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There are five major types of building investment areas in the civil engineering. They are as
follow:

Residential buildings
Commercial buildings
Community buildings
Agriculture buildings and
Industrial buildings

Among them; residential, commercial and industrial buildings are described.

Residential buildings

Residential buildings are described as the comfortable buildings for people which
provide sleeping accommodation, kitchen (cooking room) for food and toilet for human waste
and for bathing. In the residential buildings, inhabitants may be family, single, a couple,
roommates or even group. Residential buildings must basically have living rooms or space,
sleeping rooms such as bedroom, conveniences such as toilet and bath and cooking area such as
kitchen. In the residential buildings, terraced, semi-detached, detached, single storey or
bungalow, two storey, apartments, condominium buildings, low rise buildings and high rise
buildings are included.

Commercial buildings

Commercial buildings are used for commercial and business operation.

Commercial buildings must basically have reception, and wide space to display the goods,
grocery store or mechanic’s shop located in the building and conveniences such as toilet and
bath. And in the commercial buildings, office buildings, shops, hotels and motels, cinema and
shopping mall are included for essential buildings. And move-in ready condition, fitness facility,
DAS installation, natural lightning and LED certification are needed in the commercial
buildings.

Industrial buildings

Industrial buildings are buildings that are used for industrial activities. The
design of industrial building is needed to wide and high. In the industrial buildings, reception,

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conveniences such as toilet, and wide space to store the material. And warehouse factories and
industry are included in the industrial buildings. But in the industrial buildings, natural light is
needed. In the industrial buildings, warehouse and factory are included.

Economical, functional, performance, sustainable and safety are needed in

functional characteristics for residential, commercial and industrial buildings.

Functional characteristic for residential, commercial and industrial buildings

Economical is important in the buildings or construction. When the design of

the building is created, economical is important. In the economical, cost effective and life cycle
cost are included. When the residential, commercial and industrial buildings are built, the used
materials are needed to cost effective.

If the cheap materials are used in residential, commercial and industrial

buildings, the duration of the building is not too long. So good quality materials should use in the
building. But good quality materials must be economical for the building. Therefore, people can
use the residential, commercial and industrial buildings in the future.

As a second recommendation, functional is also important in the buildings.

And the essential requirement is needed to involve in the residential, commercial and industrial.
For instance: sleeping rooms, and cooking area such as kitchen for food, garage or store room
and conveniences such as toilet and bath rooms are needed in residential buildings. For
commercial buildings, receptions, air condition systems to support the people in the buildings,
toilet, library and health care buildings systems are needed. But in the industrial buildings, high
building to store the materials, and wide space are included.

In the residential, commercial and industrial buildings, move-in ready

condition, fitness facility, HVAC system, DAS installation, natural lightning and LED
certification need to be performance proficient buildings. And the buildings should annually be
maintained or repaired to be durable in the life time of buildings.

In a building, sustainable includes as essential requirement. Sustainable

building refers to both a structure and using of processes that are environmentally responsible

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and resource efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle. And the responsibilities of the buildings
are to be suitable building for environment and unnecessary resources depletion.

Health and safety are also very important. For health, health center, first aid,
welfare facilities, washing facilities, Sanitary conveniences and drinking water are needed in
each building. And water proving materials should use in the wall to reduce the health and
safety. In the building, fire exists or emergency exists must have in the building to avoid the
dangerous conditions such as taking place an earthquake and firing the building.

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To build a sustainable building, the essential requirements are energy

efficiency, water efficiency, indoor air quality and waste managements are required in the
buildings.

Energy efficiency

Natural lights should use in buildings at day time. If the natural lights are used in day
time, electric energy can be reduced for day time. And nowadays in some building and some
place, solar energies are widely used for lighting. Because of solar energies, electrical energies
can reduce for the future. Otherwise automatic electric supply should use in the environment.
The advantages of automatic electric supply can reduce the source of the electrical energies. In
some place, renewable energy systems are used. If solar systems, automatic electric supply,
natural light and renewable energy are not used, the natural energies are run out in the world.

Water efficiency

Some region, water is insufficient. So, people should reduce the amount of used
water. Rain water should be collected. And sensor water is used in some supermarket and some
building to reduce the usage of water. If the water is tidy used, the water insufficient region can
gradually get the water. And after using the water, the used water should be recycled and reused.
And after recycling the water, water should reuse in the environment. If the recycling water
should reuse in the environment, the people can manage the water in the environment.

