SCHEME OF WORK

GRADE 11 / SS 2

2ND TERM

1. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

2. Latent Heat: fusion and vapourization

3. Evapouration and Boiling; effects of impurities and pressure on boiling and

melting point. Pressure cooker, cooling by evapouration, cooling and heating
curves.

4. Vapour pressure: saturated and unsaturated vapour pressure and its relation to
boiling point. Humidity, Relative Humidity, Dew point and its application.

5. Gas: measurement of gas pressure, barometer in practical use. Boyles Law, Charles
Law, Pressure Law and General Gas Law.

6. Calculations of Gas Laws

7. Waves, types of waves, reflection refraction, diffraction, interference,

superposition of progressive waves, standing and stationary wave.

8. Dispersion of light

9. Polarization of light
10. Magnetism

11. Revision

12. Examination

WEEK 1 & 2

TOPIC: Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

1. define Specific Heat Capacity

2. write simple equations heat

3. solve simple problems

CONTENT: Specific Heat capacity.

Heat capacity of a substance is described as the quantity of heat required to raise its
temperature through 1K.

Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit
mass or 1kg through a temperature of 1K

If Q = quantity of heat required in (J)

M = Mass in kg.

= Change in temp. Ѳ2 – Ѳ1

C = Specific heat capacity.

 Q = MCѲ

C=Q in JKg-1K-1

MѲ

: - Heat capacity is given as

MC = Q /Ѳ
 Calorimeter

Calorimeter is used in measuring quantity of heat. There are four different types.

i) Bomb calorimeter
 ii) Glass Calorimeter

iii) Regnant Calorimeter

iv) Ice Calorimeter

Calorimeter is mostly a vessel that is made of aluminum or copper. In calorimeter,

hot substance is added to cold substance and stirred until it attains the same temperature
as a result of energy transfer.

The Law of Calorimeter states that heat lost by hot substance = heat gained by cold
substance lagging is used to reduce the heat lost to the surrounding.
To determine the specific Heat Capacity of a solid.

Aim

To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid.

Apparatus

Copper calorimeter, metal solid thermometer stirrer, Bunsen burner, beaker, water and
tripod stand.

Method

The mass of the solid is placed on a weighing balance together with the calorimeter.
The calorimeter is then filled with water, and the new mass is taken and the initial
temperature is measured with the aid of a thermometer. The calorimeter is then heated
until the water boils and the temperature is also recorded with the mass. Copper solid is
transferred into the calorimeter and it is stirred gently and then the final temperature is
also taken.

DATA

Mass of copper solid = M1

Mass of calorimeter = M2

Mass of water + Calorimeter = M3

Temperature of the copper =Ѳ1

Temperature of the water =Ѳ2

Final temperature of the mixture =Ѳ3

Specific heat capacity of the metal = C1

Specific heat capacity of the water =C2

Specific heat calorimeter = C3

Heat loss by the copper solid = MC(Q1-Q3)

Heat gain by water = (M3-M2) C2 (Q3-Q2)

 Heat gain by Calorimeter = M3C3(Q3-Q2)

The law of Calorimetry.

Heat loss by the copper solid = MC1(Q1-Q3)

Heat gain by water and Calorimeter.

M1C1(Q1-Q3 )=(M3-M2)C2(Q3-Q2) + M2C3(Q3-Q2)

Precaution

1) The solid should be introduced into the calorimeter as fast as possible to prevent
heat loss.

ii) The temperature of the water must be made constant by continuous stirring.

EVALUATION

Explain the following:

i) Heat capacity.

ii)Specific heat capacity.

ASSIGNMENT: What amount of heat in need to raise the temperature of water from
250C to 200C if the mass of water is given as 2kg and C=4200J/kg.

PERIOD 2 & 3

TOPIC: Specific heat capacity

CONTENT: How to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid by electrical method.
It follows the previous method. Instead of the liquid, a solid is used. The block is
weighed M. The specific heat capacity of the block is C.

Initial temperature is Ѳ 1

Final temperature is Ѳ 2
Neglecting specific heat capacity of the heater.

Electrical energy supplied = heat energy produced.

IVt = M1C1(Ѳ 2 – Ѳ 1)

Determining specific Heat capacity by cooling method. Specific heat capacity by

cooling method is a method of determining the specific heat capacity of both liquid and
solid by introducing the temperature difference between the body and its surrounding.

The law states that the rate of gain or loss of heat energy is directly proportional to
the change or difference in temperature between the body and its surrounding.
Example 1

Find the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 500g of copper from
16 C to 1160C (assuming the specific heat capacity of copper = 400J/kgK.
0

Q =MC(Q2-Q1)

0.5 x 400(116-16)

200 (100

20000J

Q= 20KJ

Example 2: A machine with an input power of KW used up 80% of the power. If the
remaining energy appears as heat, and heat 40kg of iron, what will be the rise in
temperature of the iron in 2mins (S.H.C. of iron = 500J/kgK)

C = 500J/KgK

t= 2mins = 2x60 = 120 sec.

efficiency = 80%

Power = 2kw

Mass = M = 40kg.

Power used = 20% of 2kw

20 x 2000

100

400w

Electrical energy lost = heat gained by the iron

P x t = MCѲ

400 x 120 = 40 x 600 x Ѳ

= 400 x 12
 40 x 500

Ѳ = 2.40C

EVALUATION: 32g of water at 600C is poured into 60g of cold water at 120C which is
contained in the calorimeter of mass 40g and specific heat capacity of 0.1J/gk.
Neglecting loss of heat, show flat the final resulting temp. is 290C.

ASSIGNMENT: a piece of metal of mass 50g heated to 1000C is dropped into 200g of
water at 140C in copper calorimeter weighing 80g and raises the temperature to 700C.
What is the heat capacity of the piece of metal?

1. When the temperature of a body increases, its

a. internal energy decreases
b. internal energy remains constant
c. internal energy increases
d. heat capacity increases

 
2. The internal energy of a body is measured in
a. kg
b. °C
c. J
d. JK-1

 
3. The heat capacity of a bottle of water is 2100 J°C-1. What is the amount of heat
required to heat the water from 30°C to 50°C?
a. 2100J
b. 4200J
c. 42000J
d. 63000J

 
4. If the same amount of heat is supplied to 2 metal rods, A and B, rod B shows a
smaller rise in temperature. Which of the following statements is true about the heat
capacity of rods A and B?
a. The heat capacity of A is less than that of B
b. The heat capacity of B is less than that of A
c. The heat capacity of A is zero
d. The heat capacity of B is zero
 
5. The heat capacities of 10g of water and 1kg of water are in the ratio
a. 1: 10
b. 10: 1
c. 1: 100
d. 100: 1

 
6. 1 kg of substance X of specific heat capacity 2 kJkg-1°C-1 is heated from 30°C to
90°C. Assuming no heat loss, the heat required is
a. 7.5 kJ
b. 18 kJ
c. 80 kJ
d. 120 kJ

 
7. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 20g of water from 10°C to
20°C if the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 Jg-1°C-1?
a. 1.68 J
b. 84 J
c. 840 J
d. 1680 J

 
8. 4000 J of energy are given out when 2kg of a metal is cooled from 50°C t0 40°C.
The specific heat capacity of the metal, in Jg-1°C-1, is
a. 40
b. 50
c. 200
d. 400

 
9. What is the temperature rise when 42 kJ of energy is supplied to 5kg of water?
(Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Jkg-1°C-1
a. 2°C
b. 5°C
c. 8.4°C
d. 10°C
 
10. A piece of copper of mass 2kg is cooled from 150°C to 50°C. The specific heat
capacity of copper is 400 Jkg-1°C-1. The heat loss is
a. 800J
b. 4000J
c. 40000J
d. 80000J

11. 2 kg of oil is heated from 30°C to 40°C in 20s. The specific heat capacity of oil is
8 kJkg-1°C-1. The power of the heater is
a. 8 W
b. 8 kW
c. 24 kW
d. 32 kW

 
12. An immersion heater rated at 200 W is fitted into a large block of ice at 0°C. The
latent heat of fusion of ice is 300J/g. How long does it take to melt 20g of ice?
a. 13s
b. 15s
c. 30s
d. 60s

13. An immersion heater rated at 150 W is fitted into a large block of ice at 0°C. The
specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 300J/g. How long does it take to melt 10g of ice?
a. 2s
b. 5s
c. 20s
d. 150s
e. 4500 s

