table,
we can use the following query:
mysql< SELECT DISTINCT city, state FROM customers;

ORDER BY Clause

The ORDER BY clause allows you to sort the result set on one or more
columns in ascending or descending order. To sort the result set in ascending
order you use ASC and in descending order you use DESC keywords. By
default, the ORDER BY will sort the result set in ascending order. For
example, to sort the name of employees by firstname, you can execute the
following query:
mysql>SELECT firstname, lastname, jobtitle FROM employees ORDER
BY firstname;

LIMIT Clause

MySQL supports a feature called LIMIT to allow you to constrain the re-
turned records with SELECT statement.

Let’s say you have a database table with 10000 records and you want to get
just first N records, you can use the following query:

Syntax
mysql> SELECT * FROM table LIMIT N;

Example
If you want to get the first five employees in the table employees, you can
use the following query:

mysql> SELECT firstname, lastname FROM employees LIMIT 5;

The MySQL LIMIT also allows you to get a range of records where you
decide starting record number and how many records you want to retrieve.

Syntax

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mysql> SELECT columns FROM table LIMIT S, N;
NOTE: In the query above, S is the starting record index. MySQL specifies
that the first record starts with 0. N is the number of records you want to
select.
Example
Now if you want to get five employees from employee number 10 you can
use MySQL LIMIT with offset as follows:
mysql> SELECT firstname, lastname FROM employees LIMIT 10, 5;

IN Operator

SQL IN allows you to select values which match any one of a list of values.
The usage of SQL IN is as follows:
Syntax
SELECT columnlist FROM tablename WHERE column IN (“listitem1”,“listitem2”);

Example
Suppose if you want to find out all offices which are located in US and
France, you can perform the following query:

mysql> SELECT officeCode, city, phone FROM offices WHERE country IN

(‘USA’, ‘France’);

Example
To get all countries which are not located in USA or France, we can use
NOT IN in the where clause as follows:

mysql> SELECT officeCode, city, phone FROM offices WHERE country

NOT IN (‘USA’, ‘France’);

LIKE Operator

MySQL provides LIKE operator in SQL standard. The MySQL LIKE op-
erator is commonly used to select data based on patterns matching.
MySQL provides you two wildcard characters for using with LIKE:

The Percentage (%) wildcard allows you to match any string of zero or more
characters.
Underscore ( ) allows you to match any single character.

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Syntax
SELECT * from table where column LIKE PATTERN;

Example
Suppose you want to search for employee in employees table who has first
name starting with character ‘a’, you can do it as follows:

mysql> SELECT * FROM employees WHERE firstname LIKE ‘a%’;

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Session 6 - Working with
DRL - Subqueries

A subquery is a SQL query nested inside a larger query.

A subquery may occur in :

A SELECT clause
A FROM clause
A WHERE clause

In MySQL subquery can be nested inside a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,

DELETE, SET, or DO statement or inside another subquery.
A subquery is usually added within the WHERE Clause of another SQL
SELECT statement.
You can use the comparison operators, such as >, <, or =. The comparison
operator can also be a multiple-row operator, such as IN, ANY, SOME, or
ALL.
A subquery can be treated as an inner query, which is a SQL query placed
as a part of another query called as outer query.
The inner query executes first before its parent query so that the results of
inner query can be passed to the outer query.
Syntax
SELECT select list from outerTable where expr operator(SELECT
select list from innerTable);

In the above statement the inner query will be parsed first and the result
will be passed to the outer query.

Types of SubQueries

• Scalar SubQueries
• SubQueries with ANY,ALL,IN
• SubQueries with EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

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 • Correlated SubQueries

Scalar SubQueries

• A scalar subquery is a subquery that returns exactly one column value

from one row.

• If the subquery returns 0 rows then the value of scalar subquery ex-
pression in NULL.

• If the subquery returns more than one row then MySQL returns an
error.

• The subquery can be used in either SELECT statement or WHERE

clause.

• In either case, an aggregate function or an expression is normally used

in the subquery.

• When the subquery is used in WHERE clause, a comparison operator

is always used

Subquery in WHERE clause with an aggregate function

mysql>select OrderID, CustomerID from orders where Shipped-

Date = (select max(ShippedDate) from orders);

Figure 1: figure
Scalar SubQuery using Max function

NOTE:The above query returns data for all customers and their orders
where the orders were shipped on the most recent recorded day.

mysql>select distinct ProductName, UnitPrice from products where

UnitPrice>(select avg(UnitPrice) from products) order by Unit-

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Price desc;

NOTE:This query returns all products whose unit price is greater than av-
erage unit price of all Products.