Indoor air quality

Air ventilation is very important in the buildings. Therefore, a lot of doors and
windows should have in the building. And the room of the buildings should clean. If the
buildings of the rooms are dirty, the air ventilation can disturb the health of human. So, indoor
air quality should control.

Waste management

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Waste management is very important in the buildings. So, waste management is

made in the building. There are three main types in the waste management. They are reuse,
reduce and recycle. Some materials can be reused in the construction such as windows and door.
And these materials can be donated and or sold for use one another project or material. This
method is a form of beneficial reuse. And then, the waste of the building should make recycle
especially water. If the water is made recycle in the building, the rate of using water can reduce
in the environment. Some building-related waste can be minimized. For instance, construction
products can be selected on the basis of its being design and manufacture to be shipped with
minimal packaging.

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Pre design

The pre-design phase may include site analysis, programming, construction

cost analysis, and value engineering.

Site analysis

Site analysis includes site selection, geotechnical reports, and review of

existing structures.

Information collection

There are two types of information collection. They are

• topographic maps
• contacting local people concerned

Generally, a topographic map is used to share information of certain area, it

describes the distances between the points on the surface of the earth and their elevation levels
with the help of contour lines.

If the types of information collection are made, topographic map is included as a

main requirement. And topographic map can be read the soil state of site, site condition and the
satiation of the environment. Therefore, require materials are taken in the site when the
construction site is cleaned. And another way is contacting the local people concerned. If the site
is cleaned, the people who live near the environment should enquire the rate of water getting and
the situation of the construction.

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Site reconnaissance or desk study

Site reconnaissance phase of a site investigation is normally in the form of a

walk over survey of the site. And the purpose of the desk study is to provide an initial overview
of the nature and extent of any geotechnical, environmental or contamination hazards that may
exist. And the desk study can be focused on different aspects including, geological, flood risk,
environmental, geotechnical planning application and pre-purchase assessments. The search
should include the review of historic maps, aerial photographs, register search, consideration of
the geological condition. And the report will identify the potential hazards such as ground
instability, mining activity, landfill etc. The desk study enables conclusions to be draw regarding
the pollution and contamination risks. A desk study and the walkover and reconnaissance survey
are important element in the initial stages of this process.

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The functional characteristics and design criteria for primary and secondary
elements of a building sub-structure and super structure

There are three main methods in sub-structure. These methods are as follows:

(i) Strip foundation

(ii) Raft or mad foundation and
(iii) Pile foundation

Strip foundation

There are many types of foundation in the construction. Among them,

strip foundation is a type of shallow foundation. Strip foundation consists of a continuous strip,
usually of concrete, formed centrally under load bearing walls. Strip foundation are commonly
used as foundations of load-bearing walls. In the strip foundation, the width of foundation
depends on the soil types. If the soil types are rock and Gravel or sand, the width of strip
foundation should be used 250mm-650mm. If the soil types are clay or sandy clay, the width of
the foundation should be used 300mm-850mm. If the soil types are sand, silty sand and clayey
sand, the width of the foundation should be used 400mm-600mm. If the soil types are silt clays
sandy clay and silt or clay, the width of the foundation should be used 450mm-650mm. But the
absolute minimum thickness or depth of strip foundation is about 150mm.

If the strip foundation is used in construction, the foundation of

resistance should think of in the construction. There are many loads in the construction buildings
such as dead load, live load, imposed load and wind load. Strip foundation is suitable for is
suitable for low rise building such as one storeyed building, two storeyed building, detached,
semidetached. The cost of the strip foundation is depending on the form of the building. Mostly,
the cost of strip foundation is suitable for every building. If the building is low rise building, the
duration of the strip foundation may be one week to three weeks last in the construction.

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Raft foundation

Raft foundation is reinforced concrete Slab which founds the entire

supporting member of structure like column, shear wall etc. and A raft foundation, also called a
mat foundation. A raft foundation is often used when the soil is weak. Because it distributes the
weight of the entire area of the building and not over the smaller zones or at individual points.
This reduces the stress on the soil. A raft foundation is also very good for basements. If raft
foundation is constructed, the depth of the soil should excavate 10 feet below ground, and build
concrete walls around the periphery, this makes an excellent basement.