14. Aniline melts at -6°C and boils at 184°C. At which temperature would aniline
not be a liquid?
a. -9°C
b. -3°C
c. 25°C
d. 100°C
e. 102°C
15. A 2 kg mass of copper is heated for 40 s by a heater that produces 100 J/s. The
specific heat capacity of copper is 400 J/kgK. What is the rise in temperature?
a. 5 K
b. 10 K
c. 20 K
d. 50 K

16. When bubbles are seen forming rapidly in water and the temperature of the
water remains constant,
a. the particles of the water are moving further apart
b. the particles of the water are moving faster
c. the particles of the water are moving faster and further apart
d. the particles of the water are moving slower and closer together

17. A 2 kW kettle containing boiling water is placed on a balance. It is left there and
continues to boil for 5 minutes. The balance reading changes by 0.2kg. What does
this information give as an estimate for the specific latent heat of vaporisation of
water?
a. 2000 J/kg
b. 3000 J/kg
c. 50 000J/kg
d. 3 000 000J/kg

18. The specific heat capacity of copper is 400J/kgºC. A 2kg mass of copper is heated
for 40s by a 100W heater. What is the maximum possible rise in temperature?
a. 5ºC
b. 10ºC
c. 20ºC
d. 50ºC

WEEK 3 & 4

TOPIC: Latent Heat

Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to

1. Define Latent Heat

2. Write simple equations on Laten Heat

3. Solve simple problems

CONTENT: LATENT HEAT

Latent heat is the heat supplied or removed which causes a change of state
without a change in temperature or pressure. Latent heat is an invisible heat on the mass
and nature of the substance.

Q = mL

Where Q = latent heat

m = mass

L = specific latent heat (J/kg or J/g)

Latent heat depends on:

i. Nature of the material

ii. Mass of the material
iii. Energy supplied
iv. Volume and area of the material
v. State of the material

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION.

Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to convert a substance from its
solid to its liquid state without a change in temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

Specific latent heat of fusion (L) of a substance is the quantity of heat required to
convert unit mass (1kg) of the solid at the melting point to its liquid form without a
change in temperature.
 The SI unit of latent heat of fusion is expressed in Joule per kilogram (Jkg-1 or J/g).
The heat evolved (Q), the mass (m) and the specific latent heat of fusion (L) are related
by the formula.

Q = ml

TEMPERATURE – TIME GRAPH

Example:

1. How much heat is required to change 3kg of ice at 00C to water at the same
temperature. (Specific latent heat of fusion at ice = 336000JKg-1).

2) What quantity at heat will be necessary to change 2kg of ice at 00C to water at 100C.

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 105Jkg and specific heat capacity of water =
4200J/kgk.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

OF ICE.

Mass of calorimeter and stirred = M

Mass of Calorimeter + Stirrer water = M2

Mass of Calorimeter + stirrer + water + ice = M3

Initial temperature of water = Ѳ 1

Final temperature of mixture = Ѳ 2

Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = C

Specific heat capacity of water = 4200

Mass of ice added =M3 – M2

Mass of water = M2 – M1

Heat required to raise the temperature of melted ice from Ѳ1 0C to Ѳ o2 = (M3– M2) x 4200
x Ѳ2

Since heat gained by ice = heat lost by calorimeter and water them. (M3-M2)L
+ (M3-M2)4200 Ѳ 2 = M1C(Ѳ 1- Ѳ 2) + M2-M1) 4200(Ѳ 1- Ѳ 3)

:- L = M1C(Ѳ 1- Ѳ 2) + (M2 + M1)( Ѳ 1- Ѳ 2)4200 – (M3-M2)4200 Ѳ 2

M3 – M2

EVALUATION:

i) Define latent heat.

ii) What is latent heat?

iii) Define specific latent heat fusion.

iv) Calculate the latent heat of a substance.

ASSIGNMENT: A copper calorimeter weighing 40g contains 200g of water at 350C.

20g of dry ice is added to the water and this reduces the temperature 250C after all the
ice has melted. What value of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is given by this
experiment? (Specific heat capacity of water = 42005J/kgk. Specific heat capacity of
copper = 400J/kgk.

3RD PERIOD

TOPIC: Latent Heat

CONTENT: Latent Heat of Vapourization.

Latent Heat of vapourization in the quantity of heat required to convert a substance

from its liquid state to its gaseous state without a change in temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION.

Specific latent heat of vapourization (L) is the quantity of heat required to convert
unit mass of a substance from its liquid state at boiling points to vapour without change
in temperature. It is measured in J/kg.

Q =ml

Example:

i) Estimate the quantity of heat needed to melt 150g of ice at – 100Cto water of 150C
(specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1k-1), specific heat capacity of ice = 2100Jkg-
k , specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.6 x 105Jkg-1.
1 -1

2) Dry steam at 1000C is bubbled into 500g of water originally at 200C. What will be
the temperature of the water after 30g of steam has condensed?

EVALUATION:

i) Define latent heat of vapourization.

ii) Define Specific latent heat of vapourization.

ASSIGNMENT: In an experiment to find the specific latent heat of vapourization of

stream, mass of calorimeter was 50g. The total mass of calorimeter and water was 300g.
The initial temperature of the water in the calorimeter before stream was passed was
200C. The temperature increased to 600C after stream of total mass 16g was passed.
Assuming the stream was at 1000C, estimate the value of latent heat of vapourization of
stream. (Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = 400J/kgk, Specific heat capacity of
water 4200J/kgk.
 WEEK 5

TOPIC: Effects of impurities and pressure on boiling point and melting point.

CONTENT:

i) Effects of pressure and impurities on melting point.

ii) Effects of impurities on melting point.

iii) Cooling by evaporation.

iv) Application of cooling by Evaporation.

v) Cooling curve for pure crystalline substance.

Effects of Pressure and Impurities on Melting Point.

An ice block is seen to melt if sufficient pressure is applied to it. This is because
an increase in pressure lowers the melting point of ice or the freezing point of water.

When we subject ice to high pressure it melts, but when this pressure is removed,
the ice refreezes. This phenomenon is known as regelation. Hence, a piece of wire
with heavy weight attached to both ends can cut through a block of ice but the block
remains solid behind the wire.

The ice directly below the wire melts because the increase pressure lowers the
melting point of ice, hence the wire falls through the water formed. The decrease in
pressure raises freezing point of the melted ice and water freezes again. On refreezing it
liberates latent heat which is conducted by the wire to melt more ice beneath it. The
process is repeated.

Effect If Impurities in Melting Point.

 Impurities also lower the melting point of a pure solid. Hence a mixture of ice and
salt has a lower temperature than 00C, the freezing point of pure water (or the melting
point of ice).

Whenever methylated spirit or petrol is spilled over any point of our body, usually a
cooling effect as the liquid evaporate is felt. The body becomes cooler +because the
latent needed to convert the liquid to the vapour state is extracted from the body in
contact. This extraction of the latent heat from the body leads to fall in its temperature.
The faster the evaporation the greater is the fall in temperature.

Application of Cooling by Evaporation

1) Perspiration cools the body as sweat evaporates from the surface of the skin.

2) Cooling by evaporation is also utilized by doctors for numbing pains from needle
points.

3) The working principle of the refrigerator utilizes the cooling effect of evaporation.
The volatile liquid or liquified gas are ammonia and ethyl chloride.

Heat Curve for a Solid.

 Cooling Curve for Pure Crystalline Substance.

EVALUATION:

i) Explain the effect of pressure on melting point.

ii) Explain the effect of impurities on melting point.

iii) Explain cooling by evaporation.

iv) State 2 application of cooling by evaporation.

ASSIGNMENT: Explain the working principle of a refrigerator.

3RD PERIOD

TOPIC; Effects of Pressure & Impurities on B.P. & M.P.

CONTENT:

i) Effects of pressure on Boiling Point.

ii) The Pressure Cooker.

iii) Effects of impurities on Boiling Point.

Effects of Pressure on Boiling Point.

An increase in pressure of the surface of a liquid raises the boiling point of the
liquid and conversely a decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point of the liquid.

The Pressure Cooker.

The pressure cooker is a practical application of the effect of pressure on the

boiling point of a liquid. The pressure cooker is basically a strong metal source pan with
a lid that can be held down. There is a loaded pin valve on this lid which controls the
flow of stream produced when the water in the container is heated.

Food is cooked much faster in the pressure cooker because the increase pressure of
the trapped gas above the liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid inside the
cooker to about 1200Cor more. Thus, a high cooking temperature is reached very fast,
thereby reducing the cooking time and saving fuel.

