Making Strides

Coaching the
Endurance Events

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 Truths, Models & Rules
Firstly, you will hopefully recall that mechanics is the field
of science which studies the motion of objects.
Biomechanics studies the motion of humans.

“Coaches and athletes It is a science which is interested in the forces

without a grasp of that act upon a human body, and the effects these
forces produce. Understanding the essentials of
biomechanics can
biomechanical concepts is imperative for coaches
easily fall into the trap
and performance staff, as it allows us to comprehend
of mimicking incorrect how athletes move, balance, stabilize and apply
style based upon the latest force. Coaches without at least a basic knowledge
and greatest athlete’s of what is involved in the science and application of
biomechanics are likely reducing teaching efficiencies,
performance. This is a
and slowing progress.
dangerous trap, as the
forces an athlete is able to To truly understand the complexity of mechanical
contributions to movement at a high level, it would be
apply can heavily influence
necessary to use calculus and differential equation
the expression of movement mathematics. However, we are deliberately avoiding
patterns, and these two this level of discussion in this module. Our aim,
parameters are inextricably instead, is to make this an applied journey — in a
intertwined. Attempting to format relevant to coaches and coaching rather than a
theoretical burden.
get a young or developing
athlete to emulate the The primary purpose of understanding biomechanics
is to identify technical characteristics that contribute
movement expression of
to successful performance and/or that predispose to
an elite performer violates
injury (Bartlett, 1999).
biomechanical possibilities
When it comes to improving running performance,
in most cases, and will end
the particular biomechanics that coaches are most
in frustration.” concerned with is known as gait, and this is where we
Coach Dan Pfaff will begin our biomechanics discussion.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 1

Gait
Human gait refers to locomotion achieved through the movement of human limbs.
Further, it is defined as bipedal, biphasic forward propulsion of the center of gravity of
the human body.

Different gait patterns can be characterized by differences in the movement patterns of

the limbs, velocity, and forces.

There are at least three human gaits - walking, running, and sprinting - each
characterized by quite different mechanics, as we will describe below.

GAIT CHARACTERISTICS
The gait cycle is the basic unit of measurement in gait analysis, and begins when one foot
comes in contact with the ground, and ends when the same foot contacts the ground again.

Key characteristics for the gait cycle include:

Initial contact/touch down:

the point where the foot first contacts the ground

Toe off:
the beginning of the swing phase of the gait cycle where the foot
leaves the ground

Stance phase:
the weight-bearing phase of gait cycle. During the stance phase, the
foot is on the ground acting as a shock absorber, mobile adapter,
rigid lever, and pedestal, as the body passes over the support leg.
Stance ends when the foot is no longer in contact with the ground

Swing phase:
the phase where the foot is no longer in contact with the ground and the
free leg is recovering forward in preparation for ground touch down

Let’s now describe the three primary human gaits in more detail.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 2

WALKING GAIT
The main difference between walking and other motion is that when walking, one
always has a foot in the stance phase, while the other foot is in the swing phase. Because
the stance phase in walking is longer than 50% of the gait cycle, there are two periods of
double support when both feet are on the ground.
People generally walk at speeds of 1.4 – 2.5 m/s.

Figure A: Walking gait. Graphic from: https://www.physio-pedia.com/Gait

Figure B: Photographic depiction of walking gait (Eadweard Muybridge, Animal Locomotion, plate 8 – 1887).

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 3

RUNNING GAIT
We transition from walking gait to the running gait at a certain speed threshold
between around 2.0 – 2.7mps (Schache et al. 2014). The demarcation between walking
and running occurs when periods of double support during the stance phase of the gait
cycle (both feet simultaneously in contact with the ground) give way to two periods
of double float at the beginning and the end of the swing phase of gait (neither foot
touching the ground). In running, there are no periods when both feet are in contact
with the ground – this is termed ‘flight’.

Running gait has been described as occurring from the transition from walking (2.0-
2.7mps) to the transition to sprinting (6.0-7.0mps).

Figure C: Photographic depiction of running gait. Note the double float phases (flight), and vertical projection off the ground. (Man
in pelvis cloth running at a half-mile gait, Animal Locomotion, plate 60. Eadweard Muybridge, 1887)

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 4

The diagram below shows the transition of walking to running to sprinting.