SubQueries using ALL

The ALL keyword specifies that the search condition is TRUE if the com-
parison is TRUE for every value that the subquery returns.

In the following example, the first condition tests whether each unitprice is
greater than the unitprice of productid=1.

mysql>select productname,unitprice from products where unit-

price > ALL (SELECT unitprice FROM products WHERE pro-
ductid = 1);

Figure 2: figure
Subquery using ALL

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Subquery using ANY

The ANY keyword denotes that the search condition is TRUE if the compar-
ison is TRUE for at least one of the values that is returned. If the subquery
returns no value, the search condition is FALSE. The SOME keyword is a
synonym for ANY.

mysql>select productName,unitprice from products where unit-

price < ANY (SELECT unitprice FROM products WHERE pro-
ductid = 1);

Figure 3: figure
SubQuery using ANY

Subquery using EXISTS

The MySQL EXISTS condition is used in combination with a subquery and

is considered “to be met” if the subquery returns at least one row. It can
be used in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
NOTE:SQL statements that use the EXISTS Condition in MySQL
are very inefficient since the sub-query is RE-RUN for EVERY row
in the outer query’s table.

mysql>select * from customers where EXISTS (select * from or-

der details where customers.customer id = orders.customer id);
NOTE:The above example will return all records from the customers table
where there is at least one record in the order details table with the match-
ing customer id.

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 Figure 4: figure
Exists Condition

Subquery using NOT EXISTS

select * from customers where NOT EXISTS (select * from or-

der details where customers.customer id = orders.customer id);
NOTE:The above example will return all records from the customers table

Figure 5: figure
Not Exists Condition

when there are no records in the order details table for the given customer id.

Subquery using EXISTS and INSERT

INSERT into contacts (contact id, contact name) select supplier id,
supplier name from suppliers where EXISTS (select * from orders
where suppliers.supplier id = orders.supplier id);
NOTE:The above example will insert records into contacts table if sup-
plier id of suppliers and orders table matches.

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Subquery using EXISTS and DELETE

DELETE from suppliers where EXISTS (select * from orders

where suppliers.supplier id = orders.supplier id);
NOTE:The above example will delete records from suppliers table if sup-
plier id of suppliers and orders table matches.

Correlated SubQueries

A correlated subquery is a subquery that contains a reference to a table (in

the parent query) that also appears in the outer query.
MySQL evaluates from inside to outside.
mysql> select supplierid, productname from products p where
unitprice> (select AVG(unitprice) from products where suppli-
erid = p.supplierid);
Displaying all employees whose salary is greater than the average salary of

Figure 6: figure
Correlated SubQuery

their own department.

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Session 7 - DRL Assignments
(Practice Session)

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34
Module 2 - Advanced SQL
Concepts

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36
Session 1 - Built-In functions
and Grouping result

Functions

MySQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data as

follows:

Aggregrate Functions

Aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a col-

umn.

AVG()

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

Syntax
SELECT AVG(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
sql>SELECT AVG(SAL) from employees;

COUNT()

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criteria.

textbfSyntax
SELECT COUNT(columnname) FROM tablename;

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The COUNT(columnname) function returns the number of values (NULL
values will not be counted) of the specified column:

textbfExample
mysql> SELECT COUNT(empno) FROM employees;

MAX()

: The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

Syntax
SELECT MAX(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
sql>SELECT MAX(sal) FROM employees;

MIN()

: The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

Syntax
SELECT MIN(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
sql>SELECT MIN(sal) FROM employees;

SUM()

: The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

Syntax
SELECT SUM(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
sql>SELECT SUM(sal) FROM employees;

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ROUND()

: The ROUND() function rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals

specified.

Syntax
SELECT ROUND(columnname,number) FROM tablename;

Example
mysql> select ROUND(sal,2) from employees;

TRUNCATE()

The TRUNCATE() truncates a numeric field to the number of decimals

specified.

Syntax
SELECT TRUNCATE(columnname,number) FROM tablename;
Example
mysql> SELECT TRUNCATE(sal,2) from employees;

SCALAR Functions

UCASE()

Converts a field to upper case.