Effect of Impurities on Boiling Point.

Impurities or dissolved substance in a liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid but
lowers its freezing point.

EVALUATION:

i) Explain the effect of pressure on boiling point.

ii) Explain the effect of impurities n boiling point.

iii Explain the working principle of a pressure cooker.

ASSIGNMENT: State the differences between evaporation and boiling.

WEEK 6

TOPIC: Vapour Pressure, Saturated and Unsaturated.

SUB-TOPIC: Humidity

REFERENCE BOOK: Essential Physics for Senior Secondary School. By O> E.

Farinde. Pg. 200.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL: Textbook, Water, Ice Etc.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have studied solid liquid and gas.

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson the student should be able to

i) define water vapour.

ii) define humidity.

iii) explain relative humidity.

CONTENT:

i) Water Vapour

ii) Wet and Dry Hydrometer

Water Vapour

Water vapour is present in the atmosphere in various form and this might be due to
the pressure or temperature of the surrounding environment. The water vapour in the
atmosphere exist in these form

i) Mist (ii) Rain (iii) Cloud (v) Snow/hail (v)Humidity (vi) Fog (vii) frost (viii) Dew.
Mist and Fog: When water vapour is present in the atmosphere in a cool region, the
water cools and condenses forming tiny droplets which are suspended in the air, when
the air cool below dew point. This is known as fog. A thick fog is called mist.
Frost: Frost occurs when the temperature of the atmosphere is low and the dew formed
on leaves and grasses freezes. This is called hoar frost.

Snow & Hails When the cloud suddenly passes through a very cold region, the water
drops, freezes and falls in form of snow & hail. Hails are of different sizes and are hard
while snow is flaky.

Dew: Dew is normally found in the early hours of the morning when the temperature of
the atmosphere is low. It falls on grasses or leaves condensed in form of fine water
droplets.

Dew Point: Dew point is the temperature at which the water vapour present in the
atmosphere is just sufficient to saturate.

Cloud and Rain: When a mist or a toy is formed at high altitude, it is called cloud. When
water droplets in the cloud combine together, water drops are formed and rainfall occurs.

Humidity: humidity of air refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air. If the
air is an environment is dry the sweat from our body evaporates faster than when the air
is damp and made up of water vapour. We describe moist air as humid air.
Relative Humidity: is define as the ratio of mass of water vapour, actually present in
certain volume of air, at a room temperature to the mass of water vapour required to
saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature.

R.H: - m x 100% = S.V.P. at dew point x 100%

M S.V.P. at air temp.

Relative humidity of air can be measure using hygrometer e.g.

i) Renault’s hygrometer.

ii) Daniel’s hydrometer.

iii) Daniel’s Wet & dry hygrometer.

iv) Dew point bulb hygrometer.

EVALUATION: Explain the following:

i) fog ii) mist (iii) cloud (iv) rain.

ASSIGNMENT: Draw and explain the working principle of a hydrometer.

3RD PERIOD

TOPIC: Vapour Pressure

SUB-TOPIC: Refrigerator and Air conditioner.

REFERENCE BOOK: Essential Physics for Senior Secondary School by O.E. Farinde.
Page 202 – 203.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL: Air conditioner & Refrigerator.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have studied vapour pressure.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

i) describe the principle of a refrigerator.

ii) describe the principle of air-conditioner.

iii) solve simple calculation involving relative humidity.

CONTENT

i) Refrigerator

ii) The air-conditioner

iii) Calculations involving relative humidity.

Refrigerator: It is built on the process of evaporation and freezing. Evaporation comes

cooling when volatile liquid in used e.g., ammonia, ferm-12, ether etc. Liquid absorbs
heat from the surrounding air and cools the inside of the refrigerator and its content due
to evaporation. The vapour produce is pumped away and compressed in a condenser
where it condenses back to liquid. The liquid is then recycled through the evaporator
compartment and the process is reported.

Air-conditioner.

When tans circulate air, there is continual change of air around the body and
evaporation can take place. If the humidity is low and the air is very dry, there is
excessive evaporation from the body.

This is also overcome by air-conditioning which takes air into the house through
special humidity which dampen the air.
 Example: Find the relative humidity of the atmosphere, if the mass of water vapour
present in 35cm3 of air is 40kg and the mass of water vapour required to saturate the
same volume of air in 30kg at air temperature and pressure.

Solutions

Relates humidity R. H. =?

VA = Volume of air = 35cm3

M1 = Mass of water vapour = 40kg.

M2 = Mass of the saturated vapour = 30kg.

R.H. = M1
M2
= 40 x 100%
30
= 133.3%

EVALUATION: Define relative humidity and explanation of a hygrometer.

ASSIGNMENT:

i) Define dew point.

ii) What is the function of a compressor in the refrigerator?
ii) Why is the external cooling system always provided in the refrigerator?
1. Which of the following types of energy remains constant during a change of state?
a. internal energy
b. potential energy
c. kinetic energy
d. heat energy

2. The energy required for a change of state is called

a. chemical energy
b. state energy
c. latent energy
d. heat energy

3. If a substance expands on melting, increased pressure acting on it will

a. not change its melting point
b. increases its melting point
c. decreases its melting point
d. condenses the substance

4. The reversed process of melting is

a. condensing
b. freezing
c. sublimation
d. burning

5. The boiling point of water in a pressure cooker is raised by

a. increasing the volume of water in the cooker
b. increasing the internal volume of the cooker
c. increasing the pressure in the cooker
d. increasing the pressure outside the cooker

6. If a sample of water boils at a temperature above 100oC, the water

a. is pure
b. contains impurities
c. boils at a pressure lower than normal atmospheric pressure
d. boils in vacuum

7. A liquid evaporates at
a. temperatures above its boiling point
b. its boiling point
c. temperatures below its boiling point
d. temperatures above and below its boiling point

8. Which of the following liquids is used as the cooling agent in a household fridge?
a. alcohol
b. ether
c. freon
d. liquid hydrogen

9. The specific latent heat of fusion is absorbed by a substance when it changes from
a. a liquid to a gas
b. a gas to a liquid
c. a solid to a liquid
d. a liquid to a solid

10. The latent heat of fusion supplied to a substance is used

a. to keep its particles in their fixed positions
b. by particles to break away from their fixed positions
c. to increase the average speed of its particles in their random motion
d. to decrease the average speed of its particles in their random motion
 Week 7

TOPIC: Gas Law

SUB-TOPIC: Kinetic Theory of Gases.

REFERENCE BOOK: Essential Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by O. E.

Farinde. Pg. 169 – 190.

Kinetic Particle Theory

The kinetic particle theory states that

 all matter is made up of small particles that cannot be seen directly with the naked
eye
 there are spaces between particles in all matter but the amount of space in each
state of matter is different
 particles are in constant random motion, but the speed of movement differs in each
state
 particles possess kinetic energy that varies with temperature
 the average kinetic energy of all particles is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.

 Properties Solid Liquid  Gas

 Arrangement of  Closely packed  Close together  Far apart in a
particles together in an in a disorderly random manner
orderly manner manner, in
clusters
 Forces between Very strong  Strong  Negligible
particles
 Movement  Vibrations about  Vibrations and  Vibrations and
fixed positions movement movement
 increase as throughout the anywhere
temperature liquid
increase
 Energy of particles  Less energy  More than in  More than in
solid liquid
 Density  High (particles  High (particles  Low (particles
close together) close together) far apart)
 Compressible?  No No Yes

Change of State

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Melting

 Melting is change from solid to liquid by absorbing heat to break force of

attraction holding particles together.
 The temperature at which solid melts is melting point.
 From the graph:

o A-B: the temperature of solid increases to melting point. At this point, the
particles are closely packed in a solid state with only the ability to vibrate
about fixed positions.
 o B-C: the temperature remains constant as heat is absorbed to break forces of
attraction instead for raising temperature. Solid and liquid are present. The
substance exists as solid-liquid states.
o C-D: the particles are in liquid state, gaining more heat energy and rising in
temperature.

Freezing

 Freezing is the change of liquid to solid by cooling down of liquid.

 Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid freezes.
 From graph

o A-B: liquid temperature decreases to freezing point.

o B-C: heat energy is released as particles slow down to take up fixed and
orderly position of a solid. The temperature remain constant release of
energy compensates for loss of heat to surroundings.
o C-D: solid cools to the temperature of surroundings.