A raft foundation is constructed by first excavating the ground to a

uniform, flat level. Then, a waterproof plastic sheet is laid over the earth, and a thin 3" layer of
plain cement concrete (PCC) is poured just to create a perfectly flat and level base for the
foundation. After this, a waterproofing layer is installed, and then reinforcement steel for the raft
slab is tied in place. After all the steel has been put in place, concrete is poured to the desired
thickness, which is usually in the range of 200mm (8") to 300mm (12") thick for small buildings:
this can be much thicker if heavy loads are to be carried. The raft foundation usually uses in the
high-rise building. Therefore, the duration of the raft or mat foundation is depending on the size
of building. The average duration of the raft or mat foundation is about two months to seven
months. The cost of the raft foundation is suitable for high-rise building. Therefore, raft or mat
foundation should use in high rise building.

Pile foundation

Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender

column or long cylinder made of materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support
the structure and transfer the load at desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction. A pile
foundation is especially used in bridge. There are two types of pile foundation. They are

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(i) Bored pile foundation and

(ii) Driven pile foundation

Bored pile foundation

Installing a bored pile starts with drilling a vertical hole into the soil,
using a bored piling machine. The machine can be outfitted with specially designed drilling
tools, buckets, and grabs to remove the soil and rock. Piles can be drilled to a depth of up to 60
meters and a diameter of up to 2.4 meters. The drilling process may include driving a temporary
steel cylinder, or sleeve, into the soil. This remains in place in the upper portion of the hole until
the pile is poured.

Driven pile foundation

Driven piles (precast piles) are prefabricated elements (timber, steel or

concrete), which are driven into the ground by percussion, pressing or vibration, using proper
machinery. The execution method used for this type of piles is fast and does not depend on local
conditions, presenting good stability in soft soils. However, this type of piles is not suitable for
soils containing hard blocks (rocks).

The pile cost foundation is suitable for bridge and high-rise building.
and the duration of the pile foundation is about 3months to 7months in the construction.
Therefore, pile foundation should be used in bridge and high-rise building.

There are many materials to make the super structure. The main
constituents of super-structure are as follow:

(i) Wall
(ii) Stair
(iii) Roofing
(iv) Flooring

Wall

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There are two types of wall in the construction. They are external
wall and internal wall. In the external wall, traditional cavity, timber frame and lightweight steel
are including. The thickness of the wall should use about 6 and the cladding system is used in
wall. And water proofing materials is used in interior wall. And bricks are used in the exterior
wall to resist the weather resistance, earthquakes resistance. The reasonability of the wall used to
provide insulation of thermal and weather resistance.

Stair and Flooring

The stair usually makes with timber and concrete in the building. when
the stairs are made, the riser of stairs should use 6 and the run of the stair should use 9 to be
comfortable the people. And in the flooring, there are many types. They are linoleum flooring,
wooden flooring, PVC sheet and marble stone flooring etc.

Roofing

There are two methods in the roofing. They are pitch roof
construction methods and flat roof system method. Mostly, pitch roof system is used in the
building. but flat roof system is also used in high-rise building. In the pitch roof systems, cut roof
and truss roof are consisting. The timber is cut on site in cut roof. But in the truss roof, the roof is
prefabricated trusses deliver to site. And to get the good ventilation, truss roof is used in the
building. But in the high-rise building, flat roof is used.

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The techniques used for remediating the site prior to construction commencing
The are many soil contaminations in the site. Therefore, soil remediation
is need to make in the construction site. There are seven methods in the soil remediation. These
methods are as follows:

(i) Thermal desorption

(ii) Stabilization
(iii) Soil disposal
(iv) Soil washing
(v) Soil chemical oxidation
(vi) Bio remediation and
(vii) Encapsulation

Thermal desorption

Thermal desorption is a remediation method used to clean the

contaminated soils. This method uses the heat to vaporize the contaminants, and such as only
works for volatile contaminants. The contaminants soil includes organic waste composed of
hydrocarbons, such as oil refining wastes, creosotes, chlorinated solvents, fuels, PCBs, mixed
wastes, synthetic rubber processing wastes, pesticides and paint wastes. If the soil contamination
is not much, low temperature is used such as 90 ℃ to 320℃ . But if the soil contamination is
high, the high temperature is used such as 320℃ to 560℃ . By applying heat to the contaminates
soils, the wastes with low boiling points are forced to turn a vapor which can be collected or
treated in an off-gas treatment unit. This allows the soil to be used again for other purposes with
any issues of contamination.

Stabilization

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Stabilization is a methods of alternation soil to enhance their physical

properties. The contamination soils are dig or excavated. And the soils are mixed with cleaning
soil and contamination soil. Stabilization methods are mostly used in road construction.

Soil disposal

Soil disposal is the simplest and easiest methods in soil remediation

methods. In the soil disposal, the contamination soils are excavated in the site. Then, the
excavated soils are discarded.