Syntax
SELECT UCASE(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
mysql> SELECT UCASE(ename) from employees;

LCASE()

Converts a field to lower case.

Syntax SELECT LCASE(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example mysql> SELECT LCASE(ename) FROM employees;

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LENGTH()

Returns of the length of the text field.

Syntax
SELECT LENGTH(columnname) FROM tablename;

Example
mysql> SELECT LCASE(ename) FROM employees;

MID()

Extracts character from a text field.

Syntax
SELECT MID(column,pos) from tablename;
Example
mysql> SELECT MID(ename,3) FROM emp WHERE ename=’SANTOSH’;
Note: Above specified 3 is the starting character and ending character.

mysql> SELECT MID(ename,1,3) FROM emp WHERE ename=’SANTOSH’;

Note: Above specified 1 is the starting character and 3 is the ending char-
acter.

REPLACE()

Returns the string with all occurrences of the string from str replaced by
the string to str. Syntax SELECT REPLACE(str,from str,to str) FROM
tablename;
Example mysql> SELECT REPLACE(ename,’a’,’A’) FROM employee;

DATE Functions

NOW()

Returns the current date and time.

Example
mysql> SELECT NOW() FROM dual;

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CURDATE()

Returns the current date.

Example
mysql> SELECT CURDATE() FROM dual;

CURTIME()

Returns the current time.

Example
mysql> SELECT CURTIME() FROM dual;

EXTRACT()

Extracts a single part of a date/time.

Example
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(year FROM now()) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(month FROM now()) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(day FROM now()) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(hour FROM now()) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(minute FROM now()) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(second FROM now()) FROM dual;

DATE ADD()

Adds a specified time interval to a date.

Example
mysql> SELECT DATE ADD(NOW(),INTERVAL 10 DAY) FROM dual;

DATE SUB()

Subtracts a specified time interval from a date.

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Example
mysql> SELECT DATE SUB(NOW(),INTERVAL 10 DAY) FROM dual;

DATEDIFF()

Returns the number of days between two dates.

Example
mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF(NOW(),‘20130612’) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF(NOW(),‘20000612’) FROM dual;
mysql> SELECT (DATEDIFF(NOW(),‘20000612’))/365 FROM dual;

DATE FORMAT()

Specifies the format for date and time.

Formats
Format Description
%M Month Name
%m Month, in Numeric
%D Day of Month Numeric(th)
%d Day of Month numberic
%Y 4 Digits
Example mysql¿ SELECT DATE FORMAT(NOW(),‘%d%m%y’) FROM
dual; mysql¿ SELECT DATE FORMAT(NOW(),‘%D%M%Y’) FROM dual

GROUP BY Clause

The MySQL GROUP BY clause is used with SQL SELECT statement to

group selected records into a set of summary records by the one or more
column’s value or expression.
The MySQL GROUP BY clause must appear after the WHERE clause or
FROM clause if WHERE clause is omitted of the SQL SELECT statement.
Syntax
SELECT columname(s) from tablename GROUP BY column(s).

Example
Let’s say if you want to know how many orders in each status group you
can use the COUNT function as follows:

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mysql> SELECT status, count (*) FROM orders GROUP BY status;

If you want to see the result of the query above in the descending order, you
can do it as follows:

mysql> SELECT status, count (*) FROM orders GROUP BY status DESC;

HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause is an optional part of and used only with the SQL
SELECT statement. The HAVING clause specifies a filter condition for a
group of record or an aggregate.
The HAVING is often used with GROUP BY clause. When using with
GROUP BY clause, you can apply filter condition of the HAVING clause
only to the columns appear in the GROUP BY clause.

NOTE
If the GROUP BY clause is omitted, the HAVING clause will behave like a
WHERE clause.
HAVING clause applies to groups as a whole while the WHERE clause ap-
plies to individual rows.

Example
What order has total value greater than 1000. In this case, you need to use
the MySQL HAVING clause on aggregate to answer that question.

mysql> SELECT ordernumber, SUM (price) AS total FROM orderdetails

GROUP BY ordernumber HAVING total > 1000;

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44
Session 2 - Joins

Joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relation-
ship between certain columns in these tables. There are different types of
JOINing methods used in MySQL database, which are given below.

INNER JOIN

Probably the most common join operation MySQL supports is an inner join.
It identifies and combines only matching rows which are stored in two or
more related tables.
A join condition, which indicates how the tables are related, is added with
the keywords ON or USING

NOTE:

ON is used when the relationship column names are different.