Boiling

 Boiling is the change of liquid to gas by absorbing heat to break the forces holding
them together.
 Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid boils.
 From graph
 o P-Q: liquid temperature rises to boiling point. The particles are quite packed
in a liquid state with only the ability to slide over each other.
o Q-R: heat energy is absorbed by particles to break the attractive forces so
that they move freely and far apart as gas particles. That’s why the
temperature remains constant.
o R-S: the particles are in a gaseous state gaining more heat energy and rising
in temperature. 

Evaporation

 Evaporation is change of liquid to gas without boiling, occurs below boiling point
on water surface. It gives cooling effect – heat energy absorbed from surroundings.

Condensation

 Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas
particles slow down and move closer to one another to form liquid.

Sublimation

 When solid changes into a gas directly without going through liquid phase
 This happens because particles at the surface of the solid have enough energy to
break away from the solid and escape as a gas and particles of the liquid are too
weak to remain in that state
 E.g., iodine, ammonium chloride sublime
 Reverse of sublimation: Condensation
 Application: Dry ice can be used to keep food cold and change into a gas without
leaving any liquid.

Diffusion

 It is the spreading of molecules on their own accord without any external aid.
 Occurs in liquids and gases Occurs as particles are in random motion 
 Depends on temperature and density (concentration) of fluid. 
 The lower the density, the more space for particles to move into.

A. Diffusion of gases

 Experiment

o Bromine drops are placed into a jar.

 o Another jar full of air is placed on top of jar with bromine, separated with
cover.
o Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling both jars with dense
reddish-brown bromine vapour.
 Explanation:
o Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces between air particles in
upper jar.
o At the same time, air particles move down from upper jar to mix with
bromine particles in lower jar.
o Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.

B. Diffusion of liquids

 Experiment

o CuSO4 crystals placed in beaker of water, blue particles of the crystals are

spread throughout the water to form uniformly blue solution.

Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

 Temperature

o The higher the temperature, the more particles of matter absorb energy
making them move faster, the higher the rate of diffusion; the lower the
temperature, the slower the rate of diffusion
 Mass of particles
o Greater mass, the slower it diffuses; Smaller mass, the faster it diffuses

 Experiment

o A cotton soaked in aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric

acid are placed on opposite sides of the tube.
o NH4OH vapor and HCl vapor diffuses in the tube and a compound is
produced inside the tube closer to HCl soaked cotton as the particles are
heavier.
o The greater mass, the slower particles diffuse.
o The smaller mass, the faster particles diffuse.
Differences between properties of matter and particles in them.

1. Matter can be coloured (e.g., Sulphur is yellow) but particles are not.
2. Substances feels hot/cold but particles don’t get hot/cold. The temperature is due to
speed of movement of particles. If hot, particles move fast.
3. Matter expands when heated but particles don’t. They increase distance between
particles during expansion.

Pressure exerted by a gas

 Randomly moving gas molecules collide with one another and with the inner
surface of the container which the gas fills. The collisions produce forces.
 The force acting on each unit area of the inner surface of the container is the gas
pressure exerted on it
 When the volume of gas is halved by halving the volume of its container, the
number of molecules per unit volume in the container will be doubled.
 The number of collisions between the gas molecules and the inner surface of the
container will double the force produced.
 Hence, the force acting on each unit area of the inner surface of the container, that
is the gas pressure, will be doubled.
 The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature
and fixed mass is stated in Boyle's Law as follows

o For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely

proportional to its volume

p = k(1/v) --> pV = k

where k is a constant
  Pressure increases when:

o Volume of container decreases at constant temperature

o Temperature of gas increases at constant volume
o Number of gas molecules increase, total pressure exerted increases.

Equation: p1V1 = p2V2

MCQ

1. Which property of gas affects the rate at which it spreads throughout a

laboratory?
a. boiling point
b. molecular mass
c. reactivity
d. solubility in water

2. Four identical gas jars are filled with different gases. The lids are taken off the
gas jars and they are left open to the air for a few hours. Which gas jar will then
have the most air in it?
3. The conical flask contains compound X which is present in the solid, liquid and
gaseous states. Which statement is correct?

a. energy is released when X changes from liquid to solid

b. a gaseous X molecule has a lower mass than a liquid X molecule
c. liquid X is at a higher temperature than solid X
d. liquid X molecules vibrate about fixed positions

4. The table shows the boiling points of some of the gases present in air.

 gas boiling
point/oC
argon -186
helium -269
neon -246
nitrogen -196
oxygen -183

When air is cooled to -200oC, some of these gases liquefy. Which gases liquefy?
a. argon, helium, neon
b. argon, nitrogen, oxygen
c. helium, neon, nitrogen
d. helium and neon

5. By which process does the smell of cooking spread to all the rooms in a house?
a. decomposition
b. diffusion
c. displacement
d. distillation

6. What can be deduced about two gases that have the same molecular mass?
a. they have the same solubility in water at room temperature
b. they have the same boiling point
c. they have the same number of atoms in one molecule
d. they have the same rate of diffusion at room temperature and pressure

7. The cover-plates were removed from the gas jars as shown in the diagram. After
several days, the colour of the gas was the same in both jars.

Which statement explains this change?

a. oxygen and bromine gases have equal densities
b. oxygen and bromine molecules are in random motion
c. oxygen and bromine molecules diffuse at the same rate
d. equal volumes of oxygen and bromine contain equal numbers of molecules
8. Which of the following would diffuse most rapidly?
a. Cl2
b. CO2
c. CH4
d. N2

9. The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of

a. a small number of tiny particles
b. a large number of tiny particles
c. a small number of large particles
d. a large number of large particles

10. Which one of the following conditions increases the rate of movement of
particles in matter?
a. increase in density
b. decrease in mass
c. increase in volume
d. increase in temperature

11. Ice is less dense than water because the ice molecules
a. are smaller than the water molecules
b. are different from the water molecules
c. are more loosely packed than the water molecules
d. move faster than the water molecules

12. Boyle's Law is valid for a gas at constant

a. volume
b. pressure
c. density
d. temperature

13. The volume of a certain gas at constant temperature is reduced by 1/2. The
pressure of the gas will be
a. 1/4 of its original value
b. 1/2 of its original value
c. twice its original value
c. four times its original value

14. A balloon filled with hydrogen expands as it ascends because

a. its surrounding pressure decreases
b. its surrounding pressure increases
c. its temperature increases
d. its temperature decreases

15. A given mass of air occupies 12 m3 at normal atmospheric pressure. If the
pressure is increased to 4 times the original value without changing the
temperature, what volume will the air occupy?
a. 3 m3
b. 6 m3
c. 24 m3
d. 48 m3
e. 192 m3

16. In one minute, a diver breathes 1 litre of air at an atmospheric pressure of 100
kPa. To breathe in the same mass of air in one minute, how much air would he need
to breathe when the total pressure on him under water is 300 kPa?
a. 1/3 litre
b. 1/2 litre
c. 1 litre
d. 2 litres
e. 3 litres

17. Some gas trapped in a cylinder is compressed at constant temperature by a

piston. Which of the following will not change?
a. density
b. mass
c. molecular spacing
d. pressure
e. volume

18. What can be deduced about two gases with the same relative molecular mass?
a. They have equal solubility in water at room temperature.
b. They have the same number of atoms in one molecule.
c. They have the same rate of diffusion at room temperature and pressure.
d. They have the same melting point.

19. One way to remove toxic nitrogen monoxide (NO) from motor vehicle exhaust is
to inject a stream of ammonia gas into the exhaust vapour.
6NO (g) + 4NH3 (g) ---> 5N2 (g) + 6H2O (g)
A car emits 3 dm3 of nitrogen monoxide for each kilometre it moves. If it is driven
40,000 km a year, what is the volume of ammonia gas needed per annum to clean up
the exhaust gas?
a. 40,000 dm3
b. 60,000 dm3
c. 80,000 dm3
d. 120,000 dm3

20. The particles in the gas can be described as

a. expanding in fixed directions
b. moving randomly in all directions
c. vibrating about a fixed position
d. rising upwards

21. In an air-conditioned bus, water is slowly collected on the glass window panes.
This process is best described by
a. melting
b. boiling
c evaporation
d. condensation

22. Which of the following atoms has a nucleus which does not contain any
neutrons?
a. aluminum
b. lead
c. chlorine
d. hydrogen

23. Which of the following groups consists of mixtures only?

a. chlorine, water, salt
b. chlorine, water, sand
c. salt, water, salt
d. salt, air, brass

24. During the formation of ionic bond, the atoms taking part
a. gain protons
b. lose and gain protons
c. lose and gain electrons
d. gain electrons
25. Which of the following compounds are formed as a result of sharing electrons?
a. calcium chloride
b. oxygen gas
c. iron (III) oxide
d. aluminium

26. Which of the following solids does not contain any covalent bonds?
a. diamond
b. ice
c. copper
d. graphite

27. Which of the following would diffuse most rapidly?

a. CI2
b. CO2
c. CH4
d. N2

MCQ Answers
 Week 8

CONTENT:

i) Wave

ii) Types of waves

iii) Electromagnetic waves.

iv) Mechanical waves

v) Terms used in wave motion.

