DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Design Speed

• The design speed, is the single most important factor in the design of
horizontal alignment and it depends upon type of road and terrain.
• The design speed expected from a National highway will be much higher than
a village road, and hence the curve geometry will vary significantly.
• A plain terrain can afford to have any geometry, but for the same standard in
a hilly terrain requires substantial cutting and filling implying exorbitant costs
as well as safety concern due to unstable slopes.
• Therefore, the design speed is normally reduced for terrains with steep
slopes.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Alignment

• Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the

efficiency and safety of a highway.
• A poor design will result in lower speeds and resultant reduction in highway
performance in terms of safety and comfort.
• In addition, it may increase the cost of vehicle operations and lower the
highway capacity.
• Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design
aspects such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the
vehicles.
• The horizontal curve design elements include design of super elevation, extra
widening at horizontal curves, design of transition curve, and set back
distance.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

• The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a

reactive force acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it.
• Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the horizontal curve and
is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre
and pavement surface.
• On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to
slide outward from the centre of road curvature.
• For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces acting on a
vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
• The centrifugal force P is given by: P = W v²∕gR
Where, W = weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = radius of the circular curve, m
• v = speed of vehicle, m/sec g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec²
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

Horizontal
curve
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

• P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor.

• The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v²∕gR.
• The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has
two effects:
i) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels
ii) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

i) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about

the outer wheels (Overturning effect)
• The overturning moment due to centrifugal force
P is P*h.
• This is rested by restoring moment due to wt. of
vehicle W = W*b/2h
(where h is height of the center of gravity of the
vehicle above the road surface and b is the width
of the wheel base or the wheel track of the
vehicle).
• The equilibrium condition for overturning will
occur when P*h = W*b/2, or when P/W = b/2h.
• This means that there is danger of overturning
when the centrifugal ratio P/W or v²/gR attains
a values of b/2h.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

ii) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards (Transverse skidding effect)
• The CF developed also has the tendency to push the vehicle outwards in
the transverse direction.
• If the centrifugal force P is greater than the maximum possible transverse
skid resistance due to friction (between the pavement surface and tyre) the
vehicle will start skidding in the transverse direction.
• The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid
resistance is given by:
F = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =f*W
Where,
• FA and FB is the fractional force at tyre A and B,
• RA and RB is the reaction at tyre A and B
• f is the lateral coefficient of friction and W is the
weight of the vehicle.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal Curves

ii) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards (Transverse skidding effect)
• RA + RB is equal to the weight W of the vehicle, as no superelevation has
been provided in this case.
• Since, P= f*W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to f. In other words when
the centrifugal ratio attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral friction
there is a danger of lateral skidding.

• Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the

centrifugal ratio should always be less than b/2h and also ‘f’
• ‘f’ is less than b/2h-

The vehicle would skid and not overturn

• b/2h is lower than ‘f’-

The vehicle would overturn on the outer

side before skidding
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Superelevation

• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of
the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with
respect to the inner edge.
• Thus, providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve,
this transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as Superelevation
or cant or banking.
• The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with
respect to the horizontal width.
• e = NL/ML= tanθ
• e= tanθ =sinθ = E/B (as practically, inclination θ
with the horizontal is very small and tanθ rarely
exceeds 0.07, therefore θ is practically equal to
sinθ.
• e is superelevation rate, E is total superelevation
height, B is width of pavement.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Superelevation
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of Superelevation
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of Superelevation

The force acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R
meters, at speed of v m/sec are:

i. The centrifugal force P = Wv²/gR acting horizontal outwards through the

centre of gravity, CG.

ii. The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downwords through the CG.

iii. The frictional force developed between the wheels and the pavement
counteractions transversely along the pavement surface towards the centre of
the curve
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of Superelevation
• For equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement
we get, P cos θ = W sin θ + FA + FB
• The limiting equilibrium is reached when the full values of the frictional forces
are developed.
= W sin θ + f (RA + RB )
= W sin θ + f (W cos θ + P sin θ)
P (cos θ - f sin θ) = W sin θ + f W cos θ
where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient
of friction, θ is the transverse slope due to superelevation.
• Dividing by W cos θ, we get: P/W (1 - f tan θ) = tan θ + f
P/W = (tan θ + f ) / (1 - f tan θ)
v²/gR = (tan θ + f ) / (1 - f tan θ)
• f is taken as 0.15 and tan θ rarely exceeds 0.07 or 1/15
• f tan θ = 0.01, then value of (1 − f tan θ) = 0.99 ≈ 1
• P/W = (tan θ + f ) = e + f = v²/gR
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of Superelevation
• If the speed of the vehicle is represented as V kmph:
• P/W = (0.278 V²/ 9.8 R = V²/ 127*R = e + f