USING is used when the relationship column names are same.

INNER JOIN with ON clause

Syntax
SELECT <column list > FROM tableA a INNER JOIN tableB b ON
a.somecolumn = b.othercolumn;

Example
mysql> SELECT d.deptno, d.dname, e.empno, e.ename FROM dept d IN-
NER JOIN emp e ON d.deptno = e.deptid;

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INNER JOIN with USING clause syntax

Syntax
SELECT * FROM tableA a INNER JOIN tableB b USING(columnname);

Example
SELECT d.deptno, d.dname, e.empno, e.ename FROM dept d INNER JOIN
emp e USING (deptno);

OUTER JOIN

OUTER JOIN allows us to retrieve all values in a certain table regardless

of whether these values are present in other tables.

The difference between inner and outer join is: An outer join can iden-
tify rows without a match in the joined table. When no match was found,
MySQL sets the value of columns from the joined table to NULL.

LEFT OUTER JOIN

This type of join will display matching records from both tables and all
unmatched records of the left table. Left table means which table name is
listed on the left side of the JOIN keywords.

Syntax
SELECT <column list> FROM table1 a LEFT OUTER JOIN table2 b ON
a.somecolumn = b.othercolumn;

Example
SELECT d.deptno, d.dname, e.empno, e.ename FROM dept d LEFT OUTER
JOIN employees e ON d.deptno = e.deptnumber;

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

This type of join will display matching records from both tables and all un-
matched records of the right table. Right table means which table name is
listed on the right side of the JOIN keywords.

Syntax

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SELECT <column list> FROM table1 a RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2 b
ON a.somecolumn = b.othercolumn;

Example
SELECT d.deptno, d.dname, e.empno, e.ename FROM dept d RIGHT
OUTER JOIN employees e ON d.deptno = e.deptnumber;

SELF JOIN

A self-join, also known as an inner join, is a structured query language (SQL)

statement where a queried table is joined to itself. The self-join statement
is necessary when two sets of data, within the same table, are compared.

Example Suppose you’re tasked with writing a SQL query to retrieve a list
of employees and their managers.

mysql> SELECT e.firstname AS ‘Employee FN’, e.lastname AS ‘Employee

LN’, m.firstname AS ‘Manager FN’, m.lastname AS ‘Manager LN’ FROM
employees AS e LEFT OUTER JOIN employees AS m ON e.manager =m.id;

CROSS JOIN

The cross join operation retrieves data between two tables as a Cartesian
product of set theory in mathematics. Each row will get multiplied by other
rows. If one table has three rows and the second row has two rows, then the
Cartesian of two table will be six.
Example

mysql> SELECT * FROM dept CROSS JOIN employee;

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48
Session 3 - Procedures

0.1 Procedures
A subprogram is a program unit/module that performs a particular task.
These subprograms are combined to form larger programs. This is basi-
cally called the ’Modular design’. A subprogram can be invoked by another
subprogram or program which is called the calling program.
A subprogram can be created:

1. At schema level
2. Inside a package
3. Inside a PL/SQL block

A schema level subprogram is a standalone subprogram. It is created

with the CREATE PROCEDURE or CREATE FUNCTION statement. It
is stored in the database and can be deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE
or DROP FUNCTION statement.
A subprogram created inside a package is a packaged subprogram. It is
stored in the database and can be deleted only when the package is deleted
with the DROP PACKAGE statement. We will discuss packages in the
chapter ’PL/SQL - Packages’.
PL/SQL subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can be invoked with
a set of parameters. PL/SQL provides two kinds of subprograms:
Functions: these subprograms return a single value, mainly used to compute
and return a value.
Procedures: these subprograms do not return a value directly, mainly used
to perform an action.
This chapter is going to cover important aspects of a PL/SQL procedure
and we will cover PL/SQL function in next chapter.
Parts of a PL/SQL Subprogram Each PL/SQL subprogram has a name,
and may have a parameter list. Like anonymous PL/SQL blocks and, the
named blocks a subprograms will also have following three parts:

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 S.No Parts & Description
Declarative Part
1 It is an optional part. However, the declarative part for a sub-
program does not start with the DECLARE keyword. It contains
declarations o f types, cursors, constants, variables, exceptions,
and nested subprograms. These items are local to the subprogram
and cease to exist whe n the subprogram completes execution.
Executable Part
2 This is a mandatory part and contains statements that perform
the designated action.
Exception-handling
3 This is again an optional part. It contains the code that handles
run-time errors.