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a vacuum or a medium and

transfers energy from one point to another, without any permanent displacement of
the medium itself.

Types of Waves.

i) Electromagnetic waves.

ii) Mechanical waves

Electromagnetic Waves

These are waves that do not require a material medium for their propagation, they
travel successfully in free space (vacuum). They all have the same velocity (3x 108ms-1)

but different wavelength and frequency. They are not deflected in electric and
magnetic field. Electromagnetic spectrum is made up of: radio wave, intra-red
radiation, visible light ray, ultra-violet rays-ray, gamma(Y) rays etc.
 Uses Of Electromagnetic Waves.

1) Radio waves: They have low frequencies and long wave length (10-2m-10-3m).
They are used for carrying radio signal from the station to the radio set.

2 Microwaves: they are used for cooking and radar control

3) Infra-red radiation: it has longer wave length and produces sensation of heat.

(10-5m-10-6m) it is also used for vision in the dark.

4) Visible light: it provides radiant energy and makes things possible to be seen.

5) Ultraviolet rays: They cause some materials to fluorescent and affect photographic
plates. It is used in photoelectricity.

6) X-rays: They can be easily detected by placing a photographic plate along their
path of propagation. It is used for medical diagnosis.

7) Gamma Rays: These are spectra of the highest frequency and shortest wave
length. They are used for cancer treatment and quality control.

Mechanical Waves.

These are waves that requires a material medium for their propagation, e.g.,
water waves, sound waves etc. Ripple tank can be used to produce mechanical waves.

Types of Mechanical Waves

1 Transverse Waves: This is a wave which travels perpendicularly to the direction of

the propagation or vibration of the wave. Examples are water, waves on plucked string
and light waves.

2) Longitudinal Wave: These are waves in which the vibration occurs in the same
direction travelled by wave e.g., sound wave.

3) Standing/Stationary Waves: When two simple harmonic waves of the same

amplitude, frequency and time are travelling in opposite directions in a straight line, the
resultant wave obtained is called stationary waves.
4) Progressive Or Travelling Waves: This occur when a travelling wave moves
continuously from one point to another.

Terms Used in Wave Motion

1) Amplitude (A). this is the maximum displacement of a particle from rest.

2. Wave Front: is a line or section taken through an advancing wave in which all the
particles are in phase.

3) Phase: is defined as the ratio of displacement of the vibrating particle at an instant

to the amplitude of the particle.

4) Vibration: This is the to and fro movement of the particle.

5) Wavelength: This is the distance between two successive crest or troughs of a

wave.

6) Period(J): This is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

T = 1/f

7) Frequency (f): The numbers of cycles which the wave completes in one second is
called the frequency (Hz)
EVALUATION:

i) What is electromagnetic wave?

ii) List six electromagnetic radiation.

ASSIGNMENT: a source of sand produces waves in air of wavelength 1.65M. If the

speed of sand in air is 330mls, calculate the period of vibration.

3RD PERIOD

TOPIC: Propagation of Wave.

SUB-TOPIC: Wave Equation

CONTENT: Wave Equation

A progressive wave can be represented by the equation, y = A sin (wt – Q)

Where y = vertical displacement, x = horizontal displacement.

A = Amplitude

W = angular velocity(rad-s-1)

Q = Phase angle (rad)

W = 2 π f = 2 π v/ ƛ = 2 π /T

:- y = A sin (wt – kx) - (1)

Y = A sin (2IIft – 2IIv)

A sin 2II(ft – X) – (2)

Y = A sin 2II (Vt – X) – (3)

Example: The plane progressive wave is represented by the equation.

Y = 4 Sin (100IIt – 50IIx). Find the

i) amplitude (ii) frequency (iii) wavelength (iv) velocity.

Solution.

Y = A sin (2IIft – 2IIx) = A sin (100IIt-50IIx)

Comparing coefficient

i) A = 4m

ii) 2IIft = 100IIt

f=100II

2II :- 50Az

iii) 2II = 50II

= 2II =0.04m

50II

iv) V=f

=50 x 0.04 = 2mls.

EVALUATION: A wave has a frequency of 30Hz and wavelength of 40cm. What is

the velocity of the wave?

ASSIGNMENT: A wave is represented by the equation y = 0.2Sin 0.4II(x-60t), where

all distance is measured in cm and time is second. Calculate the speed of the wave.

WEEK 9

TOPIC: Properties of waves.

SUB-TOPIC: Reflection refraction, diffractions and interference.

REFERENCE BOOK: Essential Physics for Senior Secondary Schools. By O. E. Farinde.

Page 204 – 209
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL: Stirring, ripple tank etc.

BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE: At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

i) List the properties of water.

ii) Define, reflection, refraction diffraction and interference.

CONTENT: Properties of waves.

ii) Reflection

iii) Refraction

iv) Interference

v) Diffraction

Properties of Waves

i) Reflection: This is the change in the direction of a wave when it hits on obstacle.
The type of wave formed depend on the type of obstacle they inset.

2) Refraction: This occurs between two media, when wave direction of propagation
changes as it enters a different medium.

3) Diffraction: this is a phenomenon whereby waves bend round obstacles. It is also

the spreading of waves after passing through tiny openings, a hole, aperture or a slit.
 Interference: this occurs when two waves from a source cross each other’s path. If the
crest on one assumes simultaneous as the trough of the other, it is referred to as
constructive interference. But if the crest of one does not arrive simultaneously as the
trough of the other. It is referred to as destructive interference.

EVALUATION:

i) List the properties of waves.

Ii0 Explain two of the properties listed above.

ASSIGNMENT: What is wave motion?

ii) Explain the phenomena of (i) interference (ii) Diffraction

 3RD PERIOD

TOPIC; Waves

SUB-TOPIC: Polarization of waves

CONTENT:

i) Polarization

ii) Application of polarization

Polarization

It simply means that confinement of waves in one direction occurs only in

transvers waves.

Plane polarization of light means the fluctuation or liberation are constructed to

vibrate only in one plane, perpendicular to the direction of Light.
 Application Of Plane – Polarized light.

1) Production Of Three - dimensional films.

2) Determination of Concentration of sugar solution.

3) TO study areas of great stress in glass

4) Polarized camera.

5) Sun glasses to reduce the intensity of light.

EVALUATION

i) What is polarization of waves.

ii) State two application of polarization of wave.

ASSIGNMENT: List 4 applications of polarization of light.

WEEK 1O

Revision and Examination

Magnetism & Electromagnetism

Contents

1. 1 PowerPoint Notes
2. 2 Summary
1. 2.1 Properties of magnets
2. 2.2 Magnetic induction
3. 2.3 Magnetic materials:
4. 2.4 Non-magnetic materials
5. 2.5 Electromagnetic induction
1. 2.5.1 Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f
6. 2.6 Methods of demagnetisation
7. 2.7 An experiment to plot the magnetic field of a bar magnet
8. 2.8 Change in the direction of the induced current when a S-pole is inserted into
 the solenoid instead of a N-pole
9. 2.9 Change in the direction of the induced current when a N-pole of the magnet is
withdrawn from the solenoid instead of being inserted into it
10.2.10 Electromagnetic Effects
1. 2.10.1 Generator
11.2.11 Fleming's right hand rule - for generators/dynamo
1. 2.11.1 Factors affecting the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
12.2.12 Pattern of a magnetic field due to a current in a straight wire
13.2.13 Pattern of a magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid
14.2.14 Increasing magnetic field strength by
15.2.15 Fleming's Left Hand Rule - For Motors
16.2.16 Current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect (d.c.
motor)
1. 2.16.1 Summary of Electromagnetism and Motor Effect
2. 2.16.2 Transformer
3. 2.16.3 Bonus: The Earth's Magnetic Field
3. 3 MCQ Questions
4. 4 MCQ Answers
5. 5 Structured Questions - Worked Solutions
6. 6 Additional Notes

PowerPoint Notes

Download the presentation here

magnets

Summary

 A magnetic field is a region of space where a north magnetic monopole

experiences a force.
 The only magnetic materials are iron, steel, nickel, and cobalt. We represent
 magnetic fields by drawing magnetic field lines.