Soil washing

In this method, the contamination soils are mixed with water. Since the
contamination soils are mixed water, some contamination soils can flow with water and some
contamination soils are weak the rate of dirty. Finally, the contamination soils are evaporated
with the heat in the sites.

Soil chemical oxidation

Soil pollutions specialize in the treatment of contaminated soil through

chemical application. The most common form of treatment is chemical oxidation. Other forms of
treatment include the chemical reduction of contaminants and enhanced natural attenuation
where appropriately selected materials are injected to achieve remedial target. Chemox involves
oxidizing contaminants with the purpose of reduction the concentration. The main benefits of
Chemox are that contaminated soil and water can be treated in-situ (in the ground), and in
difficult to access area.

Bioremediation

Bioremediation is typically used to treat contaminated soil with organic

substances, but it can also be used to immobilize inorganic contaminants such as heavy metals,
although this is a developing area. Bioremediation uses microbes (such as bacteria, yeast, and
fungi) to digest toxic organic contaminants, such as oil, producing non-toxic products such as

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water and carbon dioxide. The process of breaking down organic contaminants with
microorganisms is referred to as biodegradation.

Describing the types of substructure works carried out by civil engineering

The types of substructure works are as follows:

(i) Sheet pile

(ii) Coffer dam and
(iii) Culvert

Sheet pile

Sheet pile is the types of retaining walls. The thickness of the sheet pile is
thin but the length and height are big. Sheet pile is also used in digging foundation as a retaining
wall. And sheet pile walls constructed to retain earth water or other filling materials. The sheet
piles are generally used in water font structures (such as in building wharfs, quay and piers),
building diversion dams (such as coffer dam), river bank protection and the retaining the sides of
cuts made in earth. Sheet pile walls have been used to support excavations for below- grade
parking structures, basements, pump houses and foundation.

Coffer dam

A coffer dam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and soil out
of excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built. When the construction take place
below the water level, a coffer dam is built to give workers a dry work environment. In the coffer
dam, sheet piling is driven around the work site, seal concrete is placed into the bottom to
prevent water form seeping in form underneath the sheet pile and the water is pumped out. There
are different types of cofferdam, some are used to support excavation operation and some are
enclosed types of box placed in water.

Culvert

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Culvert is defined as a tunnel structure constructed under roadways

or railway to provide across the drainage or to take electrical or other cables from one site to
another. It is totally enclosed by soil or ground. Pipe culvert, box culvert and arch culvert are the
common types used under roadway and railways. The design of culvert is based on hydraulic,
water surface elevation and roadway high and other constructions. These are used for water flow
in a controlled way. They are made of many materials like concrete, steel, plastic, aluminum and
high-density polyethylene.

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The terminology used in construction technology to commercial buildings construction project

There are many building types in commercial building. They are as follows:

(i) Shopping center

(ii) Bank
(iii) Office
(iv) Hotel
(v) Health center or hospital and
(vi) Restaurant

Among them, Restaurant is described in the construction technology terminology.

Load bearing wall is an active structural element of a build. It supports and

transmits the load of the building. Mostly, the load bearing wall are found in the external wall
of the building. Since the load bearing wall is located in external, concrete blocks, glass wall
and gypsum board are used in the restaurant of the load bearing wall to attract the people.
There are many loads in the construction such as dead load and live load.

And non-load bearing doesn’t help the structure to stand up and holds. And
it also doesn’t support the load of the building. Non load bearing is used for room cover and
interior decoration. And it is built lighter to reduce the dead load of the structure. Non-load
bearing is made with hollow concrete blocks, hollow brick walls and brick walls. Mostly,
non- load bearing is used in interior of the building.

Structural stability of the building is the withstand load of the structure or

building. Most buildings should apply the good quality materials because good quality
materials can resist the load of the structural building. And they can reduce the cracks caused
by movement. In the building expansions, contraction and movement of the ground cause
movement. If the movement cause in the building, cracking can form in the building.

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When the cracking is formed in the building, the building should be rebuilt
and maintained. And if the cracking is the small, these cracking can be neglected. And in the
building, thermal expansion can cause. Most thermal expansions can occur in cold and hot
weather. If the weather is continuously change, the small cracks eventually turn as the large
cracks.

Therefore, expansion joints must have the expansion joints in every

construction building. Weather resistance is the ability of the materials to prevent the
corrosion. Because of weather and moisture resistance, the health of people can worse in the
environments. So, damp proof layer must have in the building and the slope degree of the
roof must have in large degree.

