Lesson Plan

Class X

Subject –Maths

No. of Classes Teaching and Learning Activities

5 Chapter 1 Real Numbers
Euclid's Division Lemma states that, if two positive integers “a” and “b”, then there exists unique
integers “q” and “r” such that which satisfies the condition a = bq + r where 0 ≤ r ≤ b.
Lemma is a proven statement used for proving another statement while algorithm is a series of
well defined steps which gives a procedure for solving a type of a problem. ... Euclid's division
algorithm is used for finding the Highest Common Factor of two numbers where in we apply the
statement of Euclid's division lemma.
Euclid’s division algorithm To obtain the HCF of two positive integers, say c and d, with c > d,
follow the steps below:
Step 1 : Apply Euclid’s division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q and r such that
c = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < d.
Step 2 : If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and r.
Step 3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be the
required HCF.
This algorithm works because HCF (c, d) = HCF (d, r) where the symbol HCF (c, d) denotes the
HCF of c and d, etc.
Example 1 : Use Euclid’s algorithm to find the HCF of 4052 and 12576.
Solution : Step 1 : Since 12576 > 4052, we apply the division lemma to 12576 and 4052, to get
12576 = 4052 × 3 + 420
Step 2 : Since the remainder 420 ≠ 0, we apply the division lemma to 4052 and 420, to get 4052 =
420 × 9 + 272
Step 3 : We consider the new divisor 420 and the new remainder 272, and apply the division
lemma to get 420 = 272 × 1 + 148
We consider the new divisor 272 and the new remainder 148, and apply the division lemma to get
272 = 148 × 1 + 124
We consider the new divisor 148 and the new remainder 124, and apply the division lemma to get
148 = 124 × 1 + 24
We consider the new divisor 124 and the new remainder 24, and apply the division lemma to get
124 = 24 × 5 + 4
We consider the new divisor 24 and the new remainder 4, and apply the division lemma to get 24
=4×6+0
The remainder has now become zero, so our procedure stops. Since the divisor at this stage
is 4, the HCF of 12576 and 4052 is 4.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that any positive integer greater than 1 can be
written as a product of finitely many primes uniquely up to their order. The term "up to their
order" means that we consider 12=2*2*3 to be equivalent as 12=3*2*2. Note that a product can
consist of just one prime.

Example: Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.

Solution : We have : 6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.

Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 = Product of the smallest power of each common prime factor in the
numbers.
LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 31 × 51 =Product of the greatest power of each prime factor, involved in the
numbers.
From the example above, we might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20) = 6 × 20. In fact,
we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b, HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b. We can
use this result to find the LCM of two positive integers, if we have already found the HCF of the
two positive integers.

Revisiting Irrational Numbers rational numbers are real numbers that can be expressed as a
fraction where the numerator and the denominator of the fraction are both integers. This includes
all whole numbers (for example, 3 be written as 3/1) and all finite or recurring decimals.
Numbers that cannot be written as fractions are called irrational numbers. For example, the square
root of 2 is an irrational number. Irrational numbers have endless non-repeating digits to the right
of the decimal point.
Theorems on Rational and Irrational Numbers
# Theorem 1: Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive
integer.
# Theorem 2: √2 is irrational. This can be proved by the method of contradiction.
# Theorem 3: Let x be a rational number with a terminating decimal expansion. Then x can be
expressed in the form p/q, where p & q are co-prime numbers, and the prime factorization of q is
of the form 2n5m, where m & n are non negative integers.
# Theorem 4: Let x = p/q be a rational number, such that the prime factorization of q is of the
form 2n5m, where m & n are non negative integers. Then the decimal expansion of x terminates.
# Theorem 5: Let x = p/q be a rational number, such that the prime factorization q is not of the
form 2n5m, where m & n are non negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is non-
terminating but repeating (recurring).

Example: Prove that √𝟑 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that √3 is rational.
𝑎
That is, we can find integers a and b (≠ 0) such that √3 = 𝑏
⋅
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the common factor,
and assume that a and b are coprime.
So, b√3= a
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
Therefore, a2 is divisible by 3, and by Theorem 1, it follows that a is also divisible by 3.
So, we can write a = 3c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 3b2 = 9c2, that is, b2 = 3c2. This means that b2 is divisible by 3, and so b
is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1 with p = 3).
Therefore, a and b have at least 3 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b are coprime.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that √3 is rational. So, we
conclude that √3 is irrational.
 Chapter 2
Polynomials

5 Geometric Meaning of Zeroes of a Polynomials

A real number k is said to be a zero of a polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0. Polynomials can easily be
represented graphically. Zero of polynomial p(x) is x-coordinate of point where graph of p(x)
intersects x-axis.
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax + b, then p(k) = ak + b = 0,

Linear Polynomial A linear polynomial is any polynomial defined by an equation of the form
p(x) = ax + b where a and b are real numbers and a is not equal to zero 0. For example, p(x)=3x- 7
and q(x) = -(13/ 4) x+ (5 /3) are linear polynomials. A linear polynomial is the same thing as a
degree 1 polynomial.

Cubic Polynomial A cubic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 3. A univariate cubic

polynomial has the form . An equation involving a cubic
polynomial is called a cubic equation. A closed-form solution known as the cubic formula exists
for the solutions of an arbitrary cubic equation.

Division Algorithm for Polynomials

If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials q(x) and r(x)
such that p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x).
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder.
where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
This result is known as the Division Algorithm for polynomials.