Properties of magnets

- can attract magnetic materials such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel
- has 2 poles: North and South poles
- a freely suspended magnet always points in a fixed direction
- like poles repel and unlike poles attract

Note: repulsion is a sure test of the polarity of a magnet

Magnetic induction

- the process of inducing magnetism in an unmagnetised magnetic material

Magnetic materials:

- iron
- cobalt
- steel
- nickel

Use of magnetic materials

- permanent magnets
    - compasses
    - magnetic door stops
    - loudspeakers
    - electric meters 
- Electromagnets
    - magnetic relays
    - electric bells
    - audio or video tapes

Non-magnetic materials

- glass
- plastic
- wood
- rubber

Electromagnetic induction

An experiment to show that a changing magnetic field can induce an e.m.f. in a

circuit
  When a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the pointer of the galvanometer
deflects momentarily. induced current flows in the solenoid momentarily
 The experiment shows that induced current (or induced e.m.f.) is produced in
the coil due to the changing magnetic field of the magnet
 This process by which induced current is produced is called electromagnetic
induction

 When there is a change in the magnetic flux (field lines) linking a conductor,

an electromotive force is induced between the ends of the conductor. This is
called electromagnetic induction.
 If the conductor forms part of a circuit, the induced e.m.f. produces an
induced current
 The change in the magnetic flux linking the conductor can be caused by

o relative movements between the conductor and the magnet (as shown
above)
o changes in the magnetic strengths surrounding the conductor
 The size of the induced e.m.f. and hence the induced current, obeys
the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction which states that
o the induced e.m.f. in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic lines of force linked to the conductor, or the rate at which
the magnetic lines of force are being cut by the conductor

Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f

Induced e.m.f. increased when

1. the magnet moves at a faster speed in and out of the coil

2. a stronger magnet is used
3. the number of turns in the coil is increased
Making a magnet by electrical method - most efficient method

 a steel bar to be magnetised is placed inside a solenoid

 direct current is passed through the solenoid, it becomes a magnet

- polarity of the magnet determined by

 viewing from one end of the solenoid

o if current flows in an anticlockwise direction, that end will be

the North pole
 viewing from one end of the solenoid
o if current flows in a clockwise direction, that end will be the South
pole
Methods of demagnetisation

 Heating
 Hammering
 Using alternating current - most efficient method

A magnet to be demagnetised is placed inside a solenoid connected to an alternating

current supply. The magnet will be demagnetised when it is slowly removed from
the solenoid with the alternating current flowing in it.

An experiment to plot the magnetic field of a bar magnet

 Place the bar magnet at the centre of a piece of paper with its N-pole facing
North
 Place the compass near the magnet and mark the positions (X and Y) of the
ends of the compass needle. Move the compass until the S-pole end of the
compass needle is exactly at Y.
 Repeat the process of marking the dots. Join the dots to give a plot of the field
lines of the magnetic field.

Change in the direction of the induced current when a S-pole is inserted into the
solenoid instead of a N-pole
When the N-pole of a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the galvanometer deflects.

When the S-pole of a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the galvanometer deflects
in the opposite direction

Note: induced current flows in the opposite direction

Lenz's Law: Direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the change producing it.

Change in the direction of the induced current when a N-pole of the magnet is
withdrawn from the solenoid instead of being inserted into it

When the N-pole of a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the galvanometer deflects.

When the N-pole of a magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid, the galvanometer
deflects in the opposite direction.

Note: induced current flows in the opposite direction.

Note: If the solenoid is moved while the magnet is stationary, there will also be
induced current flowing in the solenoid.
Electromagnetic Effects

Generator

 A device in which a coil is rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity

 The kinetic energy of a rotating coil in a running generator s converted
mainly into electrical energy

DC Generator

Diagram of a d.c. generator

 consists of a rectangular coil of wire connected to a pair of slip rings.

 coil is placed between the N-pole and S-pole of a magnet
 when the coil is rotated, the magnetic field linked with the coil changes and
an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
 the slip rings (or commutator) connect the same carbon brush to the same end
of the coil so that current can flow to an external load.

AC Generator

 As the coil is rotated, the two sides of the coil move up and down in the
magnetic field between the permanent magnets
 The cutting of magnetic lines of force by the two sides produces an induced
current in the coil
 The induced current flows in the direction in accordance with Lenz's Law
 Each time the plane of the coil passes through the vertical, the current in the
coil changes its direction of flow while the commutators change over. These
two changes cancel each other out, so the current will continue to flow in 1
 direction.

Diagram of an a.c. generator

 As the coil is rotated, the two sides of the coil move up and down in the
magnetic field between the permanent magnets
 The cutting of magnetic lines of force by the sides produces in induced
current in the coil
 The induced current flows in the direction in accordance with Lenz's Law
 Each time the plane of the coil passes through the vertical, the current in the
coil changes its direction of flow. So does the direction of flow of the
current in the external circuit.
 The output is therefore an alternating current as shown in the graph
below.

Graphs of a.c. and d.c. outputs against time

  The induced e.m.f. or current of a d.c. or an a.c. generator is increased by
increasing the rate of cutting the magnetic lines of force, by:

o increasing the speed of rotation of the coil

o increasing the number of turns in the coil
o winding the coil on a soft iron core so as to concentrate the magnetic
lines of force through the coil. This increases the strength around the
coil
o using stronger magnets

Fleming's right-hand rule - for generators/dynamo

To determine the direction of induced current in the coil (Generators)

Factors affecting the magnitude of induced e.m.f.

The induced e.m.f. of the ac generator can be increased by

 increasing the speed of rotation of the coil

 increasing the number of turns of the coil
 winding the coil on a soft iron core
 using stronger magnets

Pattern of a magnetic field due to a current in a straight wire

 The magnetic field forms concentric circles around the wire.
 The circles are closer together near the wire than when further away from the
wire
 The direction of field can be determined by using the right-hand grip rule
below.
  When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field forms.
 The field lines form concentric circles around the conductor.
 Right hand grip rule

o Hold a straight wire in your right hand with your thumb pointing in the
direction of conventional current (positive flow).
o Your fingers circle the wire in the direction of the magnetic field.
o The compasses in the following diagram indicate the direction of the
magnetic field near the conductor.
o Use your left hand for electron flow.

The following diagram shows a conductor carrying conventional

current out of the page (toward the observer), and the direction of the field
near the conductor.

Pattern of a magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid

- The magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet

- The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand grip rule
- The other method is by viewing at one end of the solenoid
    - if current flows in anticlockwise direction --> North pole
    - if current flows in clockwise direction --> South pole
Increasing magnetic field strength by

- increasing magnitude of current

- increasing number of turns per unit length of solenoid
- using a soft-iron core within the solenoid

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule - For Motors

 Thumb: Motion/Direction of force

 Forefinger: Direction of magnetic field
 Centre finger: Direction of current

Current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect (d.c. motor)

  The coil is connected to a split-ring commutator
 When current flows through the coil, the force acting on the coil will
turn the coil in a clockwise direction until the coil is in the vertical
position
 There is no current flowing in the vertical position, but due to its
momentum, the coil continues to rotate past the vertical position
 This reverses the direction of current in the coil. Thus, the coil continues to
rotate in a clockwise direction
 The purpose of the split-ring commutator is to reverse the direction of
current in the coil whenever the commutator changes its contact from
one carbon brush to another, this ensures that the coil will rotate in a
fixed direction

Turning effect of the wire coil increased when

1. the number of turns of the coil of wire is increased

2. the current is increased
3. the coil of wire is wound on a soft-iron core

Summary of Electromagnetism and Motor Effect

 If the current is parallel to the external magnetic field the two magnetic fields
are at right angles to each other and cannot interact so no force is produced.
 Size of the force can be increased by:

o Using a larger current

o Using a stronger external field
Transformer

Bonus: The Earth's Magnetic Field

MCQ Questions

1. It can be deduced that a piece of metal is already a magnet if

a. copper wire is attracted to it
b. both ends of a compass needle are attracted to it
c. a magnet is attracted to it
d. one end of a compass needle is repelled by it
e. copper wire is repelled by it
2. Which two materials are most likely to be used for the coil and core of an
electromagnet?
    coil          core
a. copper      air
b. copper      iron
c. copper      steel
d. iron          iron
e. iron          steel

3. Which of the following statements describes an example of induced magnetism?

a. two north poles repel each other, but a north pole attracts a south pole
b. a bar magnet, swinging freely, comes to rest pointing north-south
c. a bar magnet loses its magnetism if it is repeatedly dropped
d. a bar magnet attracts a piece of soft iron
e. it is hard to magnetise steel, but easy to magnetise soft iron

4. A small compass is placed beside a bar magnet.

In which direction will the compass needle point?

