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Sand

Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided

rock and mineral particles. Sand has various
compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand
grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt.
Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil
type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-
sized particles by mass.[2]

The composition of sand varies, depending on the local

rock sources and conditions, but the most common
constituent of sand in inland continental settings and
non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, Sand dunes in the Idehan Ubari, Libya
or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

Calcium carbonate is the second most common type of sand, for

example, aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past
500 million years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish.
For example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas
where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years
like the Caribbean. Somewhat more rarely, sand may be composed
of calcium sulfate, such as gypsum and selenite, as is found in
places like White Sands National Park and Salt Plains National
Wildlife Refuge in the U.S.

Sand is a non-renewable resource over human timescales, and

sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand.[3] Desert
sand, although plentiful, is not suitable for concrete. 50 billion Depiction of sands:

tons of beach sand and fossil sand is used each year for glass, dune, quartz

construction.[4] volcanic, biogenic coral, pink coral

volcanic, garnet, olivine.

Samples are from the Gobi Desert,

Estonia, Hawaii and the mainland
Contents United States. (1x1 cm each)[1]

Composition
Sources
Study
Uses
Resources and environmental concerns
Hazards
Manufacture
Case studies
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See also
References
External links

Composition
The exact definition of sand varies. The scientific Unified Soil
Classification System used in engineering and geology
corresponds to US Standard Sieves, and defines sand as particles
with a diameter of between 0.074 and 4.75 millimeters.[5] By
another definition, in terms of particle size as used by geologists,
sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625  mm (or 1⁄16  mm) a
volume of approximately 0.00012 cubic millimetres, to 2  mm, a
volume of approximately 4.2 cubic millimetres, the difference in
volumes being 34,688 measures difference. [6] Any particle falling Heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz
within this range of sizes is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are beach sand (Chennai, India)
between gravel (with particles ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm by
the latter system, and from 4.75 mm up to 75 mm in the former)
and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625  mm down to 0.004  mm).
The size specification between sand and gravel has remained
constant for more than a century, but particle diameters as small
as 0.02  mm were considered sand under the Albert Atterberg
standard in use during the early 20th century. The grains of sand
in Archimedes' The Sand Reckoner written around 240 BCE, were
0.02  mm in diameter. A 1938 specification of the United States
Department of Agriculture was 0.05  mm.[7] A 1953 engineering
standard published by the American Association of State Highway
Sand from Coral Pink Sand Dunes
and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at State Park, Utah. These are grains
0.074  mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. of quartz with a hematite coating
Silt, by comparison, feels like flour.
providing the orange color.

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium, and coarse with ranges
0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States,
sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size:
very fine sand (1⁄16 – 1⁄8 mm diameter), fine sand (1⁄8 mm – 1⁄4 mm),
medium sand (1⁄4 mm – 1⁄2 mm), coarse sand (1⁄2 mm – 1 mm), and
very coarse sand (1  mm – 2  mm). These sizes are based on the
Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D; D being the particle
size in mm. On this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to
+4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers.

The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental Sand from Pismo Beach, California.
settings and non-tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, Components are primarily quartz,
or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its chert, igneous rock, and shell
chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most fragments.
common mineral resistant to weathering.

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The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on

the local rock sources and conditions. The bright white sands
found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings are eroded
limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition
to other organic or organically derived fragmental material,
suggesting that sand formation depends on living organisms,
too.[8] The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Park
in New Mexico are famous for their bright, white color. Arkose is a
sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived
from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby) granitic rock Close up of black volcanic sand
outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite, or from Perissa, Santorini, Greece
gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in color, as are
sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-
glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic lava with a
high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron
impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some
areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, including some small gemstones.

Sources
Rocks erode or weather over a long period of time, mainly by water and wind, and their sediments are
transported downstream. These sediments continue to break apart into smaller pieces until they
become fine grains of sand. The type of rock the sediment originated from and the intensity of the
environment give different compositions of sand. The most common rock to form sand is granite,
where the feldspar minerals dissolve faster than the quartz, causing the rock to break apart into small
pieces. In high energy environments rocks break apart much faster than in more calm settings. In
granite rocks this results in more feldspar minerals in the sand because they don't have as much time
to dissolve away. The term for sand formed by weathering is "epiclastic."[9]

Sand from rivers are collected either from the river itself or its flood plain and accounts for the
majority of the sand used in the construction industry. Because of this, many small rivers have been
depleted, causing environmental concern and economic losses to adjacent land. The rate of sand
mining in such areas greatly outweighs the rate the sand can replenish, making it a non-renewable
resource.[10]

Sand dunes are a consequence of dry conditions or wind deposition. The Sahara Desert is very dry
because of its geographic location and proximity to the equator. It is known for its vast sand dunes,
which exist mainly due to a lack of vegetation and water. Over time, wind blows away fine particles,
such as clay and dead organic matter, leaving only sand and larger rocks. Only 15% of the Sahara is
sand dunes, while 70% is bare rock.[11] The wind is responsible for creating these different
environments and shaping the sand to be round and smooth. These properties make desert sand
unusable for construction.[12]