At point A on the chart, stance phase is equal to 50% of the gait cycle, then – moving
between point A and B – periods of double support in walking transition to double float
in running. Point B also represents a change from rearfoot to forefoot initial contact,
for as a person speeds up, their point of contact shifts forward.

Figure D: The Biomechanics of Running Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77–9 Tom F. Novachek

SPRINTING GAIT
When approaching maximal speed, we see subtle differences in gait to that noted in
submaximal running. As running speed increases, time spent in swing increases,
stance time decreases, double float (flight time) increases, and cycle time shortens.

Generally as speed increases, initial contact changes from being on hindfoot to

forefoot, and the faster the speed, the greater the reflexive supination of the foot prior
to touchdown (Novachek, 1998).

This is not something that normally needs to be cued, but it should be understood. The
video clip found here outlines the key phases we generally refer to in the sprint cycle to
provide universal landmarks for analysis. Note the strike position of the foot on landing
and the elastic stretch that is set up when the heel momentarily contacts. World Class
sprinters utilize the stretch shortening cycle to their advantage in this sense.
Video link: https://embed-ssl.wistia.com/
deliveries/2a6db10e8b6ed56ea955d9e2d0b9e9ff582fe13b.bin

Irrespective of whether on a track, or sprinting at top speed for other sports – you will
observe these same landmarks.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 5

GAIT TRANSITIONS & ADDITIONAL GAIT
The above accepted gaits (walking, running, and sprinting) leaves a little room for
interpretation, as well as - at least in competitive track & field athletes - perhaps the
need to add at least a further gait.

An elite middle distance runner can reach speeds in excess of 9m/s, so many coaches
will argue that running at 6m/s (which in many studies, defines the low point of
sprinting) is not technically ‘sprinting’ at all (while it would be for someone with a
maximum speed of 6.5m/s).

This leads us to suggest adding an additional two gaits.

In running gait, we could argue that there is actually a point at which runners
transition from ‘jogging’ - which is normally displayed by a relatively heel-first ground
contact, and a ‘rolling over’ of the foot through the stance phase - to ‘running’ - which
is normally depicted by a relatively flatter foot contact at initial ground contact, due to
increased negative foot speed (i.e. the backwards speed of the lower limb relative to the
forward speed of the center of mass).

In addition, we can argue that sprinting could also be divided into two separate gaits;
there is a clear kinematic difference between ‘striding’ (or ‘cruising’) and maximum
sprinting, leading to often quite unique kinetic signatures.

“In a practical setting, striding can be thought of as their

1500m - 5,000m - or even 10,000m (for elites) race pace.
Sprinting is similar to the last lap ‘kick’ of these races
down to their 800 race pace. The faster and more middle
distance- focused the athlete, the more ranges they may
have in a sprint mechanically.

The same thought can be for longer distance athletes in

the transition from ‘running’ to ‘striding’. A 10k runner
might have 4-5 seconds variation in a 100 meter and it
still be considered a ‘stride’ for them mechanically.”
Coach Danny Mackey

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 6

In addition, we also suggest that - at least for a track & field population - rather than
using absolute velocities to demarcate between gait patterns, we use relative velocities.

Approximate relative intensities of these transitions occur at 25% (walk to jog), 55% (jog
to run), 75% (run to stride), and 85% (stride to sprint) of maximum sprint speed.

We feel, therefore, that a more appropriate continuum includes these additional gaits,
as seen here in Figure E, below.

Figure E: adjusted gait transitions - more appropriate for running population

These transitions between different gaits tend to occur spontaneously whenever an

athlete either slows down or speeds up; and despite a growing body of research on the
determinants of transition velocities, there is still a lack of a clear consensus as to the
control mechanisms.

There are four possible explanations for these transitions:

1 One gait reaches its mechanical limit

2 To minimize energetic cost (i.e. ‘energetic trigger’)

3 To reduce mechanical stresses (i.e. ‘mechanical trigger’)

4 Phase transitions between attractor states

Diedrich and Warren offer a nice overview of the above, and expand in more detail on phase
transitions on this excellent paper from 1995, if you are interested in digging deeper.

