CHAPTER ONE

The Special Theory of Relativity

INTRODUCTION
Frequent terms you will encounter in this chapter:
Event: It may be the striking of a tree by a lightning bolt or the collision of two
particles, and happens at a point and at an instant in time.
Coordinates: The particular event is specified by an observer by assigning to it four
coordinates; the three position coordinates x, y, z that measure the distance from the
origin of a coordinate system where the observer is located, and the time coordinate t
that the observer records with his clock.

 Our everyday experiences and observations involve objects that move at speeds
much less than the speed of light.

 It is possible to accelerate an electron to a speed of 0.99c (where c is the speed of

light) by using a potential difference of several million volts.
According to Newtonian mechanics, if the potential difference is increased by a
factor of 4, the electron‘s kinetic energy is four times greater and its speed should
double to 1.98c. [i.e work(qV)=KE( mv2)]

 Experiments show, however, that the speed of the electron-as well as the speed of
any other object in the Universe-always remains less than the speed of light,
regardless of the size of the accelerating voltage. Because it places no upper limit
on speed, Newtonian mechanics is contrary to modern experimental results and is
clearly a limited theory.

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1.1 Inertial Frames and Galilean Transformation

Definition: An inertial frame of reference is one in which an object is observed to have

no acceleration when no forces act on it. Furthermore, any frame moving with constant
velocity with respect to an inertial frame must also be an inertial frame.
 Under Galilean relativity, measurements are transformed simply by adding or
subtracting the velocity difference between frames:

Consider two inertial frames S and S‘ (Figure below). The S‘ frame moves with a
constant velocity ⃗ along the common x and x‘ axes, where ⃗⃗⃗ is measured relative
to S.
We assume the origins of S and S‘ coincide at t = 0 and an event occurs at point P
in space at some instant of time

Event – Galilean transformation

Laws of mechanics invariant under Galilean transformation

CLOCKS SYNCHRONIZED
AT t=0 (t=t’=0) AND ORIGINS COINCIDE
CLOCKS SYNCHRONIZED
AT t=0 (t=t’=0) AND ORIGINS COINCIDE

Figure 1) An event occurs at a point P. The event is seen by two observers in inertial frames S
and S‘, where S‘ moves with a velocity ⃗⃗⃗ relative to S.

As we see from the geometry in Figure, the relationships among these various
coordinates can be written:

These equations are the Galilean space–time transformation equations.

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 Example:

 vball(measured on ground)= vtrain (measured on ground)+vball(measured on train)

12 m/s = 10m/s + 2 m/s
 Vball(measured on train)=vground(measured on train)+ vball(measured on ground)

2m/s = 10m/s + 12 m/s

1.2 Special Relativity: The Two Postulates

 Theory of relativity : Given two observers A and B moving at a constant velocity

with respect to one another, it is not possible by any experiment whatsoever to
determine which of the observers is ‗at rest‘ or which is ‗in motion‘. This leads as
to a consequence ―lack of a universal frame of reference‖.
 Special theory of relativity: treats problems that involve inertial frame of
reference.
 Albert Einstein in 1905 ,Threw away the idea of Galilean Relativity and came up
with the two ―Postulates of Relativity‖

Postulates of special relativity

1. All the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference.
2. The speed of light is 3 x 108 m/s independent of the motion of its source.

 The first postulate asserts that all the laws of physics—those dealing with
mechanics, electricity and magnetism, optics, thermodynamics, and so on- are the
Same in all reference frames moving with constant velocity relative to one
another.
 The speed of light in vacuum has the same value, c=300000000 m/s, in all
inertial reference frames, regardless of the velocity of the observer or the velocity
of the source emitting the light.

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1.3 The Lorentz Transformation