Three specific cases that can arise from above equation are as follows:
• If f is neglected due to practical reasons i.e. f = 0 then, e = V²/ 127*R
(This will result in very high value of superelevation)

• If e is neglected due to practical reasons i.e. e = 0, then f = V²/ 127*R

(In some types of intersections it is not possible to provide superelevation, there
friction counteracts the centrifugal force fully)
• With e = 0, the allowable speed of vehicle negotiating a turn be restricted to,
f = v²/ g*R = V²/ 127*R
V = (127*f*R) ½

It is possible that at some intersections, a negative superelevation is unavoidable.

 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Maximum Superelevation

• In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less dense
materials like straw or cotton, the centre of gravity of the loaded vehicle will be
relatively high and it will not be safe for such vehicles to move on a road with a
high rate of Superelevation. Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force
will be negligibly small in the case of bullock carts. Hence to avoid the danger of
toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to limit the value of
maximum allowable Superelevation.
• Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of Superelevation in
plain and rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0 %.
• On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation upto 10% .
• On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be necessary to
limit the maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
Minimum Superelevation
• From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross to drain
off the surface water. If the calculated Superelevation is equal to or less than
the camber of the road surface, then the minimum Superelevation to be
provided on horizontal curve may be limited to the camber of the surface.
Horizontal Alignment UNIT-II

Design of Superelevation
• Design of superelevation for mixed traffic is a complex problem, as different
vehicles with different dimensions and varying speeds ply on the road.
• For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the
weight of the vehicle or superelevation.
• For slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is counteracted by
superelevation and coefficient of friction.
• IRC suggests following design procedure:
Step-1: The Superelevation for 75 percent of design speed (v m/sec or V, kmph)
is calculated neglecting the friction
e = (0. 75 v)²/ g R = (0.75*V)²/ 127*R = V²/ 225*R
Step-2: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained
is provided. If the value of ‘e’ as step-1 exceeds 0.07 then provides maximum
Superelevation equal to 0.07 (except on hill roads, not bound by snow where the
max. allowable value is 0.1) and proceed with step- 3 or 4.
Horizontal Alignment UNIT-II

Design of Superelevation
Step-3: Check the coefficient of friction of friction developed for the maximum
value of e = 0.07 at the full value of design speed.
f = (v²/ g*R - 0.07) = (V²/ 127*R - 0.07)
If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15 the Superelevation of 0.07 is safe
for the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in step-4.

Step-4: The allowable speed (va m/sec. or Va Kmph) at the curve is calculated by
considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
superelevation.
e+f = 0.07+0.15 = va²/g*R = Va²/127R
• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed, then
the design is adequate and provides a Superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
• If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed is limited to the
allowed speed Va kmph calculated above and appropriate warning sign and
speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Attainment of superelevation

Split-up into two parts:

a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section

1st Method:
Disadvantages
i) Small length of road between A and C,
cross slope less than camber.
ii) Drainage problem in outer half
2nd Method:
Disadvantages
i) Large negative superelevation on outer half
ii) Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle
along shifted crown
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Attainment of superelevation

b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

1st Method:
Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge and raising the outer edge
each by half the total amount of superelevation)
Advantages
-Earthwork is balanced
-Vertical profile of the C/L remains unchanged
Disadvantages
Drainage problem: depressing the inner edge below the general level
2nd Method:
Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the centre as well as outer edge –
outer edge is raised by the total amount of superelevation)
Advantages
-No drainage problem
Disadvantages
-Additional earth filling
-Centreline of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment of the road is
changed)
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Numerical

Example: 1
The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design speed is 50kmph and
the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop
Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.
Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels
should be equal.
Example-2:
A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480m.
Design the rate of superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer
edges of the pavement be raised with respect to the centre line, if the pavement is
rotated with respect to the centre line.
Example-3:
Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m and
speed 100kmph
Example-4
The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There is horizontal curve of radius 200m
on a certain locality. Calculate the superelevation needed to maintain this speed.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Radius of Horizontal Curve