Example : Divide 2x2 + 3x + 1 by x + 2.

Solution : Note that we stop the division process when either the remainder is zero or its degree is
less than the degree of the divisor. So, here the quotient is 2x – 1 and the remainder is 3. Also, (2x
– 1)(x + 2) + 3 = 2x2 + 3x – 2 + 3 = 2x2 + 3x + 1 i.e., 2x2 + 3x + 1 = (x + 2)(2x – 1) + 3
Therefore, Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Let us now extend this process to divide a polynomial by a quadratic polynomial.

If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then

α +β = (−b/a)
αβ =(c/a)
If α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then
α +β + γ = (-b/a),
αβ+ βγ+ γα = (c/a)
and
αβγ = (-d/a)
Example : Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5)
So, the value of x2 + 7x + 10 is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x = – 2 or x = –5.
Therefore, the zeroes of x2 + 7x + 10 are – 2 and – 5. Now,
(−7) −(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)
sum of zeroes = -2+(-5)= (-7)= 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 )
 10 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
product of zeroes = (- 2)× ( -5) = 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2

7 Chapter 3
Pair of Linear equation in two variable

Pair of Linear equation in two variable Linear equations in two variables are equations which
can be expressed as ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers and both a, and b are not
zero. The solution of such equations is a pair of values for x and y which makes both sides of the
equation equal.
Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables. The most general form of a pair of linear equations is a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 a2 x + b2 y + c2
= 0 where a1,b1,c1, a2, b2, c2 are real numbers.

A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
(ii) algebraic method
Graphical Method :
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two equations. In
this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on the line being a
solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent (consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the pair of
equations is inconsistent.
Algebraic Methods
(i) Substitution Method
(ii) Elimination Method
(ii) Cross-multiplication Method

Example: Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:

7x – 15y = 2 ……………(1)
x + 2y = 3 ……………....(2)
Solution: Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other.
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y
Step 2 : Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get
7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., –29y = –19
19
therefore 𝑦 = 29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get
19 49
x = 3 –229 =29
If a pair of linear equations is given a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 then the following
situations can arise :
(i) (a1 /b1) ≠ (a2 /b2) : In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
(ii) (a1 /b1) = (a2 /b2)≠(c1 /c2) : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
(iii) (a1 /b1) = (a2 /b2)=( c1 /c2) : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and
consistent.
4 Chapter 4
Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in the variable x is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.

Example: Check whether the following are quadratic equations:

(i) (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3
(ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
Solution: (i) LHS = (x – 2)2 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 5
Therefore, (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 can be rewritten as
x2 – 4x + 5 = 2x – 3 i.e., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0 It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is a quadratic equation.

(ii) Since x(x + 1) + 8 = x2 + x + 8 and (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4 Therefore, x2 + x + 8 = x2 – 4

i.e., x + 12 = 0 It is not of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. Therefore, the given equation is not a
quadratic equation.

A real number α is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if aα2 + bα + c = 0.

The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 +
bx + c = 0 are the same.

If we can factorise ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, into a product of two linear factors, then the roots of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.

A quadratic equation can also be solved by the method of completing the square.
Quadratic formula: The roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
provided b2 – 4ac ≥ 0.
A quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0
(ii) two equal roots (i.e., coincident roots), if b2 – 4ac = 0,
(iii) no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.

Example: Find the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0, by factorisation.

Solution : Let us first split the middle term – 5x as –2x –3x [because (–2x) × (–3x) = 6x2 = (2x2) ×
3]. So, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 2x2 – 2x – 3x + 3 = 2x (x – 1) –3(x – 1) = (2x – 3)(x – 1) Now, 2x2 – 5x + 3
= 0 can be rewritten as (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0. So, the values of x for which 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 are the
same for which (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0, i.e., either 2x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0.
Now, 2x – 3 = 0 gives
3
x =2 and x – 1 = 0 gives x = 1.
So,
3 3
x =2and x = 1 are the solutions of the equation. In other words, 1 and 2 are the roots of the
equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0. Verify that these are the roots of the given equation.
Note that we have found the roots of 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 by factorising 2x2 – 5x + 3 into two linear
factors and equating each factor to zero.
Example : Find the roots of the equation 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0 by the method of completing the
square.
Solution : Multiplying the equation throughout by 5, we get 25x2 – 30x – 10 = 0
This is the same as (5x)2 – 2 × (5x) × 3 + 32 – 32 – 10 = 0 i.e., (5x – 3)2 – 9 – 10 = 0
i.e., (5x – 3)2 – 19 = 0 i.e., (5x – 3)2 = 19
i.e., 5x – 3 = ±√19
i.e., 5x = 3 ±√19
3 ±√19
So, x =
5
3+√19 3−√19
Therefore, the roots are and
5 5
𝟏
Example: Find the discriminant of the equation 3x2 – 2x + = 0 and hence find
𝟑
the nature of its roots. Find them, if they are real.
𝟏
solution : Here a = 3, b = – 2 and c =
𝟑
𝟏
Therefore, discriminant b2 – 4ac = (– 2)2 – 4 × 3 × 𝟑= 4 – 4 = 0.
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two equal real roots.
𝒃 𝒃 𝟏 𝟏
The roots are− 𝟐𝒂 ,− 𝟐𝒂 (i.e.) 𝟑 , 𝟑