 The observer in S (let us say me) reports the events with space–time coordinates (x, y,
z, t), and the observer in S‘ (you) reports the same events using the coordinates (x ‗, y
‗, z ‗, t ‗) which is moving to the right at velocity v.
 It is assumed that when you, sitting at x‘= 0 passed me (sitting at x = 0), we set our
clocks to zero: t = t‘ = 0. Thus our origins in space-time coincide.
 We have seen how the coordinates related in pre-Einstein days in section 1.1.
If the velocity of light is to be same for both you and me, it is clear we do not agree
on lengths or times or both. Thus if I predict you will say the event is at x‘ = x − vt,
you will say that my lengths need to be modified by a factor so that the correct
answer is
x‘ = (x − vt) (1.1)
Likewise when you predict I will say x = x‘ + vt‘, I will say ‖No‖ your lengths are off,
so the correct result is
x = (x‘ + vt‘) (1.2)
Next, the ―fudge factor‖ for converting your lengths to mine and mine to yours is the
same . This comes from the 1st postulate that both observers are equivalent.
Suppose when our origins coincided we sent off a light pulse that this pulse set off the
firecracker. Since the light pulse took t seconds to travel x meters according to me and
took t‘ seconds to go x‘ meters according to you and we both agree on the value of
c, it must be true for this particular event that
x = ct and x‘ = ct‘ (1.3)
Let us multiply the LHS of Eqn 1.1 by the LHS of 1.2 and equate the result to the
product of the RHS‘s to get
xx‘ = 2(xx‘ + xvt‘ – x‘vt − v2tt‘) and upon setting x = ct, x‘ = ct‘ (Eqn 1.3) we
get:
c2tt‘ = 2 (c2tt‘ + vctt‘ – vct‘t − v2tt‘) and now upon cancelling tt‘

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 (1.4)
√

 Using his own postulates, and

nothing else, Einstein imagines an
experiment with light rays, and
demonstrates that Special
Relativity gives a different
answer:
(1.5)
 The equations that are valid for
all speeds and that enable us to
transform coordinates from S to S‘
are the Lorentz transformation
equations:
1.4 Length Contraction and Time Dilation
1.4.1 Length contraction
 The first of the interesting consequences of the Lorentz Transformation is that length
no longer has an absolute meaning: the length of an object depends on its motion
relative to the frame of reference in which its length is being measured.

Figure 2: A rod of length at rest in reference frame S‘ which is moving with a velocity vx with
respect to another frame S

The length of the rod, as measured in S‘ is then;

l0 = x2‘ − x1‘ (1.6)
where l0 is known as the proper length of the rod i.e. l0 is its length as measured in a
frame of reference in which the rod is stationary.
Now suppose that we want to measure the length of the rod as measured with
respect to S.

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 Turning now to the Lorentz Transformation equations, we see that we must have

(1.7)

We then define the length of the rod as measured in the frame of reference S to be
l = x2 − x1 (1.8)

where the important point to be re-emphasized is that this length is defined in terms of
the positions of the ends of the rods as measured at the same time t in S .
Using Eqns 1.7 and 1.8, we find:
(1.9)

which gives for l

√ ( ) (1.10)
But for vx < c
√ ( ) (1.11)
so that
(1.12)

Thus the length of the rod as measured in the frame of reference S with respect to
which the rod is moving is shorter than the length as measured from a frame of
reference S‘ relative to which the rod is stationary.
A rod will be observed to have its maximum length when it is stationary in a frame of
reference. This phenomenon is known as the Length contraction.

Example: A meterstick makes an angle of 300 with respect to the x‘-axis of S‘. (a)What
must be the value of v if the meter stick makes an angle of 450 with respect to the x-
axis of S (b) What is the length of meter stick as measured by S ?
The meter stick is at rest with respect to S‘ axis. So the proper length is found in this
frame.
Soln we have:
(a)

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Since there will be a length contraction only in x-x‘ direction,
√ ( ) √ ( )
Since
=1=
√ ( )
Solving, v = 0.816c
(b) Using Pythagorean theorem
√ or so L = 0.707 m

1.4.2 Time dilation

 Perhaps the most unexpected consequence of the Lorentz transformation is the way
in which our ‗commonsense‘ concept of time has to be drastically modified.
 Consider a clock C‘ placed at rest in a frame of reference S‘ at some point x‘ on the X
axis.
 Suppose once again that this frame is moving with a velocity vx relative to some other
frame of reference S. At a time t‘ registered by clock C‘ there will be a clock C1 in the
S frame of reference passing the position of C‘:

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 Figure 3: Clock C‘ stationary in S‘ reads t‘1 when it passes clock C1 stationary in S, at which
instant it reads t1.
 The time registered by C1 will then be given by the Lorentz Transformation as

 And some later time 1.13

 Thus, from Eq 1.13 we have

or 1.14
Where is the time interval measured by an observer at rest with respect to the clock
 Once again, since
1.15
√
 we have
1.16

 Thus the time interval between ‗ticks‘ is longer, as measured by the clocks in S, than what
it is measured to be in S ‗. In other words, from the point of view of the frame of
reference S, the clock (and all the clocks in S‘) are running slow. It appears from S that
time is passing more slowly in S‗ than it is in S .
 This is the phenomenon of time dilation.
A clock will be observed to run at its fastest when it is stationary in a frame of
reference. The clock is then said to be measuring proper time.

