GEC 7

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

SOCIETY

Prepared by:

Cecile M. Charcos, Ed.D.

Rosa D. Devera, RN, MAN

1|Page
 INTRODUCTION
GENERAL CONCEPTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Learning Outcomes:
1. Define science and technology in terms of its nature
2. Classify the significance of each branch of science to human enterprise and wellbeing.
3. Apply the scientific method in terms of problem analysis and solving.
4. Develop scientific attitudes and skills among the students.

Nature of Science

According to Carl Sagan, science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of
knowledge. We are very familiar with the etymology of the term science which defines it as a body
of knowledge. The word science came from Latin term “scientia” that means knowledge and
“scire” which means to know. To look or the baseline definition of science it will lead us to human
knowledge. Science is an understanding and awareness of something. But beyond this definition,
science should also be emphasized as a verb as the latter etymology suggests it is to know or to act
of acquiring this knowledge. Studying science is not just collections of facts but also involves
analysis, problem solving, critical thinking, testing, observing and predicting. These are different
essential processes in “doing” science. Just like Sagan had describes science as a way of thinking.
So as human beings we should not only acquire knowledge but also involve ourselves in the
process of gaining the facts that came from our observations, experiments and experiences.

If we try to trace the genesis of the discipline of science, we will have to consider the basic
reasons why the field emerged. By nature, human beings are curious and this eagerness to know
or to learn something will lead to discovery and exploration of the world we are living and its
inhabitants. We sometimes ask questions such as why are clouds formed? What causes tsunamis?
Why are skies blue? These are some queries in our mind that we need to satisfy. Science played
its niche in giving answers to these necessities by providing the basis of constructing tools, gadgets
and processes. Activities such as hunting, fishing, farming, cooking, constructing shelters and
clothes making are the processes that satisfy human necessities and involves science in its
development. As man explore on satisfying their necessities certain problems also evolved such as
pollution, overpopulation, climate change, diseased and natural disasters. Science also offers
solutions to these predicaments.

Science is an organized body of knowledge based on facts, gathered through observations,

experiments, and experiences. Science can also be used to construct and verify laws, conclusions
and theories about nature. As well, science can also serve as a basis of developing technology for
the benefit of man and the environment.

2|Page
 Science is powerful but we also have to remember that it has its limitations too. And to cite
these are some. Science can’t answer questions about value. For example, it is beyond the
determination of science which dress is prettier for you. Or which is valuable an ounce of gold or
an ounce of steel. Our culture sets values to it. Also the values of these metals depend on how it
will be used. Furthermore, science can’t answer questions of morality. For example, science can
explain the mechanism of contraceptives why it can hinder the process of fertilization but it can’t
decide for you whether the use of such is right or wrong. Morality is dictated by social rules and
culture. Supernatural events can’t be explained by science. Adding the prefix “super” it entails that
it is beyond the natural laws of the universe, in which science is limited to.

Another definition of science that may help us understand its nature is “Science is present
verification without ultimate certainty”. It only means that the facts that are verified as true now
can be replaced if it is overthrown by a competent theory in the future. For example, the phlogiston
theory of George Ernst Stahl, at his period it is believed that a certain substance called phlogiston
is present in a substance during combustion and is released in the process. But today this theory is
already obsolete, since the combustion not a certain substance called phlogiston. Today
combustion theory is still accepted unless it is challenged by another competent theory.

Science is a tool in order for us to appreciate how omniscient (all-knowing) is our creator.
The role of science is just to understand how well ordered the creations are and before we realized
it, it is already made by a Supreme Being. To quote Albert Einstein, he said that “the more I study
science, the more I believe in God”.

Branches of Science

There are three major branches of science, these are:

1. Social Science – concerned with the society and the relationships among the individuals within
the society. Sociology, philosophy, humanities, political science, demography, economics,
anthropology, history, law archaeology and linguistics are among the disciplines under social
science.

2. Applied Science – is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop
m pre practical applications, like technology or inventions. Engineering sciences, medical
sciences, industrial technology and architecture are fields of applied science.

3. Natural Science – is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and
understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence. Natural
science is further subdivided into Biological Sciences and Physical Sciences. The biological
sciences pertain to the study of living things that include biology, botany, zoology, anatomy,
physiology, ornithology, parasitology and many others. While physical sciences deal with the
study of the nonliving things that include physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, metallurgy
and many others.

