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Construction aggregate
Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad
category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used
in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the
most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of
composite materials such as concrete and asphalt; the aggregate
serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite
material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as
compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage
applications such as foundation and French drains, septic drain A limestone quarry.
fields, retaining wall drains, and roadside edge drains. Aggregates
are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and
railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable
foundation or road/rail base with predictable, uniform properties
(e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or
building), or as a low-cost extender that binds with more
expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. Although most
kinds of aggregate require a form of binding agent, there are types
of self-binding aggregate which do not require any form of
binding agent.[1]

Preferred for road construction are given in EN 13043 as d/D 10 mm graded crushed basalt rock
(where the range shows the smallest and largest square mesh or aggregate, for use in concrete,
grating that the particles can pass). The same classification sizing called "blue metal" in Australia.
is used for larger armour stone sizes in EN 13383, EN 12620 for
concrete aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers of road construction
and EN 13450 for railway ballast.

The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an

exhaustive listing of specifications including ASTM D 692 and
ASTM D 1073 for various construction aggregate products, which,
by their individual design, are suitable for specific construction
purposes. These products include specific types of coarse and fine
aggregate designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and
concrete mixes, as well as other construction uses. State
transportation departments further refine aggregate material 20 mm graded aggregate.
specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and
available supply in their particular locations.

Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: mining of mineral aggregate
deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the manufacture of iron and steel;
and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition,
there are some (minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay, pumice,
perlite, and vermiculite.

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Contents
History
Modern production
Recycled materials for aggregates
Recycled aggregate production in the UK
See also
References
A gravel and sand extraction facility
Citations
in Međimurje County, Croatia.
Sources

History
People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of years. Significant refinement of the
production and use of aggregate occurred during the Roman Empire, which used aggregate to build
its vast network of roads and aqueducts. The invention of concrete, which was essential to
architecture utilizing arches, created an immediate, permanent demand for construction aggregates.

Vitruvius writes in De architectura:

Economy denotes the proper management of materials and of site, as well as a thrifty
balancing of cost and common sense in the construction of works. This will be observed if,
in the first place, the architect does not demand things which cannot be found or made
ready without great expense. For example: it is not everywhere that there is plenty of pit-
sand, rubble, fir, clear fir, and marble... Where there is no pit sand, we must use the kinds
washed up by rivers or by the sea... and other problems we must solve in similar ways.

Modern production
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which are now used
throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality exist. In many
places, good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock deposits do not exist. In these
areas, natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither stone, nor sand and
gravel, are available, construction demand is usually satisfied by shipping in aggregate by rail, barge
or truck. Additionally, demand for aggregates can be partially satisfied through the use of slag and
recycled concrete. However, the available tonnages and lesser quality of these materials prevent them
from being a viable replacement for mined aggregates on a large scale.

Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all population centers due to
the high cost of transportation relative to the low value of the product. Trucking aggregate more than
40 kilometers is typically uneconomical.[3] These are capital-intensive operations, utilizing large
earth-moving equipment, belt conveyors, and machines specifically designed for crushing and
separating various sizes of aggregate, to create distinct product stockpiles.

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According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. crushed stone production was

1.72 billion tonnes valued at $13.8 billion (compared to 1.69
billion tonnes valued at $12.1 billion in 2005), of which limestone
was 1,080 million tonnes valued at $8.19 billion from 1,896
quarries, granite was 268 million tonnes valued at $2.59 billion
from 378 quarries, traprock was 148 million tonnes valued at
$1.04 billion from 355 quarries, and the balance other kinds of
stone from 729 quarries. Limestone and granite are also produced
in large amounts as dimension stone. The great majority of
Over 1 million tons annually are crushed stone is moved by heavy truck from the quarry/plant to
mined from this quarry near San the first point of sale or use. According to the USGS, 2006 U.S.
Francisco.[2] sand and gravel production was 1.32 billion tonnes valued at
$8.54 billion (compared to 1.27 billion tonnes valued at $7.46
billion in 2005), of which 264 million tonnes valued at $1.92
billion was used as concrete aggregates. The great majority of this was again moved by truck, instead
of by electric train.