And water proofing membrane should be fixed in the building. Health

Implications of Dampness in Buildings are upper respiratory (nasal and throat) symptoms,
cough, wheeze and asthma symptoms in sensitized persons with asthma. And the building
can improve the corrosion and mold. Therefore, moisture-resistant materials select for
unavoidably wet locations. And liquid water must control.

Aesthetic is a beauty decoration in a building. In the restaurant building,

the decoration must have brightness color to attract the people. If the pale color is used in
wall, the interior materials is used brightness color. And massing and space, balance, pattern,
scale and unity are consisted in aesthetic. In the building, fire resistance is important. So, the
fire resistance materials are used in structural building. In the building, to resist the fire
resistance, good quality materials should use. And the employer should show the
Demonstrate-Fire Extinguisher.

Maintenance of fire protection systems must be had in the building.

Sound insulation is important in the building. If sound insulation is fair in the building,
noises can disturb the people. Double and triple panes windows, thickness board, good
quality laminated glass should use in the building. Therefore, external noise can avoid in the
building.

There are two methods in the building such on site construction and
off-site construction. On site construction refers to the modern methods of construction. And

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in these methods, the material for door and any other construction materials are assembled in
the onsite. Off-site construction also refers to modern methods of construction which has
predominantly been manufactured & assembled in a factory-controlled environment. The
manufacture of off-site are as follows:

(i) panel building systems

(ii) volumetric construction

(iii) hybrid construction using a combination of panel and

volumetric

(iv)sub-assemblies and components incorporated into a building.

In the building or construction, health and safety is also important. Safety

zones must have for the employees to avoid the injuries. Three are many accidents in the
construction. These accidents are fall, electrical accidents and mobile plat etc. The employees
should be given the Personal protective equipment (PPE). And rest facilities need for safe and
health. And drinking water, Sanitary conveniences, washing facilities and first aid must have in
the construction site for employees. The most important case in the site is making the site
boundaries. Therefore, the employees, workers and employers can provide to safe and health in
the construction.

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Analyzing the site conditions impact on the design foundations

There are many sites conditions impact on the design foundations. These
impact on the design foundation are as follows:

(i) Displaced soil effects

(ii) Net versus gross soil pressure
(iii) Erosion problem for structure adjacent of flowing water
(iv) Correction protection
(v) Water table fluctuation
(vi) Foundation in sand and silt deposits
(vii) Seismic force (earthquake) and
(viii) Bearing capacity failure.

Displaced soil effects

When the foundations created, the soil that exists near the foundation can
displace or move in the construction. Because the soil can’t resist the soil effect. Especially in the
driven pile, this method is not an excavation method. In this method, the pile is introduced into
the ground until limited mark. Therefore, the soil that exists near the foundation can displace.
Because the soil is weak or swell up in the foundation. when the driven pile is introduced into the
ground, the rate of displacing soil can large in this weak or swell up soils. This weak or swell up
soils can’t resist the load of foundation. Otherwise, this site effects can disturb the foundation
design in the construction. Therefore, the displaced soil effects should be thought of in the
foundation design.

Net versus gross soil pressure

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In this condition, geotechnical engineers must do the soil experiment. This

experiment must find out the resistance of the soil. And then, the resistance value of the soil must
give to the structural engineers. The duty of the structural engineer is to create the design of the
foundation in details. If the geotechnical engineer gives the miss resistance value of the soil to
the structural engineer, the foundation design can change on the site. And net versus gross soil
pressure problem should face in the site. Therefore, the definite data is need for structural
engineering.

Erosion problems for structural adjacent to flowing water

If the construction is built in the beach, waterside and river bank,

erosion problems can face in this region. And the rate of water influence should notice in the
region. Then the engineers should observe the rate of water influence. And the foundation design
must created depend on the maximum rate of water influence. If the rate of water influence
doesn’t observe, the water can erode the soil of the foundation. And the foundation design can
harm in the construction.

Corrosion protection

Correction protection is very important in the foundation design.

Ground water level can exist on the foundation. And the ground water that exists in the
foundation corrode reinforce that consists on the foundation. Therefore, water proofing material
should set up in the foundation to protect the corrosion. If the correction is faced in the
foundation, the foundation is weak in the construction. The cracking can form and the foundation
can deteriorate. Therefore, corrosion protection should obey in the foundation.

Water table fluctuation

If the water table is low, the effective pressure that exerts in the
foundation is large. The statement can face on the foundation. Water table is high, the foundation
design can sink in the water. And the site effects must face because of water. Therefore, water
table fluctuation should control in the foundation.