3|Page
Scientific Attitudes and Skills

Here are some attitudes that someone who studies science must possess:

1. The desire to know. 6. Open-mindedness

2. Patience 7. Systematic and orderly
3. Perseverance 8. Critical thinkers
4. Objective 9. Honesty
5. Don’t easily jump into conclusion. 10. Humility
Scientific Skills

1. Science Process Skills

a. Observing f. Using time and space relationship,
b. Classifying interpreting data, define
c. Measuring and using umbers operationally, controlling variables,
d. Predicting making hypothesis, experimenting
e. Communicating
2. Manipulative Skills
a. Using and handling science d. Handling specimen correctly and
apparatus carefully
b. Maintaining science apparatus e. Sketch specimen and science
correctly and safely apparatus
c. Cleaning science apparatus
correctly

The Scientific Method

In order for science to be systematic, scientist and other people who study and do science
follow a step by step procedure in gathering, investigating and analysing information to come up
with conclusions and theories. The systematic approach in solving a problem is called the scientific
method. To summarize the procedures to be followed in scientific investigations here are the six
basic steps:

1. Observing and stating the problem. Observation is a process of utilizing four five senses. There
are two types of observations, first is qualitative observation which does not involve
measurements.

Example: Your friend asked you to observe the colour of an apple and you said green. So colour,
taste, texture and odour can be classified as qualitative observations because you don’t need to
measure anything. The second type of observation is quantitative observation which involves the
process of measuring.

Example: You have observed by using a speedometer that your car runs 40kph faster than your
friend’s car. Quantitative observations are aided by measuring tools for you to get a collection of
quantitative data.

4|Page
 In stating the problem make sure that it I clear and specific. Without a clear and specific
statement, you will find it difficult to answer your problem as it may be broad and unclear to you.

2. Gathering data on related problems. This is an important part of the scientific process to make
sure that what you are doing is objective. Collecting information from relevant studies may also
ensure that what you are doing is not a duplication of a previous work of others. This gathered
information cans serve as basis for tentatively answering your problem. To do conduct this step
you can read research paper, scientific journals, and books You may also interview experts, as
credible sources, about your problem.

3. Forming a hypothesis. After gathering pertinent information, based on the researched facts you
may now formulate a hypothesis which is a tentative solution to your problem. A hypothesis is
said to be an educated guess since it is based on the researched information done in step two. A
hypothesis is said to be tentative and not final because it is still subjected to a test. To have a good
statement of a hypothesis it should also be clear, specific and can be easily tested.

4. Testing the hypothesis. To find out whether your hypothesis correct or not you will conduct an
experiment. An experimental set up is usually composed of two groups, an experimental group
and a control group. The difference of the two groups is only one factor. In a control group all
factors are held constant. This set up is important for comparison with the experimental group. The
group in which one factor or treatment is varied is the experimental group. A variable is any factor,
trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. An experiment usually has three
kinds of variables: independent, dependent, and controlled. The independent variable is the one
that is changed by the scientist. The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent
variable to see how it responds to the change made to the independent variable. Controlled
variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe them as
carefully as the dependent.

5. Recording and analysing data. The results of your experiment should be recorder carefully.
Observations and information, called as data, can be presented in tables and graphs. In this manner,
analysis of the result will be easy to conduct.

6. Formulating a conclusion. A conclusion is the final answer to the problem If the conclusion
supports the hypothesis it is considered as a scientific explanation to the problem But if it does not
the hypothesis is rejected or can be modified.

7. Replicating your work. Experiments should not only be done once but several times. That is
why a good scientific experiment requires being reproducible or can be replicated. In this manner
others can test the reliability of your results.

5|Page
Famous People and their contributions to Science

A. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726) – Newton was a polymath who made investigations into a whole
range of subjects including mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. In his Principia
Mathematica, published in 1687, he laid the foundations for classical mechanics, explaining law
of gravity and the Laws of motion.

B. Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) – Contributed greatly towards the advancement of medical
sciences developing cures for rabies anthrax and other infectious disease. Also enabled process of
pasteurization to make milk safer to drink. Probably saved more lives than any other person.

C. Galileo (1564 – 1642) – Creating one of the first modern telescope, Galileo revolutionized our
understanding of the works successfully proving the earth revolved around the sun and not the
other way around. His work Two New Sciences laid ground work for science of Kinetics and
strength of materials.

D. Marie Curie (1867 – 1934) – Polish physicist and chemist. Discovered radiation and helped to
apply it in the field of X ray. She won Nobel Prize in both Chemistry and Physics.

E. Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) – Revolutionized modern physics with his general theory of
relativity. Won Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) for his discovery of the Photoelectric effect, which
formed basis of Quantum Theory.

F. Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – Developed theory of evolution against a backdrop of disbelief
and scepticism. Collected evidence over 20 years and published conclusions in On the Origin of
Species (1859).

G. Otto Hahn (1879 – 1968) – German Chemist who discovered nuclear fission (1939).
Pioneering scientist in the field of radio-chemistry. Discovered radio-active elements and nuclear
isomerism (1921). Awarded Novel Prize for Chemistry (1944)

H. Nikola Tesla (1856 – 1943) – Work on electro-magnetism and AC current. Credited with any
patents from electricity to radio transmission.