5. The diagram shows a sheet X of material used to provide magnetic shielding for a
sensitive meter near a transformer.
Which material is suitable for X?
a. Copper
b. Glass
c. Iron
d. Lead
e. Perspex

6. Which of the following could be used for the needle of a plotting

compass?
a. aluminium
b. brass
c. copper
d. iron
e. steel

7. A direct current I flows upwards in a vertical wire. Which diagram

shows the direction and shape of the magnetic field in the region of the
wire?
(Hint: use right hand grip rule)

8. In which device is a permanent magnet used?

a. electric bell
b. electromagnet
c. plotting compass
d. relay
e. transformer

9. Which of the following is the best way to demagnetise a magnetised steel needle?
a. break it into two pieces
b. makes it red hot and then let it cool
c. leave it next to another strong magnet
d. leave it inside a solenoid carrying direct current
e. slowly pulls it out of a solenoid carrying alternating current

10. Which of the following methods of magnetising a steel rod will produce the
strongest magnet?
a. bringing a permanent magnet near to the rod
b. holding the heated rod in an N-S direction and tapping strongly
c. passing an electric current through the rod
d. placing the rod in a solenoid carrying a large direct current
e. stroking the rod with a permanent magnet

11. A coil of copper wire wrapped around a core could be used as an electromagnet.
Which of the following combinations would produce the strongest electromagnet?
            number of turns          core
a.         few                              soft-iron
b.         few                              steel
c.         many                           copper
d.         many                           soft-iron
e.         many                           steel

12. The diagram shows a beam of electrons about to enter a magnetic field. The
direction of the field is into the page.

What will be the direction of the deflection, if any, as the beam passes through the
field?
a. towards the bottom of the page
b. towards the top of the page
c. into the page
d. out of the page
e. no deflection

(hint: use Fleming's left-hand rule)

13. The diagram shows a piece of iron 3cm long placed near the S-pole of a magnet.

Which diagram best represents the magnetic field pattern?

14. Which of the following proves that a piece of soft iron is
magnetised?
a. a magnet is attracted to it
b. the ends of a compass are attracted to it
c. an aluminium foil is attracted to it
d. one end of a magnet is repelled by it

15. A transformer has half the number of turns on the secondary coil
than that on the primary coil. Which of the following statements about
the output voltage is true?
            Types of voltage        Maximum output voltage  
Frequency
a.            alternating                doubled                                  no change
b.            alternating                halved                                    no change
c.            direct                        doubled                                  halved
d.            direct                        halved                                    doubled

16. There are 1000 turns in the secondary coil of a transformer and
500 turns in the primary coil. What will be the voltage across the
secondary coil if an alternating voltage of 240 V is applied across the
primary coil?
a. 60 V
b. 120 V
c. 480 V
d. 960 V

17. The direct current flows downwards in a vertical wire. Which

diagram shows the direction and shape of magnetic field in the region
of the wire?

18. The diagram shows a coil in a magnetic field.

The coil is part of a d.c. motor which is connected to a d.c. supply. The current, I,
flows in the coil. Which direction will the coil rotate and what must be connected
directly to P and Q of the coil?
           Direction of rotation of coil            Part connected to P and Q
a.                clockwise                                split-ring commutator
b.                clockwise                                split-rings
c.                anticlockwise                          split-ring commutator
d.                anticlockwise                          split-rings

19. The strength of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire depends
on the
a. direction of the current
b. magnitude of the current
c. length of the wire
d. shape of the wire

20. An alternating current flowing through a coil produces a magnetic field having
a. zero strength
b. constant strength but alternating directions
c. constant directions but alternating strengths
d. alternating strengths and directions

21. Fleming's left-hand rule is also known as the

a. ampere rule
b. force rule
c. dynamo rule
d. motor rule

22. The magnetic field pattern produced by a coil carrying a direct current is similar
to the magnetic field pattern of
a. two straight parallel wires carrying direct current in the same direction
b. two straight parallel wires carrying direct current flowing in opposite directions
c. a permanent bar magnet
d. a horseshoe permanent magnet
23. A current-carrying coil in a magnetic field will experience
a. a force of attraction
b. a force of repulsion
c. forces of attraction and repulsion
d. a turning effect

24. When a d.c. motor is connected to an a.c. supply, the coil will
a. rotates faster
b. stop rotating
c. rotates at uniform speeds
d. rotates at different speeds

25. In a d.c. motor, no force is acting on the coil when it is perpendicular to the
magnetic field. This is because
a. no current is flowing through the coil
b. a small current is flowing through the coil
c. a large current is flowing through the coil
d. there is no magnetic field in the vertical position

26. Which one of the following appliances does not use the motor effect?
a. loudspeaker
b. microphone
c. galvanometer
d. ammeter

27. The function of the commutator in a d.c. motor is to

a. decrease the resistance of the coil
b. reverse the direction of the current in the coil
c. increase the strength of the magnetic field
d. increase the magnitude of the current flowing into the motor

28. Magnetic induction produces

a. a magnetic force
b. permanent magnetism
c. temporary magnetism
d. an induced e.m.f.

29. Which one of the following does not change the magnetic flux linking the
conductor?
a. pulling the conductor away from a magnet
b. pushing the conductor and a magnet with the same velocity
c. pushing a magnet towards the conductor
d. pulling a magnet away from the conductor

30. There is no induced current in the coil when the magnet in the coil stops
moving. This is because
a. the magnet loses all its magnetism
b. the magnetic strength in the coil is not changing
c. the magnetic strength in the coil is maximum
d. the magnetic strength in the coil is zero

31. The direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by

a. the induced e.m.f. rule
b. the cockscrew rule
c. Ampere's swimming rule
d. Fleming's right-hand rule

32. The main function of the commutator is to

a. enable the induced current to flow in the same direction through the external
circuit
b. enable the coil to be rotated in the same direction
c. reduce the resistance of the coil
d. enable the induced current to flow in the same direction through the coil

33. Which of the following will not induce an e.m.f. in a coil?

a. moving a bar magnet towards a coil
b. moving a coil away from a bar magnet
c. passing a constant direct current through a coil
d. passing an alternating current through a coil

34. Each of the following changes will increase the output voltage of a simple
generator except
a. increasing the speed of rotation
b. increasing the number of turns in the coil
c. increasing the distance between the two poles of the magnet
d. winding the coil on a soft iron core

35. There are 500 turns and 2000 turns in the primary and secondary coil of a
transformer respectively. If the output voltage is 1000V, how large is the input
voltage?
a. 250V
b. 500V
c. 2000V
d. 4000V

36. A transformer which is 80% efficient gives an output of 12V and 4A. What is
the input power?
a. 13W
b. 38W
c. 60W
d. 154W

37. Which of the following will prove that a metal bar is a permanent magnet?

a. it attracts another magnet

b. it attracts both ends of a compass needle

c. it conducts electricity

d. it repels another magnet

38. Which of the following has no effect on the size of the turning effect on the coil
of an electric motor?

a. size of the current in the coil

b. direction of the current in the coil

c. number of turns in the coil

d. strength of the magnetic field

39. When a magnet was pushed towards a solenoid, the sensitive meter connected to
the solenoid deflected to the right.

When the same magnet was pulled away from the solenoid at the same speed, what
was the deflection on the meter?

a. the same and to the right

b. greater and to the right

c. zero

d. greater but to the left

e. the same but to the left

40. Why is electrical energy usually transmitted at high voltage?

a. the resistance of the transmission cables is as small as possible

b. the transmission cables are safer to handle

c. as little energy as possible is wasted in the transmission cables

d. the transmission system does not require transformers

e. the current in the transmission cables is as large as possible

MCQ Answers

1. d.
2. b
3. d
4. e
5. c
6. e
7. b
8. c
9. e
10. d
11. d
12. a (note: since the electron beam enters from left to right, the direction of current
is from right to left)
13. b
14. d
15. b
16. c
17. b
18. c
19. b
20. d
21. d
22. b
23. d
24. b
25. a
26. b
27. b
28. d
29. b
30. b
31. d
32. a
33. c
34. c
35. a
36. c

37. d

38. b

39. e (Lenz's law)

40. c

Structured Questions - Worked Solutions

1. Two magnets A and B are placed with their poles as shown below.

a. draw arrows to show the directions of the forces exerted on the

north pole of magnet A by each of the poles of magnet B

b. draw arrows to show the directions of the corresponding forces

exerted on the south pole of B by each of the poles of A

c. draw an arrow to show the direction of the resultant force

exerted by magnet B on magnet A. Label the arrow with letter R

d. explain why the resultant force acts in the direction you have
shown in c.