Foundation in sand and silt deposits

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The sandy soil and silt soil are weak soil. In this soil, there are many
impacts in the foundation. If the foundation creates in this soil types, the foundation is deeply
made into the ground. Therefore, the foundation can resist the loads and reduce the formation of
cracking.

Seismic force or earthquake

In the construction, seismic force or earthquake is very important.

Earthquake is formed as a horizontal moment. If the foundation is created in earthquake zones,
the frequency and force is observed. Because of earthquake, there are many site effects in the
foundation. Therefore, foundations should maintain in the earthquake zones to avoid the
formation of cracking.

Bearing capacity failure

Bearing capacity is very important in the soil. It is the resistance of the

soil. If the resistance of the soil is weak, the foundation may be failure. Therefore, the foundation
should not create in weak soil. In the building, if the soil is not good the bearing capacity, the soil
that have good bearing capacity should fill in the foundation. So, the resistance of the foundation
is good in the site.

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The buildings are divided into two parts. These two parts are sub-structure and super
structure. The lower part of the building is called sub structure and the upper part of the building
is also called super structure.

Sub structure is a part of foundation in the building. the responsibility of foundation

is to resist load of whole building. foundations are generally divided into two categories: they are
shallow foundation and deep foundation. A tall building must have a strong foundation if is to
stand for a long time. And the foundations transmit the loads of super structure into the
supporting soil.

Every foundation distributes the loads of super structure, to the larger are so that the
intensity of loads at its base does not exceed the bearing capacity of sub-soil. And the foundation
also distributes the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the sub-soil. And
foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be built. And it
anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the super structure.
The stability of the building, against sliding and over turning due to the horizontal forces is
increased due to foundation. And foundation provides the structural safety against undermining
or scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.

The super structure of a building is the part that is entirely above its foundation or
basement. Apart of super structure located between the ground and roof level. There are many
parts in the super structure. They are walls, stair, roof and floor.

Walls

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The purpose of the walls in building are to support the roof, floor and ceilings. And
to enclose a space as part of the building envelope along with a roof to give buildings form.
Walls are usually two types:

1. Load bearing wall and

2. Partition wall.

Load bearing walls are usually built with greater thickness and it can be brick or
stone masonry. They are usually built to take up the loads from slabs or beams. Partition walls
are constructed just for the purpose of partitioning a big space.

Stair

The function of the stair is to provide an access to another floor, safe and easy
means to travel. The stair is an essential constituent in the high-rise building. sound insulation is
very important and necessary for any staircase in order to reduce sound transmission from on
storey to other. Fire safety is also necessary. Because stairs are the principle means of escape to
the outside in case of fires in building. Therefore, staircase should be constructed of materials
that are capable of maintaining stability and strength for period of time.

Roof and Floor

A roof is an essential covering that is placed on the house and building and
even such items as automobiles. And roof provide protection to the structure’s interior and
exterior. The basic purpose of any roof is to provide protection to persons inside a structure from
the elements. Every buildings or constructions need the roof to against the rain, snow, sleet, hail
and high winds. In the roof ventilation is very important. Roof flashing is designed to protect the
exterior walls from water damage. If the roof has vertical wall, flashing also provides protection
in the intersection between the roof and the wall. Therefore, good roof should use in the building.
The most important function of a floor is that throughout its life time, it should safely support the
loads placed on it, together with its own weight.

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Comparing different types of the structural frame used to carry out the primary and
secondary elements of the superstructure
There are nine different types of the frame structure construction in the civil engineering. These
are as follows:
(i) A frame
(ii) Braced frame
(iii) Concrete frame
(iv) Portal frame
(v) Balloon frame
(vi) Skeleton frame
(vii) Space frame
(viii) Steel frame and
(ix) Timber frame.

No Types Design and characteristics Usage Advantages Disadvantages

1. A frame The a-frame is a basic A-frame A-frame structure A-frame structure
structure designed to bear structure building can be buildings don’t
a load in a light building is used constructed have wide space
economical manner. The in raining rapidly. inside the
simplest form of an a- regions or The construction building. there is
frame is two similar sizes snowing region. of an A-frame no architectural
beams, arranged in an house has sense in the A-
angle of 45 degrees or excellent thermal frame building.
less, attached at the top. insulation despite
rather thin walls.