I. James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879) – Made great strides in understanding electro-magnetism.
His research in electricity and kinetics, laid foundation for quantum physics. Einstein said of
Maxwell, “The work of James Clerk Maxwell changed the world forever”.

J. Aristotle (384BC – 322BC) – Great early Greek scientist who made many researches in the
natural sciences including botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, and meteorology,
geometry.

6|Page
Nature of Technology

Technology is defined as “purposeful intervention by design”, and technological practice

as the activity through which technological outcomes are created and have impact in the world.
Technological outcomes are designed to enhance the capabilities of people and expand human
possibilities. They change the world in ways that have positive and/or negative impacts on the
social and natural world. Technology uses and produces technological knowledge. Technological
communities endorse technological knowledge as valid when it is shown to support the successful
development of technological outcomes.

All technology exists within a historical context, influenced by and influencing society and
culture.

Technological practice is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary, relying more than ever

on collaboration between the technology community and people from other disciplines.

7|Page
ASSESSMENT:

1. Describe the relationship between science, technology and society.

2. How significant is science and technology to the society?

3. Which contribution of science is the most important society?

4. Interpret the saying, “the more I study science, the more I believe in God”.

5. If you will be a scientist, what important contribution would you like to invent? Why?

8|Page
ACTIVITY:

1. Make a collage that will highlight the impact of science and technology to society.

2. Compose a jingle that will focus on the advantages and disadvantages of technology to man.

9|Page
 CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to
1. Explain how science and technology affected the society and environment and vice versa;
2. Identify inventions and discoveries that changed the world over the course of history; and
3. Discuss the scientific and technological developments in the Philippines.

Science and technology indeed play major roles in the everyday life. They make difficult
and complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and time. The
developments in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-time thought
process; they are also brought about gradual improvements to earlier works from different time
periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire to raise the quality of life
of the people.

Ancient Times

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation,
communication and record keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as health,
aesthetics, and architecture.

Transportation was significant during that time because people were trying to go places
and discover new horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better locations for their
settlements. They also travelled to trade their surplus goods in exchange for things that they lacked.
Navigation assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange areas in the world. It allowed
them to return home after they discovered new places or completed an important trade with another
group of people.

Communication was also essential in their endeavours to discover and occupy new places.
They needed a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to facilitate
trade and prevent possible conflicts. Record-keeping was also important since they needed to
remember the places they had been to and document the trades they made with each other. It was
also vital to keep records of their history and culture so they could establish their identities as they
tried to relate with other cultures and civilizations.

The increase in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other
basic necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce food at a given
time and space since resources were getting scarcer as more people struggled to share the basic
necessities. The people thus needed a form of technology that would enable them to increase food
supplies and other survival needs without them travelling more or working harder.

10 | P a g e
 Weapons and armors were important as well as the discovery of new places or the
establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At that time, there was always a risk of conflict
when people met others with different culture and orientations. Conflicts were common especially
if different groups struggled to control vital resources. Stronger nations tended to invade weaker
ones so they could take much needed resources. As such, the development of weapons and armors
for security and protection was considered a major achievement.

A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. The early people might have
been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide, but their survival
posed a great problem. Different illness and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered the
full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science and tech ology played a major
role in the discovery of cures to, if not the prevention of illnesses.

Moreover, in order to integrate their needs – for better transportation, establishment of

structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and
stronger infrastructures – people ventured into what is now known as the field of engineering. The
development in this field allowed human to build structures that would address their specific needs
and wants. Some of the structures built during the ancient times still exist today and continually
we people.

The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others

might see architecture as a mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate architectural designs
were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization. In the generations to come,
architecture would be considered a status symbol among nations of how advanced their technology
is. It may also establish the identity of a nation.

The people were not contented on beautifying only their infrastructures and surroundings.
Being able to prolong life with the mass production of food and advancement of medical
technology, as well as raise the quality of life by making complicated and difficult tasks easier,
humans later on developed that people looked more visually presentable and appealing by adding
some features and decorations in their body.

With all these in mind, one can conclude that the developments in science and technology,
aside from affecting the lives of the people, were the results of many prior antecedents. Out of
necessity, people in ancient times were able to discover and invent things that would impact the
lives of the modern people.

The following discussions will tackle the different major technological advancements
during the ancient times, which include some of the achievements of the early civilizations such
as Sumerians, Babylonians, and Egyptians. It will continue to describe the gradual application of
knowledge up to the contemporary time.

11 | P a g e
Sumerian Civilization

Sumeria is located on
the southernmost tip of
ancient Mesopotamia.
Sumerians are known for
their high degree of
cooperation with one another
and their desire for great
things. They are not
contented with the basic
things that life can offer. This
desire pushed them to
develop many things
connected with science and
technology.