• The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric
design.
• The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius
of the curve.
• Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation and
coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required
if the design speed is increased in future.
• Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming
maximum superelevation and coefficient of friction.
Rruling = v² / g*(e + f) = V² / 127*(e + f)
• When the min design speed V’ kmph is adopted instead of ruling design speed
V kmph, the absolute min radius of horizontal curve Rmin is :
Rmin = v’² / g*(e + f) = V’ ² / 127*(e + f)
• According to the earlier specifications of the IRC, the ruling minimum radius of
the horizontal curve was calculated from a speed value, 16 kmph higher than
the design speed i,e., (V+16) kmph.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Radius of Horizontal Curve

Example:

• Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of

horizontal curve of a national highway in plane terrain. Assume ruling design
speed and minimum design speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

• On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width.
Widening is needed for the following reasons:
• An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned,
when this vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do
not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is called
off tracking. The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel don’t track
the front wheel known as ‘Off tracking’
• The driver experience difficulties in steering around the curve. This occurs at
higher speeds than the design speeds.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

• The path traced by the wheels of a trailer in case of trailer units, is also likely to
be on either side of the central path of the towing vehicle, depending on the
speed, rigidity of the universal joints and pavement roughness.
• For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the central
path of the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.
• While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological
tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.
• The required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves depends
on the length of the wheel base of the vehicle ‘l’, radius of the curve ‘R’ and the
psychological factors.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of extra widening on curves

It is divided into two parts; Mechanical widening and Psychological widening.

• Mechanical widening (Wm): Widening required to account for the off tracking
due to the rigidity of wheel base.
R1 and R2 are radius of path traversed by the outer rear wheels and front wheel
resp., (6.1 m or 6.0 m if not known)
l = length of wheel base, m
Wm is off-tracking or mechanical widening, m
R = mean radius of the curve.
n = number of traffic lanes
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Analysis of extra widening on curves

Psychological widening (Wps):

• Extra width of the pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such as,
to provide for greater maneuverability of steering at high speed, to allow for the
extra space for overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for
crossing and overturning vehicles on the curves.
• It is more important in pavements with more than one lanes.
• Wps = V / (9.5*R1/2)

Total widening W = Wps+ Wm

 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Method of introducing extra widening

• With transition curve: increase the width at an approximately uniform rate along
the transition curve - the extra width should be continued over the full length of
circular curve.
• Without transition curves: provide two-third widening on tangent and the
remaining one-third on the circular curve beyond the tangent point
• With transition curve: Widening is generally applied equally on both sides of the
carriageway.
• Without transition curve: the entire widening should be done on inner side
• On sharp curves of hill roads: the entire widening should be done on inner side
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Method of introducing extra widening

Example-1

• Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7m on a

horizontal curve of radius 250m if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on
the road is 7.0 m. Design speed is 70 kmph.

Example-2
• Find the total width of two lane road on a horizontal curve for a new National
highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum radius having
ruling design speed of 80 kmph. Assume necessary data as per IRC.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal transition curves

When a non circular curve is introduce between a straight and a circular curve has
a varying radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to
the desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point) for the
gradual introduction of centrifugal force is known as transition curve.

Circular
curve
Straight
curve
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal transition curves

Objectives for providing transition curve

• To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This
increases the comfort of passengers.

• To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security

• To provide gradual introduction of super elevation

• To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.

• To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal transition curves

Types of transition curve

1. Spiral or clothoid
2. Cubic parabola
3. Lemniscate

• All the 3 follows same path upto deflection angle of 4 degree and practically
there is no significant difference upto 9 degree.
• In all these curves, the radius decreases as the length increases.
• But the rate of change and hence rate of centrifugal acceleration is not constant
in the case of lemniscate and cubic parabola, especially at deflection angles
higher than 4 degrees.
• In spiral curves the radius is inversely proportional to the length and the rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration is uniform throughout the length of the curve.
• Thus the spiral fulfills the condition of an ideal transition curve.
 UNIT-II
4. Design of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Horizontal transition curves

IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because it fulfills the requirement of
an ideal transition curve, that is:
• The Spiral curve satisfies the requirement of an ideal transition.
• The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and setting out the
curve in the field is simple and easy.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Calculation of length of transition curves

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfil 3 conditions:

• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually.
• Rate of introduction of super-elevation.
• By empirical formula
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Calculation of length of transition curves

1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually.