There are many types of The braced The braced frame The braced frame
2. Braced braced frame structure. frame is structure can structure cannot
frame They are single braced, K commonly used control the resist the
braced, X braced and V in structural compression and earthquake
braced. In this methods, subjects to tension effects. effects. Brace

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columns and beams are lateral loads frame structure

including. The function of such as wind can face bulking
the braced frame is to and seismic and bending
control the horizontal pressure. The problems.
moment of the building. member in a
braced frame
are generally
made of
structural steel,
which can work
effectively both
in tension and
compression.
Therefore, it is
used in high-
rise building.
3. Concrete Concrete frame is a Concrete frame Concrete frame Concrete frame
frame traditional method. Main is used in high- has high cannot resist the
beam and secondary beam rise building. compressive tensile force. And
involve in concrete frame such as strength. And this for multi-storied
structure. The main beam supermarket, structure is made building the RCC
transmits the weight of the company, mall by concrete. column section for
secondary beam and and office, etc. Therefore, this is larger than steel
weight of floor to column. structure can section.
And then the column reduce the
transmits the weight of the deflection. And
whole member to the maintenance
foundation. cost of the
structure is low.
Concrete frame
building system is
more durable than
other building
systems.
4. Portal A portal frame is a type of Portal frames The portal frame Portal frames
frame structural frame that is are generally is quick and easy require fire
characterized by beam or used in single to build. The steel protection coating.
rafter supported at either storeyed structural And also require
end by columns. building and elements of portal coating to prevent
The point between the industry. frame can be rust if constructed
column and beam are accurately from steel.
rigid. Which allows the fabricated to tight And external
Bending movement in the tolerances. And coatings have to
beam to be transfer to the portal frames are be maintenance.
column. Portal frames are more cost-
usually made of steel, effective than

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reinforce concrete or other types of

laminated timber. structural frame.
The amount of
many and time
can be saved.
Maintenance is
quick and easy.
5. Balloon The balloon frame Balloon frame Any shape can be If the balloon
frame structure is a timber frame are used in constructed in frame is used, fire
structure, where the studs detached, and balloon frame. protection is
run continuously from the two storeyed And the balloon noticed. And a
sole plate to the rafter building and frame is easily and large number of
plate. The studs are low-rise swiftly by hands. timers are needed.
typically soft pine buildings. And a number of
dimensional lumber. The material and tools
studs are placed 16' on are not need. The
center, OC, to main advantage
accommodate the 4' balloons framing
increasement of the has over platform
sheathing material. Wall framing is the
width could vary increased wind
depending on the project, load strength.
the lumber size would be
one of the
following:2×4s,2×6s,2×8s.
once the framing is
complete the walls are
sheathed.
6. Skeleton Skeleton frame can be The skeleton The skeleton The skeleton
frame constructed timber, frame structure frame has high frame system can
concrete or steel is often used strength and face corrosion.
components. The skeleton high-rise excellent ductility And it can lose the
frame allowed for rapid building. such and seismic strength because
erection of building. as towers. resistance. And it of elevated
withstands the temperature.
extensive
deformation
without failure
even under high
tensile stress.
7. Space Three-dimensional truss Space frame is The space frame is Space frame
frame based on the rigidity if the used in light. And it can structure can be
triangle and composed of performance be carried the load difficult to
linear elements subject concept and car by three- engineering. It is
only to compression or parking area. dimensional not
tension. A space frame action. The straightforward to

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forms very strong and material of the determine how

thick, flexible fabric that space frame is force will
can be used horizontally durable. distribute to
or bent to a variety of throughout
shapes. structure that has a
lot of redundant
pieces
8. Steel Steel frame is similar to The steel frame Larger open area Steel frame can
frame the skeleton frame. Steel is also used in can be made due fatigue in a life
frame is typically high-rise to load bearing time. And
designed, fabricated and in buildings. ability of steel. buckling can face
accordance with standard And the building in the steel frame.
developed by the can build faster
American institute of the with steel. And
steel construction. and steel is versatile.
structural steel is the most It’s also
popular framing materials environmentally
for non-residential friendly. And can
building. save money.

9. Timber Timber frame is a Timber frame The component It is not highly

frame traditional method of structure is also can easily be fireproof, as it is
building with timbers. It is used in single carried by hand. made of wood. It
light and allowed quick storeyed, two The main tool is a is not strong
construction with heavy storeyed and handheld nail gun enough to resist
tool or equipment. residential there are a huge major wind events
buildings. variety of such as tornadoes
products and and hurricanes.
systems tailored to
this type of
construction.