Cuneiform

One of the major contributions of the

Sumerians is the development of the first
writing system known as cuneiform. It is
a system that utilizes word pictures and
triangular symbols which are carved on
clay using wedge instruments and then
left to dry. Cuneiform allowed the
Sumerians to keep recoesa of things with
great historical value or their everyday
life.

12 | P a g e
Uruk City

Another important
contribution of the Sumerians is the
City of Uruk. It is a great wonder not
only because it is considered to be the
first true city in the world but also for
the way it was erected. There were no
building stones in the location of this
city and lumber was limited, making
the construction a big challenge. The
Sumerians were able to build the city
using only mud or clay from the river,
which they mixed with reeds,
producing sun-baked bricks – a true
engineering feat. They used the bricks
to make houses that protected them
from the harsh weather and to build a wall around the city that prevented wild animals and
neighbouring raiders from entering.

The Great Ziggurat of Ur

Another engineering and

architectural feat of the Sumerians is
the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The
ziggurat, also called the mountain of
god, was built in the same manner
that they constructed the City of
Uruk.

13 | P a g e
Irrigation and Dikes

As population increased, so did

the demand for food. The Sumerians were
challenged to mass produce food items
but elements in the environment seemed
uncooperative. It was difficult to get
water from the rivers, thus they could not
maintain farmlands. Some groups had
scarce water supply, while others had
problems with flooding caused by the
river. As a solution to this dilemma, the
Sumerians created dikes and irrigation
canals to bring water to farmlands and at
the same time control the flooding of the
rivers. This method was considered as one of the world’s most beneficial engineering works.
Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting,
which increased their food production.

Sailboats

Another challenge to the Sumerians

was transportation. At that time, the
wheel was not yet invented; the man
mode of transportation was through
waterways such as rivers and seas. Boats
were used to carry large quantities of
products and were able to cover large
distances. However, they wanted to
discover faraway lands to settle since the
population was getting larger, and boats
were not enough to accommodate more
people and products. They needed a
mode of transportation that did not
require much human resource. Some sources attribute to the Sumerians the invention of sailboats
to address their increasing demands. Sailboats were essential in transportation and trading as well
as in fostering culture, information, and technology.

14 | P a g e
 Wheel

In the latter part of their

history, the Sumerians were able to
invent the wheel since the
specialized tools needed to create it
were already available. The first
wheels were not made for
transportation but for farm work and
food processes. With the use of the
wheel and axle, mass production was
made easier. Farmers were able to
mill grains with less effort in less
time.

The Plow

Another farm technology

invented by the Mesopotamians is the
plow. Humans evolved from being
food gatherers to farm cultivators.
However, farmers needed a
technology which would enable them
to dig the ground where seeds would
be planted. The plow was invented to
dig the earth is a faster pace. As the
plow breaks the ground, the farmer
would just drop the seeds and farm
work would already do. With this tool,
farmers could cultivate larger parcels
of land faster. Enabling them to mass
produce food without taking so much
effort and time.

Roads

In order to facilitate faster and easier travel, the Sumerians developed the first roads. With
this work, the flow of traffic became faster and more organized. They made the roads with the
same technology they used in making the sun-baked bricks that they laid down on the ground.
They later poured bitumen, a black sticky substance similar to asphalt, to smoothen the roads. The
invention of roads was very useful especially during the rainy season when travelling in soft and
muddy roads proved to be difficult.

15 | P a g e
Babylonian Civilization

Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians
were great builders, engineers, and architects. One of their major contributions s the hanging
gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Hanging garden of Babylon

Today people can only

marvel at the beauty of the
famous Hanging Gardens of
Babylon from stories of historians
and paintings that portray the
place. It was said to be a structure
made up of layers upon layers of
gardens that contained several
species of plants, trees, and vines.
According to legends, the great
Babylonian King
Nebuchadnezzar II built the
gardens for his wife, Queen
Amytis. However, no physical
evidence has been found to prove
the existence of the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon. Its exact
location is also unknown. Since time immemorial, people have been debating about the existence
of the asid mythical place. Many said it was just a product of the creative imagination of the great
King because it lacked documentation or archaeological evidence. On the other hand, if it really
existed, it must have been destroyed by war, erosion, or an earthquake. True or not, hearing the
stories and description of the place would be enough to inspire awe to anyone. One can imagine
the thick greenery decorated by beautiful flowers coming from different places in the garden and
complicated design of the infrastructure. If the stories were true, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
may be considered as one of the greatest engineering and architectural achievements of the world
that is almost impossible to replicate.