• At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration is zero.
At the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value R.
• The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be adopted such that the
design should not cause discomfort to the drivers.
• If c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, it can be written as:

• Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is

where c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration given by an empirical

formula suggested by IRC as below:
Where,
Ls= length of transition curve in ‘m’
C= allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration, m/ sec²
R= Radius of the circular curve in‘m’
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Calculation of length of transition curves

2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation

• Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by
E = eB = e(W +We).
• The rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually with a gradient
of 1 in N over the length of the transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150).
• Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls2 is: Ls2 = Ne(W +We)
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Calculation of length of transition curves

3. By empirical formula
• IRC suggest the length of the transition curve
is minimum for a plain and rolling terrain:

• and for steep and hilly terrain is:

• and the shift s as:

• The length of the transition curve Ls is the

maximum of equations i.e.
Ls = Max : (Ls1 ;Ls2 ;Ls3 )
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Shift of the transition curve

Shift of the transition curve ‘S’

2
S = Ls
24R
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Numerical

Example-1
• Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift using the following data;
✓ Design speed= 65 kmph
✓ Radius of circular curve= 220 m
✓ Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
✓ Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
✓ Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m
Example-2
• A national highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rain fall area has a
horizontal curve of radius 500 m. Design the length of transition curve using the
fallowing data.
✓ Design speed of vehicle= 80 kmph
✓ Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
✓ Pavement rotated about the inner edge of the pavment.
✓ Pavement width excluding extra widening= 7 m.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Set-back distance on horizontal curve

• Where there are sight obstruction like buildings, cut slope or trees on the inner
sides of the curves, either the obstruction should be removed or the alignment
should be changed in order to provide adequate sight distance.
• If it is not possible to provide adequate sight distance on the curves on existing
roads, regulatory sign should be installed to control the traffic suitably.
• Clearance distance or set-back distance is the distance required from the centre
line of a horizontal curve to an obstruct on the inner side of the of the curve to
provide adequate sight distance.
• The setback distance depends on:
1. sight distance (SSD, ISD and OSD),
2. radius of the curve, and
3. length of the curve.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Set-back distance on horizontal curve

 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Set-back distance on horizontal curve

• Case (b) Ls> Lc

• For single lane:
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Numerical

Example-1:
There is a horizontal curve of radius 400 m and length 200 m on this highway.
Compute the set-back distance required from the centre line on the inner side of
the curve so as to provide for Stopping sight distance of 90 m, Safe overtaking
distance of 300 m, Distance between the centre line of the road and the inner lane
is 1.9 m.

Example-2:
A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of radius
equal to the ruling minimum radius for a ruling design speed of 80 kmph. Calculate
the set-back distance required from the centre line on the inner side of the curve so
as to provide for minimum SSD and ISD.
 UNIT-II
Horizontal Alignment

Curve resistance

• The automobiles are steered by turning the

front wheels, but the rear wheels do not turn.
• When a vehicle driven by rear wheels move
on a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation
of rear and front wheels are different and so
there is some losses in the tractive force.
• Thus the loss of tractive force due to turning
of a vehicle on a horizontal curve, which is
termed as curve resistance will be equal to (T-
T cos α) or T (1-cos α) and will depend on
turning angle α
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

• The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.
• The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve and it influence the
vehicle speed, acceleration, sight distance and comfort in vehicle movements at
high speed.
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Gradient

• It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal.
• The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable.
• This is particularly important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is
significant.
• Due to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients the speed of traffic is often
controlled by these heavy vehicles.
• As a result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are increased, but also
capacity of the roads will have to be reduced.
• Further, due to high differential speed between heavy and light vehicles, and
between uphill and downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Gradient

Representation of gradient
• It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal unit).
• Some times the gradient is also expressed as a percentage i.e. n% (n in 100).
• Represented by:
+n % + 1 in X (+ve or Ascending) or -n% - 1 in X (-ve or descending).
• The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the
change of direction and is given by the algebraic difference between the two
grades (+n1 - (-n2)) = n1 + n2. Example: 1 in 30 = 3.33% = 2 degree is a steep
gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% = 1 degree 10 minute is a fatter gradient.
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Types of Gradients (IRC)

• Ruling Gradient
• Limiting Gradient
• Exceptional gradient
• Minimum Gradient

Ruling gradient (design gradient):

It is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design the vertical
profile of road, it depends on
• Type of terrain
• Length of grade
• Speed
• Pulling power of vehicles
• Presence of horizontal curves
• Mixed traffic
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Types of Gradients (IRC)

Limiting Gradient
• Steeper than ruling gradient.
• In hilly roads, it may be frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and
adopt limiting gradient, it depends on Topography and Cost in constructing the
road

Exceptional Gradient:
• Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations.
• They should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a
stretch.