Beach sand is also formed by erosion. Over thousands of years, rocks are eroded near the shoreline
from the constant motion of waves and the sediments build up. Weathering and river deposition also
accelerate the process of creating a beach, along with marine animals interacting with rocks, such as
eating the algae off of them. Once there is a sufficient amount of sand, the beach acts as a barrier to
keep the land from eroding any further. This sand is ideal for construction as it is angular and of
various sizes.[13]

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Marine sand (or ocean sand) comes from sediments transported into the ocean and the erosion of
ocean rocks. The thickness of the sand layer varies, however it is common to have more sand closer to
land; this type of sand is ideal for construction and is a very valuable commodity. Europe is the main
miners of marine sand, which greatly hurts ecosystems and local fisheries.[10]

Study
The study of individual grains can reveal much historical
information as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain.[14]
Quartz sand that is recently weathered from granite or gneiss
quartz crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp
sand in the building trade where it is preferred for concrete, and
in gardening where it is used as a soil amendment to loosen clay
soils. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will
be rounded, with characteristic abrasion patterns on the grain
surface. Desert sand is typically rounded.
Scanning electron micrograph
People who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles. showing grains of sand
Organisms that thrive in sandy environments are
psammophiles.[15]

Uses
Abrasion: Before sandpaper, wet sand was used as an
abrasive element between rotating devices with elastic surface
and hard materials such as very hard stone (making of stone
vases), or metal (removal of old stain before re-staining
copper cooking pots).
Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as
Pitted sand grains from the Western
watermelons, peaches, and peanuts, and their excellent
Desert, Egypt. Pitting is a
drainage characteristics make them suitable for intensive dairy
consequence of wind transportation.
farming.
Air filtration: Finer sand particles mixed with cloth was
commonly used in certain gas mask filter designs but have largely been replaced by microfibers.
Aquaria: Sand makes a low-cost aquarium base material which some believe is better than gravel
for home use. It is also a necessity for saltwater reef tanks, which emulate environments
composed largely of aragonite sand broken down from coral and shellfish.
Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new reefs.
Artificial islands in the Persian Gulf.
Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms, or deliberate
changes to the shoreline erode the original sand.[16]
Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials for manufacturing
bricks.[17]
Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.
Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction material.
Glass: Sand rich in silica is the principal component in common glasses.
Hydraulic fracturing: A drilling technique for natural gas, which uses rounded silica sand as a
"proppant", a material to hold open cracks that are caused by the hydraulic fracturing process.

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Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (golf courses

would be an example).
Mortar: Sand is mixed with masonry cement or Portland
cement and lime to be used in masonry construction.
Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for
walls and ceilings or non-slip floor surfaces.
Railroads: Engine drivers and rail transit operators use sand to
improve the traction of wheels on the rails.
Recreation: Playing with sand is a favorite beach activity. One
of the most beloved uses of sand is to make sometimes
intricate, sometimes simple structures known as sand castles,
proverbially impermanent. Special play areas for children,
enclosing a significant area of sand and known as sandboxes, Sand grains of yellow building sand.
are common on many public playgrounds, and even at some Microscope Lumam P-8. EPI
single-family homes. Sand dunes are also popular among lighting. The photo of each grain of
climbers, motorcyclists and beach buggy drivers. sand is the result of multifocal
Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy stacking.
or snowy conditions.
Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand.
Makers of animated films use the same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or backlit
glass.
Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry sand and then shape it
into molds into which they pour molten material. This type of sand must be able to withstand high
temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a uniform, small grain size, and be non-
reactive with metals.
Sandbags: These protect against floods and gunfire. The inexpensive bags are easy to transport
when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local sand in emergencies.
Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing.
Silicon: Quartz sand is a raw material for the production of silicon.
Thermal weapon: While not in widespread use anymore, sand used to be heated and poured on
invading troops in the classical and medieval time periods.
Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water. It is also commonly used by many water
treatment facilities, often in the form of rapid sand filters.
Wuḍūʾ: an Islamic ritual wiping of parts of the body.
Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians related to corals and sea
anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength, which they need because
they lack a true skeleton.

Resources and environmental concerns

Only some sands are suitable for the construction industry, for example for making concrete. Grains
of desert sand are rounded by being blown in the wind, and for this reason do not produce solid
concrete, unlike the rough sand from the sea. Because of the growth of population and of cities and
the consequent construction activity there is a huge demand for these special kinds of sand, and
natural sources are running low. In 2012 French director Denis Delestrac made a documentary called
"Sand Wars" about the impact of the lack of construction sand. It shows the ecological and economic
effects of both legal and illegal trade in construction sand.[18][19][20]