0.1.1 Creating a Procedure

A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE

statement. The simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PRO-
CEDURE statement is as follows:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< procedure_body >
END procedure_name;

Where,

1. procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

2. OR REPLACE option allows modifying an existing procedure.

3. The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the
parameters. IN represents that value will be passed from outside and
OUT represents that this parameter will be used to return a value
outside of the procedure.

4. procedure-body contains the executable part.

5. The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a stan-

dalone procedure.

Example: The following example creates a simple procedure that displays

the string ’Hello World!’ on the screen when executed.

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CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings
AS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(’Hello World!’);
END;
/

When above code is executed using SQL prompt, it will produce the follow-
ing result: Output: Procedure created.

Executing a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure can be called in two ways:

1. Using the EXECUTE keyword

2. Calling the name of the procedure from a PL/SQL block

The above procedure named ’greetings’ can be called with the EXECUTE
keyword as:
EXECUTE greetings;
The above call would display:
Hello World PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
The procedure can also be called from another PL/SQL block:

BEGIN
greetings;
END;
/

The above call would display:

Hello World PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Deleting a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure is deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE statement.

Syntax for deleting a procedure is:
DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name; So you can drop greetings procedure
by using the following statement:

BEGIN
DROP PROCEDURE greetings;
END;
/

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 S.N. Parameter Mode & Description
IN
1 An IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is
a read-only parameter. Inside the subprogram, an IN parameter
acts like a constant. It cannot be assigned a value. You can
pass a constant, literal, initialized variable, or expression as an IN
parameter. You can also initialize it to a default value; however, in
that case, it is omitted from the subprogram call. It is the default
mode of parameter passing. Parameters are passed by reference.
OUT
2 An OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside
the subprogram, an OUT parameter acts like a variable. You can
change its value and reference the value after assigning it. The
actual parameter must be variable and it is passed by value.
IN OUT
3 An IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and
returns an updated value to the caller. It can be assigned a value
and its value can be read. The actual parameter corresponding to
an IN OUT formal parameter must be a variable, not a constant or
an expression. Formal parameter must be assigned a value.Actual
parameter is passed by value.

0.1.2 Parameter Modes in PL/SQL Subprograms

IN & OUT Mode Example 1

This program finds the minimum of two values, here procedure takes two
numbers using IN mode and returns their minimum using OUT parameters.

DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;

PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS

BEGIN
IF x < y THEN
z:= x;
ELSE
z:= y;
END IF;
END;

BEGIN

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 a:= 23;
b:= 45;
findMin(a, b, c);
dbms_output.put_line(’ Minimum of (23, 45) : ’ || c);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following
result: Output: Minimum of (23, 45) : 23 PL/SQL procedure successfully
completed.

IN & OUT Mode Example 2

This procedure computes the square of value of a passed value. This example
shows how we can use same parameter to accept a value and then return
another result.

DECLARE
a number;
PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS
BEGIN
x := x * x;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
squareNum(a);
dbms_output.put_line(’ Square of (23): ’ || a);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the follow-
ing result: Output: Square of (23): 529 PL/SQL procedure successfully
completed.

0.1.3 Methods for Passing Parameters

Actual parameters could be passed in three ways:

1. Positional notation

2. Named notation

3. Mixed notation

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POSITIONAL NOTATION

In positional notation, you can call the procedure as:

findMin(a, b, c, d);
In positional notation, the first actual parameter is substituted for the first
formal parameter; the second actual parameter is substituted for the second
formal parameter, and so on. So, a is substituted for x, b is substituted for
y, c is substituted for z and d is substituted for m.

NAMED NOTATION

In named notation, the actual parameter is associated with the formal pa-
rameter using the arrow symbol ( =>). So the procedure call would look
like:
findMin(x=>a, y=>b, z=>c, m=>d);

MIXED NOTATION

In mixed notation, you can mix both notations in procedure call; however,
the positional notation should precede the named notation.
The following call is legal:
findMin(a, b, c, m=>d);
But this is not legal:
findMin(x=>a, b, c, d);

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Session 4 - DRL Assignments
(Practice Session)

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