Currently, total U.S. aggregate demand by final market sector was 30%–35% for non-residential
building (offices, hotels, stores, manufacturing plants, government and institutional buildings, and
others), 25% for highways, and 25% for housing.[4]

Recycled materials for aggregates

The largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast furnace and steel
furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled (slow cooling in the open) or granulated (formed
by quenching molten slag in water to form sand-sized glass-like particles). If the granulated blast
furnace slag accesses free lime during hydration, it develops strong hydraulic cementitious properties
and can partly substitute for portland cement in concrete. Steel furnace slag is also air-cooled. In
2006, according to the USGS, air-cooled blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 7.3 million
tonnes valued at $49 million, granulated blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.2 million
tonnes valued at $318 million, and steel furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 8.7 million tonnes
valued at $40 million. Air-cooled blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and
surfaces (41%), asphaltic concrete (13%), ready-mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses.
Granulated blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in cementitious materials (94%), and the
balance for other uses. Steel furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (51%),
asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill (18%), and the balance for other uses.

Glass aggregate, a mix of colors crushed to a small size, is substituted for many construction and
utility projects in place of pea gravel or crushed rock, often saving municipalities like the City of
Tumwater, Washington Public Works, thousands of dollars (depending on the size of the project).
Glass aggregate is not sharp to handle. In many cases, the state Department of Transportation has
specifications for use, size and percentage of quantity for use. Common applications are as pipe
bedding—placed around sewer, storm water or drinking water pipes to transfer weight from the
surface and protect the pipe. Another common use would be as fill to bring the level of a concrete floor
even with a foundation. Use of glass aggregate helps close the loop in glass recycling in many places
where glass cannot be smelted into new glass.[5]

Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Unlike deposits of sand and gravel or stone
suitable for crushing into aggregate, which can be anywhere and may require overburden removal
and/or blasting, "deposits" of recyclable aggregate tend to be concentrated near urban areas, and

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production from them cannot be raised or lowered to meet demand for aggregates. Supply of recycled
aggregate depends on physical decay of structures and their demolition. The recycling plant can be
fixed or mobile; the smaller capacity mobile plant works best for asphalt-aggregate recycling. The
material being recycled is usually highly variable in quality and properties.

Many aggregate products of various types are recycled for other industrial purposes with economic
and environmental benefits to the local and surrounding area. Contractors save on disposal costs and
less aggregate is buried or piled and abandoned. In Bay City, Michigan, for example, a recycle
program exists for unused products such as mixed concrete, block, brick, gravel, pea stone, and other
used materials. The material is crushed to provide subbase for roads and driveways, among other
purposes.

According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete (including aggregate)
worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt concrete (including aggregate)
worth $11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone operations. Much more of both materials are
recycled by construction and demolition firms not in the USGS survey. For sand and gravel, the USGS
survey for 2006 showed that 4.7 million tonnes of cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was
recycled, and 6.17 million tonnes of asphalt concrete valued at $45.1 million was recycled. Again,
more of both materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey.
The Construction Materials Recycling Association indicates that there are 325 million tonnes of
recoverable construction and demolition materials produced annually.

Many geosynthetic aggregates are also made from recycled materials. Being polymer based, recyclable
plastics can be reused in the production of these new age aggregates. For example, Ring Industrial
Group's EZflow[6] product lines are produced with geosynthetic aggregate pieces that are more than
99.9% recycled polystyrene. This polystyrene, that would have otherwise been destined for a landfill,
is instead gathered, melted, mixed, reformulated and expanded to create low density aggregates that
maintain high strength properties while under compressive loads. Such geosynthetic aggregates
replace conventional gravel while simultaneously increasing porosity, increasing hydraulic
conductivity and eliminating the fine dust "fines" inherent to gravel aggregates which otherwise serve
to clog and disrupt the operation of many drainage applications.