Solution

a.

b. since the like poles are nearer to one another, the repulsive forces are stronger
than the attractive forces. hence the resultant force is a repulsive force.

2a. Explain what is meant by

i. magnetic field
ii. electric field

b. Complete the diagram to show the pattern and direction of the magnetic
field in the space around a bar magnet.

c. The figure below shows the electric field around two small charges.

Describe a simple experiment which could be used to confirm the presence of

the field. 

di. The figure below shows a positively charged sphere S placed near to an
initially uncharged isolated conductor AB. Complete the diagram to show the
charges induced in the conductor.

dii. Complete the diagram below to show the corresponding charges when S is
negatively charged.
diii. Describe the motion of the electrons in AB when the charge on S alternates
from positive to negative several times per second. State one effect this motion
will produce.

Solution

ai. A magnetic field is a region in which a free pole (North) experiences a force

aii. An electric field is a region in which a charge experiences a force.

b.

c. A positively charged body is suspended by an insulating thread near the negative

charge. It is observed to be attracted to the negative charge. This shows that the
body experiences an electric force and that an electric field is present.

di.
dii.

diii. The electrons will move back and forth between the ends of AB at the same
frequency as the charge on S alternates. This changing distribution of electrons
heats up the conductor AB. If AB was freely suspended on a non-conducting thread,
it would oscillate back and forth.

3. A large electric current is passed, in the direction indicated, through the

vertical wire shown below.

Sketch on the card shown the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire
(ignore the magnetic field of the earth). Indicate with an arrow the direction of
the magnetic field at any one point.

How would you check this direction experimentally?

Solution

Place a compass on the card. The direction in which the North end of the compass
needle points indicates the direction of the magnetic field at that point.

4. The diagram shows a coil of wire wound on a soft iron core. A current is
passed through the coil in the direction indicated by the arrows.

a. Mark the N and S poles produced in the iron core.

b. Show by an arrow the direction in which the N end of a compass needle
would point when placed at A.

c. A beam of electrons flow through the point B in a direction that is

perpendicularly downwards into the paper. Show clearly by an arrow labelled
F, the direction of the force exerted by the magnetic field on the electron beam.

Solution

5. The diagram shows a rectangular current-carrying coil mounted on a freely-

pivoted horizontal shaft between the poles of a permanent magnet. The
connections to a battery and the direction of the current in each side of the coil
are shown: the sides of the coil are labelled J, K, L and M.

a. On the diagram, draw arrows to show the directions of forces, if any, acting
on the sides, J, K, L, and M.

b. State what will happen to the coil as a result of these forces acting on it.

Solution

a.

b. The coil will make a half turn in the anticlockwise direction and the sides J and L
interchange in positions. As such, the coil will rotate in the anticlockwise direction
again for the next half turn. Hence the coil rotates alternately in the anticlockwise
direction and then in the clockwise direction for each half turn.

6. The diagram shows a simple a.c. generator

a. Explain 
i. why an e.m.f. is induced in the coil as it rotates
ii. how we know that at the instant shown in the diagram, the slip-ring P is
positive

b. The coil rotates 2.5 times in each second. At this speed, the maximum value
of the induced e.m.f. is 20mV. On graph paper, sketch a graph of e.m.f. against
time for a time interval of 1 s from the instant shown in the diagram.

Solution

ai. When the coil is rotated, the magnetic field linked with the coil changes and an
e.m.f is induced in the coil.

aii. Using Fleming's Right-Hand Rule, the current flows in the anticlockwise
direction in the coil. As the current leaves the coil at slip-ring P, it is thus positive.

b.
7. A power station generates electrical energy at 25 000 V, 12 000 A, the
generator in the power station is connected to the primary coil of an ideal
transformer. The transformer changes the voltage before the electrical energy
is transmitted across the country. The output from the secondary coil of the
transformer is 400 000 V.

a. Explain how a current in the primary coil produces an output voltage in the
secondary coil.

b. Calculate the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the number
of turns in the secondary coil.

c. Calculate the output current from the transformer.

d. State one advantage of using a high voltage for the transmission of electrical
energy.
Solution

a. When the ac passes in the primary coil, the direction of resultant magnetic flux
alternates. This change of flux passing in the secondary coil induces an output
voltage in it.

b. 25 000/400 000 = 1/16

ration = 1: 16

c. 25 000 x 12 000 = 400 000 x I

J = (25 000  x 12 000) / 400 000

current = 750 A

d. The energy loss in the cables is low.

Additional Notes
1. What kind of electricity is caused by friction?

Static Electricity is caused by friction.

2. How are charged particles in matter affected when two objects are rubbed
together?

All matter is made up of tiny particles that have electric charges. Some of these
particles have a positive charge. Other particles have a negative charge. Rubbing
two objects together may cause some of the negative charges to rub off one object.
The charges move to the second object. This gives the second object a greater
negative charge than the first object.

3. How is current electricity produced?

Current electricity is produced when negative charges move along a path.

4. What is a circuit? What are the parts of a circuit?

A circuit is the path along which negative charges move.

There are four parts to a circuit:

(1) There is a source of electricity Example: A battery
(2) There is a path along which charges can move. Example: A wire
(3) There is a switch that opens and closes the circuit. Example: A knife switch 
(4) There is some object that uses the electricity. Example: A light bulb

5. Explain the difference between a complete circuit and an incomplete circuit.

When a switch is closed or turned on, the path of electricity is complete. The
charges move. A circuit whose path is complete is called a complete circuit. When
the switch is open, or turned off, the path is broken. The movement of charges stops.
The path is incomplete. A circuit whose path is incomplete is called an incomplete
circuit.

6. Explain how electricity is produced in a flashlight.

A dry cell battery is the source of electricity in a flashlight.

7. What are the three ways to make electricity?

Electricity can be made from chemical energy in dry cell batteries and wet cell
batteries, and from mechanical energy in generators.

8. How is energy produced in a hydroelectric power plant?

A generator is a machine that uses a magnet to produce electricity. Power plants use
large generators to make electricity for whole towns. Generators have moving parts.
They need a source of energy to move the parts. Generators usually use fossil fuels,
water, wind, or nuclear generated power.

9. What would show the magnetic field of a magnet?

A magnetic field can be seen when iron filings are sprinkled near a magnet. The
iron filings form a pattern of lines. These lines are called lines of force. Lines of
force show where the magnetic field is and what it looks like.

10. Explain the difference between the two poles of a magnet.

The ends of a magnet are called the poles. A magnetic field is strongest at the poles.
A magnet has two poles - a north pole and a south pole. The poles are equal in
strength.

The north pole of one magnet attracts the south pole of another magnet. The south
pole of one magnet attracts the north pole of another magnet. But the north pole of
one magnet repels, or pushes away, the north pole of another magnet. In the same
way, the south pole of one magnet repels the south pole of a second magnet.

11. How are particles in magnetized iron different from those in unmagnetized
iron?

Most magnets are made of iron. The particles that make up iron are like tiny
magnets. In a normal piece of iron, the particles are all mixed up. They point in
different directions. In a magnetized piece of iron, the particles point in the same
direction.

12. How is magnetism used to produce electricity?

Magnetism can be used to produce electricity. This can be done by moving a

magnet through a coil of wire. Electricity is produced as long as the magnet moves
through the coil. A generator produces electricity this way.

13. What are some uses of electromagnets?

Electromagnets are often used in scrap yards to lift metal and move it. Many
electromagnets are strong enough to lift heavy objects, such as cars. Electromagnets
are also used in telephones.

14. In what ways are electricity and magnetism alike?

Electricity and magnetism both produce a force that can pull or push things without
touching them. They both have opposite states: electricity has positive and negative,
and magnetism has north-seeking and south-seeking. In both, opposite states attract
and same states repel.

15. What will happen if you put a compass next to an electromagnet that is
switched on?

The compass needle will turn because an electromagnet produces a magnetic field.
The magnetized compass needle will move to line up with the field lines.