Example: The period of a pendulum is measured to be 3.00 s in the reference frame of

the pendulum. What is the period when measured by an observer moving at a speed of
0.960c relative to the pendulum?
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Here the pendulum is at rest with respect to the reference frame of the pendulum. So the
proper time is measured in this reference frame.

Soln: The proper time interval, measured in the rest frame of the pendulum, is
3.00 s.
Using eqn 1.14 find the dilated time interval
3.00s =3.57 *3.00s =10.7 s
√

This result shows that a moving pendulum is indeed measured to take longer to complete a
period than a pendulum at rest does. The period increases by a factor =3.57.

1.5 Dynamics in Special Relativity

1.5.1 The Lorentz Velocity Transformation Equations

How do the observers‘ measurements of the velocity of the object relate to each
other if the speed of the object or the relative speed of the observers is close to that
of light?
Once again, S‘ is our frame moving at a speed v relative to S. Suppose an object has a
velocity component measured in the S‘ frame, where
1.17
Using Equation 1.5, we have

Substituting these values into Equation 1.17 gives

The term , however, is simply the velocity component of the object measured
by an observer in S, so this expression becomes
1.18

1.5.2 Mass Energy Momentum in relativity

One of the major developments to come out of the special theory of relativity is that
the mass of a body will vary with its velocity.

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 Now imagine that the momenta of the particles are measured by an observer in a
Second reference frame S‘ moving with velocity v relative to the first frame.
Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation and the classical definition of
linear momentum, p= mv (where v is the velocity of a particle), we find that linear
momentum of the system is not measured to be conserved by the observer in S‘
We must modify the definition of linear momentum so that the momentum of an
isolated system is conserved for all observers. For any particle, the correct relativistic
equation for linear momentum that satisfies this condition is;
 = 1.19
√

where is the mass of the particle at rest and is the velocity of the particle.
The relativistic force F acting on a particle whose linear momentum is p is defined as

= ; where
√
√
[ ]

In relativistic mechanics , as in classical mechanics, the kinetic energy, K, of a body

is equal to the work done by external force in increasing the speed of the body
from zero to some value v, i.e. ,
∫ 1.20
Using Newton‘s second law, ;
For one dimensional motion,
K=∫ ∫ ∫
=∫ ∫
 From the expression for the variation of mass velocity we have

 Taking differential of both sides of this expression, we obtain

2
 Which can be rewritten as

 Therfore
∫ = ( 1.21

The term in Equation 1.21, which depends on the particle speed, is the sum of the
kinetic and rest energies. It is called the total energy E:
Total energy - kinetic energy = rest energy ( )
E= K +
Exercise: Drive the Energy Momentum relationship is given by

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Example: Solar energy reaches the earth at the rate of about 1.4 kW per square meter
of surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun. By how much does the mass of the
sun decrease per second owing to this energy loss? The mean radius of the earth‘s orbit is
1.5 x 1011 m.
Soln; The surface area of a sphere of radius r is is given by A= . The total power
radiated by the sun which is equal to the power received by a sphere whose radius is that
of the earth‘s orbit is therefore
P = A = 1.4 x = 4.0 x 1026 watt
Thus the sun loses E = 4.0 x 1026 J of rest energy per one second which means that the
suns rest mass decreases by
= per second.
Since the suns mass is 2.0 x 1030 kg, it is in no immediate danger of running out of matter.

Exercises

1. An astronaut is standing in a spacecraft parallel to its direction of motion. An observer on the

earth finds that the spacecraft speed is 0.60c and the astronaut is 1.3 m tall. What is the
astronaut’s height as measured in the spacecraft?

2. Two observers, A on earth and Bin a spacecraft whose speed is 2.00 x 108 m/s, both set their
watches to the same time when the ship is abreast of the earth. (a) How much time must
elapse by A’s reckoning before the watches differ by 1.00 s? (b) To A, B’s watch seems to
run slow. To B, does A’s watch seem to run fast, run slow, or keep the same time as his own
watch?

3. (a) An electron’s speed is doubled from 0.2c to 0.4c. By what ratio does its momentum
increase? (b) What happens to the momentum ratio when the electron’s speed is doubled
again from 0.4c to 0.8c?

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4. Dynamite liberates about 5.4 x 106 J/kg when it explodes. What fraction of its total energy
content is this?

5. A particle has a kinetic energy 20 times its rest energy. Find the speed of the particle in terms
of c.

6. An electron has a kinetic energy of 0.100 MeV. Find its speed according to classical and
relativistic mechanics.

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