Egyptian Civilization

Another early civilization famous for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization located in North
Africa. Many stories tell about the engineering feats of the Egyptians especially regarding the
infrastructures established by the pharaohs. Aside from engineering technology, the Egyptians
have contributed other practical things that the world now considers as essential. It is thus safe to
say that the pyramids are not the only contribution of the Egyptian civilization to the modern world.

16 | P a g e
Paper or Papyrus

One of the earlier contributions of Egyptian civilization was the paper or papyrus. Although
Egypt was not the first to develop a system of writing, they were able to make writing easier for
the world. Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tables were used. However, safe-keeping and
transporting they were a major problem. Clay tablets were very fragile, heavy, and delicate to
handle. So, bringing them to places was a major challenge. Hence, the Egyptian invention of the
paper or papyrus was a welcome development. Papyrus was a plant that grew abundantly along
the Nile River in Egypt. They were able to process the plant in order to produce thin sheets on
which once could write down things. Since papyrus was lighter and thinner than clay tablets, it
was easy to carry and store. The sheets were also less breakable as compared to clay tablets. This
invention was a major accomplishment in Egyptian record-keeping and communications. People
then were able to send letters or correspondences anywhere in the world since the pieces of paper
were very light that they could be carried and delivered by birds. Moreover, record-keeping was
no longer a problem since documents would not take huge storage spaces. Therefore, it was easier
to keep them away from raiders who often destroyed records of the nations they invaded.

Ink

When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper, engraving ceased to be used in
writing. As a result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals to
produce inks of different colours. The ink must withstand the elements of nature since it was used
to record history, culture, and codified laws. It must also be tamper-proof so that people could not
simply tinker with those written down by authorities.

Hieroglyphics

Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians also developed a system of writing using symbols,
known as hieroglyphics. Although some say that hieroglyphics was adapted from the early writing
system established in Mesopotamia as a result of trade between civilizations, the Egyptians
believed that this writing system was provided to them by their gods. This form of writing can still
be seen today and remains to be as famous as the pyramids where they were found. Hieroglyphics
was the language that tells the modern world of the history and culture of the ancient Egyptians.
Their records were well-preserved since they were carved at the walls of pyramids and other
important Egyptian structures.

Cosmetics

The Egyptians also invented the use of cosmetics. Although cosmetics in the modern times
are used to improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in ancient Egypt
was for both health and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians wore Kohl around the eyes to prevent and
even cure eye diseases. Kohl was created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena.

17 | P a g e
Egyptians also believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty
was a sign of holiness. At present, the cosmetic industry is a booming multibillion industry.

Wig

Another cosmetic invention of ancient Egyptians is the wig. At present, wigs are used to
enhance the appearance of people who are balding or those who want to try new hair trends.
Meanwhile, during the ancient Egyptian times, wigs were worn for health and wellness rather than
for aesthetics purposes. The wigs were used to protect that shaved heads of the wealthy Egyptians
from the harmful rays of the sun. Wearing a wig was better than putting on a scarf or any other
head cover since a wig allowed heat to escape. Moreover, it was considered cleaner than natural
hair because it prevented the accumulation of head lice.

Water Clock/Clepsydra

Another important ancient Egyptian contribution is the water clock. This device utilizes
gravity that affects the flow of water (or its height, depending on the method used) remaining in
the device determines how much time has elapsed since it is full. In the process, time is measured.
The water clock was widely used as a timekeeping device during the ancient times.

Greek Civilization

Greece is an archipelago in the south eastern part of Europe. Known as the birth place of
western philosophy, some of the major achievements of the Greeks include in-depth works on
philosophy and mathematics. More than coliseums and the Olympics, the Greek civilization has
contributed much to the world especially in the fields of science and technology.

Alarm Clock

One of the most utilized gadgets today that was invented by the ancient Greeks is the alarm
clock. Although the alarm clock during that time did not resemble the present-day alarm clock, the
purpose was just the same- to tell an individual when to stop or when to start. The ancient Greek’s
alarm clocks used large complicated mechanisms to time the alarm. They made use of water (or
sometimes small stones or sand) that dropped into drums which sounded the alarm. Plato was
believed to have utilized an alarm clock to signal the start of his lecture. His version used four
water vessels lined up vertically. The upper vessel supplied the water which dropped to the vessel
below it, which was set to be filled in a given time. After it was full, water was siphoned off at a
faster rate into the third vessel which would cause the expulsion of contained air, creating a
whistling noise. Afterwards, this vessel would empty towards the bottom vessel for storage and
reuse.

18 | P a g e
Water Mill

Watermills were also

considered as one of the most important
contributions of the Greek civilization
to the world. They were commonly
used in agricultural processes like
milling of grains which was a necessary
form of food processing during that
time. Because milling was made
possible by the use of watermills, the
mass production of rice, cereals, flours,
and the like became common.
Watermills were considered better than
mills powered by farm animals because
they required less effort and time to
operate since the farmer dis not have to
raise animals. They only required
access to rivers or flowing water where
a mechanism of a large wheel with
small “buckets” or water attached to it
could be installed.