Critical length of the grade:

The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate
without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the grade. A speed of 25
kmph is a reasonable value. This value depends on the size, power, load, initial
speed.
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Types of Gradients (IRC)

Creeper lane
• When the uphill climb is extremely long, it may be desirable to introduce an
additional lane so as to allow slow ascending vehicles to be removed from the
main stream so that the fast moving vehicles are not affected.
• Such a newly introduced lane is called creeper lane.
• There are no hard and fast rules as when to introduce a creeper lane.
• But generally, it can be said that it is desirable to provide a creeper lane when
the speed of the vehicle gets reduced to half the design speed.
• When there is no restrictive sight distance to reduce the speed of the
approaching vehicle, the additional lane may be initiated at some distance uphill
from the beginning of the slope.
• But when the restrictions are responsible for the lowering of speeds, obviously
the lane should be initiated at a point closer to the bottom of the hill.
• Also the creeper lane should end at a point well beyond the hill crest, so that the
slow moving vehicles can return back to the normal lane without any danger.
• In addition, the creeper lane should not end suddenly, but only in a tapered
manner for efficient as well as safer transition of vehicles to the normal lane.
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

Types of Gradients (IRC)

Minimum gradient
• This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
• Camber will take care of the lateral drainage.
• But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope for
smooth flow of water.
• Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends
on the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions.
• A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open
soil drains.
Terrain Ruling gradient Limiting Exceptional
gradient gradient
Plain and Rolling 3.3% (1 in 30) 5% 6.7%
Mountainous terrain 5% (1 in 20) 6% 7%
Steep terrain up 5% (1 in 20) 6% 7%
to 3000m (MSL)
Steep terrain ( >3000m) 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% 8%
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Vertical Alignment

Grade compensation

• At the horizontal curve, due to the turning angle α of the vehicle, the curve
resistance develop is equal to T(1-Cos α).
• When there is a horizontal curve in addition to the gradient, there will be a
increase in resistance to fraction due to both gradient and curve.
• It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance due to grade and the curve
should not exceeded the resistance due to maximum value of the gradient
specified.
• Maximum value generally taken as ruling gradient.
• Thus grade compensation can be defined as the reduction in gradient at the
horizontal curve because of the additional tractive force required due to curve
resistance (T−Tcosα), which is intended to offset the extra tractive force involved
at the curve.
IRC gave the following specification for the grade compensation.
• Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4% because the loss
of tractive force is negligible.
• Grade compensation is (30+R)/R %, where ‘R’ is the radius of the horizontal
curve in meters.
• The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%.
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Vertical Alignment

Vertical Curves

• Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to

introduce vertical curve at the intersection of different grades to smoothen out

the vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving

vehicles.

• Vertical curves are classified into two categories:

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

The deviation angle between the two interacting gradients is equal to the algebraic
difference between them. Of all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum,
when an ascending gradient meets with a descending gradient i.e.
N= n1 – (-n2) = n1 + n2

1. when a positive gradient meets another

positive gradient [fig a].
2. when positive gradient meets a flat
gradient [fig b].
3. when an ascending gradient meets a
descending gradient [fig c].
4. when a descending gradient meets
another descending gradient [fig d]
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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

Type of Summit Curve

• Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results, the common practice
has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves.
• This is primarily because of the ease with it can be laid out as well as allowing a
comfortable transition from one gradient to another.
• Although a circular curve offers equal sight distance at every point on the curve,
for very small deviation angles a circular curve and parabolic curves are almost
congruent.
• Furthermore, the use of parabolic curves were found to give excellent riding
comfort.
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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

Length of Summit Curve

• The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the
length of the curve which is parabolic.
• As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight distance
consideration.
• That is, a driver should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction
on the other side of the road.
• Equation of the parabola is given by y = ax2, where a = N/2L, where N is the
deviation angle and L is the length of the In deriving the length of the curve, two
situations can arise depending
on the uphill and downhill gradients
when the length of the curve is
greater than the sight distance and
the length of the curve is smallerr than
the sight distance.
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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

Length of Summit Curve

• For design of length of summit curves, it is necessary to consider the SSD and
OSD separately.
• It is essential to provide sight distance atleast equal to the stopping distance at all
points on a highway so as to avoid accidents due to inadequate sight distance.