Recycled aggregate production in the UK

Recycled aggregate in the UK is defined as aggregate resulting from the processing of inorganic
material previously used in construction. To ensure the aggregate is inert, it is manufactured from
material tested and characterised under European Waste Codes.[7]

In 2008, 210 million tonnes of aggregate were produced in the UK of which 67 million tonnes was
recycled product, according to the Quarry Products Association.[8] The Waste and Resource Action
Programme[9] has produced a Quality Protocol for the regulated production of recycled aggregates.[10]
The recycled aggregate is delivered with documentation that states it has been produced using a
quality assured system for the manufacturing process to ensure an aggregate that conforms to the
relevant European standards.[11]

See also
Aggregate (composite), Aggregate base
Aggregate industry in the United States
Alkali-aggregate reaction
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Alkali–silica reaction
Concrete
Crushed stone
Dimension stone – stone recycling and reuse
Hoggin
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)
Marble
Pozzolanic reaction
Road metal
Saturated-surface-dry
Tumble finishing

References

Citations
1. "What Is Self Binding Gravel? | NatraTex Surfacing Solutions" (https://www.natratex.co.uk/knowle
dgehub/what-is-self-binding-gravel/). NatraTex. Retrieved 2022-03-30.
2. Robinson, Roberta (June 2001). "Who's Minding the San Rafael Rock Quarry?" (http://www.marin
county.org/~/media/files/departments/gj/reports-responses/2000/srrqrept.pdf) (PDF). Marin
County Civil Grand Jury. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170120054540/http://www.mari
ncounty.org/~/media/files/departments/gj/reports-responses/2000/srrqrept.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2017-01-20. Retrieved 2008-01-03.
3. Bridge, Tyee (13 September 2017). "Sand? Mine!" (https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/san
d-mine). Hakai Magazine. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170923050838/https://www.ha
kaimagazine.com/features/sand-mine) from the original on 23 September 2017. Retrieved
22 September 2017.
4. Nelson, T.I.; W.P. Bolen (June 2008). "Construction Aggregates". Mining Engineering. 60: 25–26.
5. "Concrete with Waste Glass as Aggregate" (http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/meye
r_egosi_paper.pdf) (PDF). ASCE. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120330202428/http://w
ww.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/meyer_egosi_paper.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2012-
03-30. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
6. "EZflow by Infiltrator Systems" (http://www.ezflowlp.com/). Ezflowlp.com. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20090306230755/http://www.ezflowlp.com/) from the original on 2009-03-06.
Retrieved 2009-06-08.
7. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110726130702/http://www.grdp.org/static/docume
nts/EWC_31-03-09_CH.pdf) (PDF). www.grdp.org. Archived from the original (http://www.grdp.or
g/static/documents/EWC_31-03-09_CH.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
8. "MPA – Mineral Products Association – Products" (http://www.qpa.org/prod_agg_recy01.htm).
qpa.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090505031332/http://www.qpa.org/prod_agg_re
cy01.htm) from the original on 2009-05-05. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
9. "Construction Sector Waste & Resources Action Programme" (http://www.wrap.org.uk/constructio
n/). WRAP. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090417163329/http://www.wrap.org.uk/constr
uction/) from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
10. "Quality Protocol for Aggregates" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090417185313/http://www.aggre
gain.org.uk/quality/quality_protocols/). Aggregain.org.uk. Archived from the original (http://www.ag
gregain.org.uk/quality/quality_protocols/) on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
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11. "European Standards" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090106160154/http://www.aggregain.org.u

k/quality/aggregates_standards/european.html). Aggregain.org.uk. 2004-06-01. Archived from the
original (http://www.aggregain.org.uk/quality/aggregates_standards/european.html) on 2009-01-
06. Retrieved 2009-06-08.

Sources
UEPG – The European Aggregates Association (http://www.uepg.eu)
Samscreen International (http://www.samscreen.com)
The National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association (http://www.nssga.org)
Pit and Quarry University/ (https://www.pitandquarry.com/pit-and-quarry-university/)
"Rock to Road" (Industry publication - Canada) (https://www.rocktoroad.com/)
The American Society for Testing Materials (http://www.astm.org)
Gravel Watch Ontario (http://gravelwatch.org)
Oregon Concrete & Aggregate Producers Association (http://ocapa.net)
Portland Cement Association (https://web.archive.org/web/20070829062229/http://www.cement.or
g/)
Pavement Interactive article on Aggregates (http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Aggre
gate)
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