Roman Civilization

The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west.
It was considered to be the cradle of politics and governance during that period. Because the
Roman Empire was so large, other civilizations looked up to it as their model in terms of legislation
and codified laws. Aside from their contributions in politics, a lot of discoveries and inventions
still relevant today can be attributed to the Roman Empire.

Newspaper

One of the major contributions of the Romans is the newspaper. The first newspapers,
kwnon as gazettes contained announcements of the Roman Emprire to the people. Made before
the invention of paper, these gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly
displayed. When paper was invented, it became easier for the Romans to “publish” matters that
needed the attention of the Roman citizens. In fact, with the advent of paper, minutes of
proceedings of the Roman senate were done in shorthand. These documents were edited and
published on the same day that they were recorded. This way, the Romans enjoyed easy access to
government information the same way we benefit from present-day newspaper.

19 | P a g e
Bounds Books or Codex

With the invention of paper, it became easier for civilizations to write down everything that
happened in their tie. Record-keeping was much easier since paper did not easily break, was
lightweight, and did not occupy much space. As a result, civilizations became fond or record-
keeping, especially documenting historical events and newly legislated laws. Aside from Romans
writing down information about history and politics, literature also changed form from clay tablets
to parchments of paper. According to sources, Julius Caesar started the tradition of stacking up
papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, they were able to provide covers to protect the papyrus.
The earlier covers were made of wax but were later on replaced by animal skin which proved to
be stronger and longer-lasting. With the papyrus pages bound together and covered by animal skin,
the ancient Roman Empire was able to produce the first books or codex.

Roman Architecture

Roman architecture is one of the most visual contributions of the ancient Roman Empire
to the world. Roman architecture was considered a continuation of Greek architecture, hence, the
resemblance. However, Roman architecture was still regarded as pioneering since the Roman were
able to adapt new building and engineering technology on architectural designs established in the
past. In this manner, they were able to preserve great and elaborate architectural designs because
they could produce studier and stringer infrastructures. The Romans were also able to creatively
redesign old architectural patterns to adapt to the new trends at that time. This development in the
field of engineering and architecture was fully supported and funded by the Roman government
so they were able to implement major projects such as large churches (cathedrals and basilicas),
aqueducts, coliseums, amphitheatres, and even residential houses. The quality of these majestic
Roman structures can be seen by the way they withstood time and the harsh elements of the
environment. Today, people of the world still enjoy these marvels. These structures are proof of
ancient Roman technology.

Roman Numerals

Although other number systems had already been established before the Roman numeral,
these old systems could not keep up with high calculation and trade among nations. Since the
Roman Empire was expanding, it had to deal with many nations to maintain its power. For this
reason, the Roans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for a stand
counting method that would meet their increasing communication and trade concerns. Although
the Roman numeral is no longer widely used today due to its inherent limitations, quite a number
of enthusiasts’ would still use it over other more popular number systems, like the Hindu-Arabic
system, due to its aesthetic and historical value.

20 | P a g e
Chinese Civilization

The Chinese civilization is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia, if not the world.
Also known as the middle kingdom, China is located on the far east of Asia. It was famous among
other ancient civilizations because of its silk trade. Not a great amount was written about ancient
China partly due to its distance from the other civilizations. Despite its less popular status among
the early civilizations, one cannot discredit the significant contributions of Chinese civilization to
the world.

Silk

One of the things that connected Far East China to the world is silk. Although silk is
naturally produced by silk worms, the Chinese were the ones who developed the technology to
harvest the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in the
creation of a product for trade. The silk trade opened China to the outside world, making way for
cultural, economic, and scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap between rhe western world and the
middle kingdom.

Tea Production

Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded dried tea
leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea production was
developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was able to shred tea leaves
into strips. This machine was done using a wheel-based mechanism with sharp edges attached to
a wooden or ceramic pot. Because of this invention, the Chinese were able to increase their
production of tea and trade with other nations. China thus became known for its tea exports aside
from its silk products. Tea production developed by the ancient Chinese may have resulted in
making tea as one of the most popular beverages in the world today.

Great Wall of China

Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from outer space, the
Great Wall of China is said to be the largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built.
It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China. Made with stone,
brick, wood, earth, and other materials, it showcased the extent of Chinese engineering technology
at that time. The structure was so massive and strong that it was said to have literally divided China
from the rest of the world. The wall’s construction put the nation among the powerful civilizations
during the ancient times. It was the pride of their land and their crowning glory. Today, with some
sections already in ruins, the Great Wall still continues to be a world attraction due to its historical
significance and architectural grandeur.