Length of Summit Curve for stopping sight distance (SSD)

Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length
i) When the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance (L > SSD)
ii) When the length of the curve is less than the sight distance (L < SSD)
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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

i) When the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance (L > SSD)
 UNIT-II
Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

i) When the length of the curve is less than the sight distance (L < SSD)
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Vertical Alignment

a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

Two cases in Length of Summit Curve for Safe OSD or ISD

i) When the length of the curve is greater than the OSD/ISD (L > S)
In this case, H and h both are taken as 1.2 m. So, h = H
If value of H is taken as 1.2 m, then

ii) When the length of the curve is less than the OSD/ISD (L < S)
Same eq. 4.31 can be used.
H and h both are taken as 1.2 m. So, h = H
If value of H is taken as 1.2 m, then
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Vertical Alignment

b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

In this case the deviation angle will be maximum, when a descending gradient
meets with an ascending gradient.

1. when a descending gradient meets

another descending gradient [fig a].
2. when a descending gradient meets
a flat gradient [fig b].
3. when a descending gradient meets
an ascending gradient [fig c].
4. when an ascending gradient meets
another ascending gradient [fig d]
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Vertical Alignment

b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

• Design considerations
• There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time, but
visibility is reduced during night.
• In the absence or inadequacy of street light, the only source for visibility is with
the help of headlights.
• Hence valley curves are designed taking into account of headlight distance.
• In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along with the
weight of the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle will be more.
• This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort to the passengers.
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Vertical Alignment

b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

Design considerations
• Thus the most important design factors considered in valley curves are: (1)
impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and (2) availability of
stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for night driving.
• For gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting downwards,
the best shape that could be given for a valley curve is a transition curve.
• Cubic parabola is generally preferred in vertical valley curves.
• During night, under headlight driving condition, SD reduces and availability of
SSD under head light is very important.
• The HLSD should be at least equal to the SSD.
• There is no problem of overtaking sight distance at night since the other vehicles
with headlights could be seen from a considerable distance.
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b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

Length of valley curve

The length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:

1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is

limited to a comfortable level of about 0.6m/sec3.

2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at

any part of the country.

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b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

Length of valley curve for Comfort criteria

Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the minimum radius of the curve, v is
the design speed and t is the time, then c is given as:

For a cubic parabola, the value of R for length Ls is given by: R = L / N. Therefore,
where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the
deviation angle in radians or tangent of the deviation
angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and c is
the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
which may be taken as 0.6m/sec3.
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b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

Length of valley curve for Safety criteria

Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two
conditions:
Case 1 Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)
• The SD available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in the
valley.
• This is because the beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the
bottom of the curve will have minimum radius which is a property of the
transition curve.
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Vertical Alignment

b) Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards

Length of valley curve for Safety criteria

Case 2 Length of valley curve smaller than stopping sight distance (L < S)
• The minimum sight distance is from the beginning of the curve, so the important
points are the beginning of the curve and the bottom most part of the curve.
• If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight beam will reach far
beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the beginning of
the curve, then the headlight beam will hit just outside the curve.
• Therefore, the length of the curve is derived by assuming the vehicle at the
beginning of the curve.
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Vertical Alignment

Numerical
Example-1:
A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradient, +3% and -5%.
Design the length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design speed of 80
kmph. Assume any other data as per IRC.
Example-2:
A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet
on a highway. The SSD and OSD required are 180 and 640 m respectively. But
due to the site conditions the length of the vertical curve has to be restricted to a
maximum value of 500 m if possible. Calculate the length of the summit curve
needed to fulfil the requirements of SSD, OSD or atleast ISD.
Example-3:
A valley is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of
1 in 30. design the length of valley curve to fulfill both comfort condition and head
light distance requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume allowable rate
of change of centrifugal acceleration is 0.6 m/sec3.
Example-4:
An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A
summit curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an OSD of
470 m.