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To retrieve the sand, the method of hydraulic dredging is used. This works by pumping the top few
meters of sand out of the water and filling it into a boat, which is then transported back to land for
processing. Unfortunately, all marine life mixed in with the extracted sand is killed and the ecosystem
can continue to suffer for years after the mining is complete. Not only does this affect marine life, but
also the local fishing industries because of the loss of life, and communities living close to the water's
edge. When sand is taken out of the water it increases the risk of landslides, which can lead to loss of
agricultural land and/or damage to dwellings.[21]

Sand's many uses require a significant dredging industry, raising environmental concerns over fish
depletion, landslides, and flooding.[22] Countries such as China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Cambodia
ban sand exports, citing these issues as a major factor.[23] It is estimated that the annual consumption
of sand and gravel is 40 billion tons and sand is a US$70 billion global industry.[24] With increasing
use, more is expected to come from recycling and alternatives to sand.[25]

The global demand for sand in 2017 was 9.55 billion tons as part of a $99.5 billion industry.[26] In
April 2022, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published a report stating that 50
billion tons of sand and gravel were being used every year. The report made 10 recommendations,
including a ban on beach extraction, to avert a crisis, and move toward a circular economy for the two
resources.[27][28]

Hazards
While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting require precautions.
Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to wear respiratory
protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Safety data sheets for silica sand state that
"excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious health concern".[29]

In areas of high pore water pressure, sand and salt water can form quicksand, which is a colloid
hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a considerable barrier to escape for creatures
caught within, who often die from exposure (not from submersion) as a result.

People sometimes dig holes in the sand at beaches for recreational purposes, but if too deep they can
result in serious injury or death in the event of a collapse.[30]

Manufacture
Manufactured sand (M sand) is sand made from rock by artificial processes, usually for construction
purposes in cement or concrete. It differs from river sand by being more angular, and has somewhat
different properties.[31]

Case studies
In Dubai, United Arab Emirates, the use of sand has been very demanding in the construction of
infrastructure and creating new islands. They used up their own reserves and also imported sand
from Australia. There have been three projects to create artificial islands needing more than 835
million tonnes of sand, which cost more than US$26 billion.[32]

See also
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 Earth Sciences portal

Aggregate (geology) – Mass of rock, gravel, Quicksand – Mixture of sand, silt or clay with
sand, soil particles, or of minerals in a rock water, which creates a liquefied soil when
Beach – Area of loose particles at the edge of agitated
the sea or other body of water Red Sand Beach – Kaihalulu Beach, Maui,
Construction aggregate – Coarse to fine grain Hawaii, US
rock materials used in concrete Revolving rivers
Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park – State Sand Beach, disambiguation
park in Utah, US Sand island – Island that is largely made of
Desert sand (color) sand
Dry quicksand Sand mining – Practice that is used to extract
Energetically modified cement – Class of sand
cements, mechanically processed to Sand rat – Genus of rodents
transform reactivity (EMC) Sandstone – Type of sedimentary rock
Heavy mineral sands ore deposits – Ore Sandstorm – Meteorological phenomenon
deposits of rare earth metals common in arid and semi-arid regions
Oil sands – Type of unconventional oil deposit Sand theft – Unauthorized and/or illegal
Papakolea Beach – Green sand beach in Kaʻū mining of sand
district, Hawai'i, US Singing sand – A phenomenon of sand that
Particle size – Notion produces sound
Punaluʻu Beach – Black Sand Beach, Big White Sands National Park
Island, Hawaii, US

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O.S.E.; Liu, Jianguo; Jaeger, Jochen A.G.; Winter, Marten; Lambin, Eric F. (May 2021).
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r.2021.04.011). One Earth. 4 (5): 639–650. Bibcode:2021OEart...4..639T (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
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become-big-sand-exporter-study-idUSKCN1Q01YG). reuters.com. Archived (https://web.archive.o
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August 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
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March 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Simplot (13 March 2011). Retrieved on 24 November 2011.
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7/2/22, 9:56 PM Sand - Wikipedia

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PMC5456819). Materials. 9 (6): 440. Bibcode:2016Mate....9..440P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
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e:75919). Environmental Development. 11: 208–218. doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2014.04.001 (https://d
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External links
Beach Sand: What It Is, Where It Comes From and How It Gets Here (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20091201183346/http://www.beaufortcountylibrary.org/htdocs-sirsi/beachsan.htm) - Beaufort
County Library
Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Sand"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_R
eference_Work/Sand). The New Student's Reference Work  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_N
ew_Student%27s_Reference_Work). Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.

Sand mining side-effects

The World Is Running Out Of Sand (https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/05/29/the-world-i

s-running-out-of-sand) - New York Times
Sand Mining In India Rivers Causing Problems (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/magazine/s
and-mining-india-how-to-steal-a-river.html) - New York Times
How Demand For Sand Is Killing Rivers In Africa (https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-4112328
4) - BBC
Dubai Imports Sand (http://www.bbc.com/capital/story/20160502-even-desert-city-dubai-imports-it
s-sand-this-is-why) - BBC
Sand crisis looms as world population surges, U.N. warns (https://www.reuters.com/business/envi
ronment/sand-crisis-looms-world-population-surges-un-warns-2022-04-26/) - Reuters

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