21 | P a g e
Gunpowder

The gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was
developed by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed charcoal,
sulphur, and potassium nitrate, but instead of creating an elixir of life, they accidentally invented
a black powder that could actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in an instant. Ironically,
instead of prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons
which cause countless deaths. In fact, gunpowder-propelled weapons are preferred by raiders who
plan to attack at a distance. The same weapons are also used to dissipate any attempts of invasion.
On the other hand, gun powder is also used in fireworks during important celebrations in China.

Medieval/Middle Ages

The start of the middle ages was marred by massive invasions and migrations. Wars were
prevalent during this time. As such, great technology was needed in the fields of weaponry,
navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. The wars have resulted in population
decline, but during the latter part of the period, there was a significant rise in population. Trade
and commerce among nations increased, which resulted in greater demands for transportation
technology. Some of the most innovative minds came from this period.

Printing Press

After the Chinese developed woodblock printing, Johann Gutenberg was able to invent the
printing press, a more reliable way of printing using a cast type He utilized wooden machines that
extracted juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of the letters, and pressed firmly
the cast metal into a piece of paper, which then made a exact impression on paper.

THs general invention soon evolved to be the mechanical printing press which was
eventually used all over the world. The printing press was invented to address the need for
publishing books that would spread information to many people at a faster rate. This invention
also made works accessible to individuals who could not even write (Streissguth, 1997).

Microscope

Another invention in the Middle Ages is the microscope. Growing populations caused
massive migration and urbanization during the period. More and more people transferred to
populate and populated urban areas which resulted in more people transferred to people getting
sick and needing medical attention. To develop the proper medicines for illness, experts must
understand the sickness through an investigation. Thus, they needed a device that could magnify
things invisible to the eye. Guided by the principles used for the invention of eyeglasses in earlier
years, Zacharias Janssen was able to develop the first compound microscope. With this device,
people were able to observe organisms that were normally unseen by the naked eye. The

22 | P a g e
microscope was key in discovering new means in preventing and curing various illnesses
(Davidson, 2015).

Telescope

Since the middle Ages were also known as the Age of Exploration, the need for nautical
inventions was high. Considering the vast and empty oceans that separated lands, ship captains
needed to see far and wide for them to navigate or to avoid dangers at sea. The invention of the
telescope, an optical instrument that helps in the observation of remote objects, was a great help
of navigators during this time. Together with the telescope, the invention of the compass, oars, and
rudders made sea travelling easier and safer (Helden, 1989).

War Weapons

Since wars were widespread during the middle Ages, great development in the weaponry
technology also occurred. All sides must develop weaponries not only as offensive tools but also
as defensive instruments. For open-area battles, people developed cross bows and long bows so
that they could attack the enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of
walls and fortresses. Additionally, in close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers should wear
something to protect themselves, a need addresses by the creation of iron body armors. However,
body armors were heavy and limited their movements. The problem was eventually solved by the
invention of the chainmail.

Modern Times

The booming and world population during the nineteenth century onwards demanded that
more goods be produced at a faster rate. People needed efficient means of transportation to trade
more goods and cover a larger distance. Machines that required animals to operate must thus be
upgraded. Faster and easier means to communicate and compute should be developed to establish
connections between and among nations. All these needs resulted in the development of industries.
However, due to massive industrialization, the modern times again faced more complicated
problems. Food processing and medicine posed some of the bigger challenges since health was of
great concern.

Pasteurization

As people were able to develop better means of production to meet the needs of the
population, food preservation and food safety became an issue. The challenge to keep
manufactured food from deteriorating was greater for dairy products, especially milk, since they
usually spoiled faster. These goods needed to be consumed almost immediately after production
or they would cause illness like diphtheria, food poisoning, and typhoid fever. Since transporting
these products would also take tie, it would be impossible to trade them.

23 | P a g e
 Loius Pasteur, a French biologist, microbiologists, and chemist, found a way to solve the
problem. He invented pasteurization, the process of heating dairy products to kill the harmful
bacteria that allow them to spoil faster. Through this process, milk could be stored and consumed
for a longer period. It also prevented ill ness caused by harmful bacteria (Macalester Colege, 2010).
Other contributions of Pasteur to science, technology, and medicine included his works on
molecular asymmetry, fermentation, and vaccination.

Petroleum Refinery

The modern times demanded better means of powering homes and transportation. At first,
people used animal oils for generating light to illuminate their homes. However, the production of
animal oils could not keep up with the demand. Faced with this concern, Samuel M. Kier was able
to invent kerosene by refining petroleum. Kerosene was later on referred o as the “illuminating
oil” because it was used at first to provide lighting to homes. After some time, it was applied for
heating purposes. The development of kerosene established the petroleum refinery industry
(Skrabec, 2010). At present, petroleum is widely used in powering automobiles, factories, and
power plants, among others.