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Economical great design building

In every construction, every owner wants cost-effective building. A building

design is deemed to be cost-effective if it results in benefits equal to those of alternative designs
and has a lower whole life cost, or total cost of ownership. For instance, the heat ventilation and
air condition (HVAC) system alternative that satisfies the cooling and heating requirements of
the building at the minimum whole life cost. The constituents of the whole life cycle cost include
the initial design and construction cost, on-going operations and maintenance, parts replacement,
disposal cost or salvage value, and of course the useful life of the system or building.

And life cycle-cost is very important in economical design building.so, If the

design of the building is created, the method of life cycle cost assessment (LCCA) should use in
the building. But LCCA is not support for budget allocation. If the cost-effective and life cycle
cost is sufficient in economical, the building is useful in environment. And people who stay in
the building can satisfy their building. Besides, this building is suitable for every people. Since
the building is economical, the people can comfortably stay in the building and the cost of the
building is suitable for people.

Functional great design building

The functional great design buildings are needed in every place of the world.
In the functional building, the places must have. Such as libraries, heath centers, sleeping rooms,
toilets etc. And for example, if the residential building is proficiently built with its function, the
people who live in the building can be comfortable. And the mind of people can pleasant because
of these building. since the buildings are functional proficient in the environment, people want to
stay in this building. And if the commercial building is proficiently built with its function. For
example, if a supermarket is proficient with its functions, people want to buy the goods for their
needed. And the is proficient building can attract the mind of people.

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Performance great design building

Performance is very important in the building. so, in every building

move-in ready condition, fitness facility, HVAC system, natural light and LED are need to be
performance proficient in the building. If the building is proficient with is performance, the cost
of building is very pricy for people. Any everyone want to stay or want to buy these building.
and the beauty of the building can attract the environment.

Sustainable and safety great design buildings

Sustainable and safety are very important in the building. In a building,

sustainable includes as essential requirement. A building should construct as a sustainable
building in the environment. And in a building, safety is very important. If the building is
proficient with sustainable, health and safety, the people who live in the building can be suitable.
And this building can be happy the people because of its proficient.

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Construction project name: YOUR-MIN-GYI restaurant construction project Yangon

Aim and objective
There are many good restaurants in Yangon township. Therefore, YOUR-
MIN-GYI restaurant construction project want to constructed in Yangon township. A large
number of high-quality materials are used in this project. And a construction project needs the
materials for super-structure and sub-structure and civil engineering structure.
Introduction
Super-structure and sub-structure are very important. And if the sub- structure
is insufficient in a construction project, the building cannot stable in the environment. And if the
super-structure is insufficient in a construction project, the form of the building is not good
looking in the environment. Therefore, the necessary of sub-structure, super-structure and civil
engineering structure are identify as a report.
Identifying the sub-structure, super-structure and civil engineering structure
At first, the sub-structure of the building is need to construct neat and tidy.
To get a good project construction, suitable super- structure is chosen by the geotechnical
engineering for the building. And if the soil type is not strong, soil is remediated by the various
methods of remediation. And raft or mat foundation is used in the restaurant. Because soil types
of the site are suitable with raft or mat foundation. Since the site is insufficient for car parking
area. Therefore, raft or mad foundation is used in this restaurant. And good quality material is
used to get a great design building. Raft or mat foundation supports all the loads of
superstructure through wall or columns in two or more rows and rests on soil layer or rock. Since
there many live loads in the restaurant, raft or mat foundation is the most suitable for sub-
structure of restaurant.
The main necessary in super-structure column and beam are included. And
walls and stairs also need in the super structure. And windows and doors must have in the super-
structure to get good ventilation and lighting. And then LED certification, HVAC system are
need to fix in the superstructure. Walk ways and reception must have in the super structure.
Since the super structure is the upper part of the building, roof and floor are need. And in the
windows, glasses are used to get the natural light. And roof is neatly arranged or fixed in the
restaurant to get a good ventilation. And floor is covered by the ceramic tile. Because people can
comfortably be walked in this restaurant. External walls are made by concrete. Because concrete
can resist the weather corrosion and fire resistance. Then, internal walls or room cover walls are
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made by the gypsum board or plaster board. And other civil engineering structure are making
swimming pool to decorate the restaurant and garden are crated in this place.

Conclusion
By constructing this construction project, people can be attracted by this
restaurant. Since good quality materials are used, the resistance of the building is great in the
environment. And this building is suitable with the environment. And super-structure decoration
can improve the interest of the people. And raft or mat foundation is suitable with this
construction project. Therefore, this construction project is need to construct in this Yangon
township.

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