Link here: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280019356_The_dynamics_of_

gait_transitions_Effects_of_grade_and_load

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 7

CHANGE IN VELOCITY = CHANGE IN MECHANICS
What we do know is that there are significant kinetic and kinematic changes throughout
the full range of velocities.

Athletes increase their running velocity through one or both of two strategies:

1 Pushing on the ground with more force, thereby increasing stride length (SL)

2 Pushing on the ground with more frequency, thereby increasing stride

frequency (SF)

The dominant strategy to increase velocity through jogging and running speeds is
to push the ground more forcefully, thus increasing stride length. Recordings of muscle
electromyographic (EMG) signals show that the major ankle plantar flexors (soleus and
gastrocnemius) play a significant role at these velocities.

As velocities increase, and the athlete begins to stride, the force-generating capacities
of the ankle plantar flexors are reduced, and therefore, the dominant running
strategy shifts towards stride frequency - primarily generated through the proximal
muscles around the hip.

We can see this transition graphically in Figure F, on the next page.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 8

 A
5 2% increase
18% increase

30% increase
4

Stride Length, m
63% increase
3

0
2.06 ± 0.12 3.48 ± 0.06 5.03 ± 0.10 6.97 ± 0.09 8.95 ± 0.70

Running Speed, m/s

B 2.5 25% increase

2.0 18% increase

11% increase
4% increase
Stride Frequency, Hz

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
2.06 ± 0.12 3.48 ± 0.06 5.03 ± 0.10 6.97 ± 0.09 8.95 ± 0.70

Running Speed, m/s

Figure F: Effect of running speed on (A) stride length and (B) stride frequency.
Experimental data were obtained from Dorn, et al., 2012

Does this mean that we need to direct our coaching towards methods that improve
stride frequency?
Well - it’s not quite that simple.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 9

GOLDILOCKS EFFECT OF SL & SF
Consider Figure G, below from the IAAF Biomechanical Analysis of the medalists in
the 10,000 meters at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics.

You will notice that each of the

athletes expectedly ran
approximately the same speed
until the last two laps - but
interestingly, each runner used
different strategies to do so.
Bekele had a low SF and long SL;
Mathathi had a short SL and a high
SF, and Sihine was somewhere in
the middle.

You will recall from our last

module, that movement strategy is
dependent upon both internal and
external factors, and that internal
factors include an athlete’s
‘organismic constraints’. For
example, it makes sense that 6’3”
David Rudisha can take a longer
stride than 5’5” Leo Manzano. But
what might not be as intuitive is
how two athletes with similar
body heights might have very
different stride lengths - or
indeed, how shorter athletes
might even have greater stride
lengths than their taller
competitors. Figure G: Average running velocity, stride frequency and
stride length in each 400m of the 10,000m final at the 2007
World Championships in Athletics

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 10

 What stands out in this study is Bekele has a greater stride length than both
Mathathi and Sihine, despite being over 10cm shorter (the average stride length to
body height ratios were 1.23, 1.13 and 1.13 for Bekele, Sihine and Mathathi,
respectively).

You may also recall that some constraints are more observable than others — in this
case, there are certainly other factors that might not be as obvious to the naked eye
leading to Bekele’s greater stride length) — and some constraints are more modifiable
than others.

Understanding which anthropometric and/or neuromuscular factors are modifiable,

and to what degree they can affect performance is a challenging proposition for all
coaches and scientists.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 11

For example, joint mobility and muscular flexibility are two factors that many coaches
try to affect, with the assumption that increased mobility and flexibility will lead to
improved performance. However, as with most factors, there is a ‘Goldilocks effect’
where both too little and too much can lead to decreased performance. Rather, we look
for an appropriate level of each, allowing the athlete to accomplish the task specific to
their individual structural constraints at the current time (their ‘intrinsic dynamics’).

Other anthropometric and/or neuromuscular factors that play

a role in performance include, but are not limited to:

Muscle physiological cross-sectional area

Body composition
Fascicle length and pennation angles of muscular tissue
Tendon and joint stiffness

All of these factors are modifiable to a degree, and our challenge as coaches is to know
which ‘buttons to press’, how and when to press them, and how any modification of single
factors affects performance. In many cases, this can be a bit of a ‘trial and error’ process,
so we should be careful not to modify too many factors simultaneously - especially
without access to precise sport science support.

Of course, both body composition and muscle pCSA can be modified quite easily and
safely, but many of the other factors are significantly more complex, and have less-
obvious knock-on effects on other factors.

The IAAF study (and others like it - including Aki Salo’s research into sprinters, which
divided athletes into either stride-length or stride-frequency reliant) again shows the
importance of understanding an athlete’s unique abilities, and coaching in a way to
exploit these abilities - rather than coaching to the average.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 12

We will discuss this again a little further later in the Course - but for now, it is important
to remember - when working with athletes, it is more important to establish the 'just
right' SL and SF, than it is to maximize both-either. If you are reminded of our discussion
around resonant stride frequency from the last module, your brain is in the right place!

From a biomechanical perspective, what is more important for us to understand is that

as velocity increases, ground- and flight-times - as well as ratios between them - change.
There is an inverse relationship between velocity and ground contact time: as velocity
increases, ground contact time decreases. Conversely, as velocity increases, flight time
also increases.

It is these mechanical truths which determine how we begin to build out our technical
models.

We call these biomechanical first principles ‘the rules’.

“I have spent decades studying the common

denominators of movement from a broad pool of
athletes. I have studied championship winning
performances from a perspective of varied age groups,
place of origin, coaching models, and genders. If you
do this, you will find commonalities between the best
performers. You will also find outliers.

Once you have a grasp of the biomechanics of a

movement, studying film will give you a sound
understanding to base movement comparisons from. If
a thorough knowledge of the mechanics of a movement
is gained first, misunderstandings are less likely to
occur, and analyzing and teaching correct techniques
will become easier.” - Coach Dan Pfaff

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 13

 The Rules Of Running, Striding & Sprinting
Earlier, we spent some time discussing the importance
of adaptability and variance – but that does not mean
that invariance is not also important. There are
common movement solutions to the best movers in the
world, and it would be folly to ignore this reality at the
expense of authenticity.

What coaches have to realize, however, is that once we

have identified this invariance – the commonalities
between the world’s best – our jobs don’t end there.
We don’t simply say “copy that”. The identification
of invariance is the beginning of the biomechanical
analysis process — not the end.

Once we identify the non-negotiables, we help to mold

an athlete’s authentic movement solutions around them.

We call these non-negotiables the RULES.

These act as ‘metaphors’ of a sort — providing a content

basis for more contextual exploration. The more familiar
these are to the athlete, the more efficiently they can be
drawn upon whenever they encounter a new situation.

This is what we mean by having to ‘know the rules

before you break the rules’ – once an athlete stabilizes
the rules at a fundamental level, there is a greater
chance that she can execute these movements with
greater degrees of stability and flexibility at more
complex levels. If an athlete does not stabilize these
rules at a relatively basic level, the execution of
these movements at more complex levels may be
inconsistent and inefficient – they have no ‘anchor’ to
which to attach meaning to.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 14

 As it relates to describing, assessing, and improving running,
we apply the following four steps:

1 Identify the Rules

2 Interpret the Rules relative to the entirety of the skill

(i.e. in context)

3 Recognize the appropriate level of variability of the Rules

4 Coach to maximize the stability and flexibility of the skill

execution

These four steps form the basis for much of the remainder of the
biomechanics module.

Running Gait: Excerpt from Coaching the Endurance Events 15

 Coaching the
Endurance Events
The ALTIS Coaching the Endurance Events Course is your practical guide to
coaching the 800m, the marathon, and everything in between. Course authors
Dan Pfaff, Stuart McMillan, and Danny Mackey will be your guides on your
journey to better performances in these great events.

10 MODULES
1. Module 1: History
2. Module 2: Physiology
3. Module 3: Learning
4. Module 4: Mechanics
5. Module 5: Strength
6. Module 6: Health
7. Module 7: Programming
8. Module 8: Racing
9. Module 9: Bonus Module – Psychology
10. Module 10: Bonus Module – Nutrition

PLUS:
Frequently Updated Documents Study At Own Pace
Lifetime Access Certificate Of Completion

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Cover page photo credit: https://www.trackandfieldimage.com/