Telephone

The more people got connected by trade and exploration, the move they needed a way to
easily maintain these connections and communicate with each other in real time. Governments
likewise needed some kind of communication system which would allow them to administer their
states well. Important day-to-day decisions must be discussed and addressed at the fastest time
possible. Thus, the development of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell was one of the most
important inventions at that time.

Calculator

Although an earlier version of the calculator had already been developed, circumstances in
the modern times required a faster way to compute more complicated equations. Computing
devices must also be easy to carry since they would be utilized on a day-to-day basis. The creation
of modern calculators did not only pave the way for easier arithmetic calculations, but also resulted
in the development of more complex processing machines lie the computer.

Philippine Inventions

Despite being considered a developing country, the Philippines also contribute to the global
advancement of science and technology. It is quite remarkable to note the ingenuity of the Filipinos
despite the lack in resources. The Philippines is known to be one of the most vulnerable countries
I terms of natural disasters. Many of the discoveries and inventions made by the Filipinos were
therefore built from indigenous materials or created to adapt to the harsh tropical environment.

24 | P a g e
Salamander Amphibious Tricycle

It has become ordinary for Filipinos to convert transport vehicles into something more
useful. An example is the conversion of American military jeeps used in World War II into
jeepneys. Another Filipino innovation is the addition of a sidecar to a motorcycle, transforming it
into a tricycle to accommodate more passengers.

During the rainy season, flooding is a common occurrence in many areas in the country.
Tricycles find it very difficult to transverse the streets. To remedy the issue, Victor Llave and his
team at H2O Technologies were able to invent the Salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can
cross not only flooded streets but also rivers and lakes. It may also be utilized to travel from island
to island. Since the Philippines is an archipelago, the Salamander is a useful invention that has a
lot of potential.

Salt Lamp

One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a developing nation, is electrification.

Electricity powers various types of machines, including light sources. In many rural areas in the
country, activities would cease when it gets dark. It also becomes more dangerous to travel.
Filipinos have resorted to using candles and kerosene lamps but they carry certain risks as they are
fire hazards. Solar power is also a welcome development but like rechargeable batteries, solar
panels are too expensive for ordinary Filipinos. Fortunately, a young Filipina inventor named Aisa
Mijeno was able to invent a lighting system that utilizes a material abundant in the Philippines –
saltwater. She invented the Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp, an environment-
friendly light source that runs on saltwater. The SALt lamp is safer as it poses no risk of fire and
emits no toxic gases Aside from people who live in coastal areas, it may also benefit those from
far-flung barrios because they can make their own saltwater by mixing two tablespoons of salt and
a glass of tap water.

Medical Incubator

A common problem in the Philippines is the high mortality rate of new born babies. One
reason for this problem in the 20th century was the lack of available incubators especially in far-
flung rural areas due to lack of resources and electricity. Dr. Fe del Mundo, a Filipino pediatrician
and the first Asian woman admitted into Harvard Medical School, devised a medical incubator
made from indigenous and cheap materials which did not run on electricity. Dr. Del Mundo’s
incubator was made by placing a native laundry basket inside a bigger one. Hot water bottles were
inserted between the baskets to provide warmth and a makeshift hood to allow oxygen circulation.
Its main purpose was to maintain conditions suitable for a new born, usually a pre-term baby. Other
breakthroughs in Philippine medicine attributed to Dr. del Mundo include her works on the
immunization and treatment of jaundice and the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea.

25 | P a g e
Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral illness is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas,

including the Philippines. This virus is usually transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito, rampant
during the rainy season. Insecticides were previously used to kill the species. However, recent
studies how that insecticide resistance has evolved in some mosquito populations. Likewise, using
insecticides is harmful not only to humans but also to the environment. In 2010, the Department
of Science and Technology – Industrial Technology Development Institute (DOST-ITDI) was able
to introduce the Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System, also known as QL Trap. This trap
system is made of natural ingredients that are lethal to mosquitos but safe for human and the
environment.

E-jeepney

A major innovation that changed the transportation industry in the Philippines was the
development of the jeepney. This iconic public utility vehicle was built using the military jeeps
left by the Americans after World War II. The chassis and the body of the military jeeps were
extended to accommodate more load and passengers. Because of its usefulness, the jeepney
dominated Philippine streets and is considered as the primary mode of transportation of most
Filipinos. However, the diesel-powered jeepney produces large quantities of black smoke, and is
usually a major contributor of noise pollution due to its primitive exhaust system. To counter these
advantages, the electric jeepney (eJeepney) was developed. This modern type of transportation
utilizes electricity instead of the more expensive diesel. It is environment-friendly since it does not
emit any smoke and noise.

The items discussed in this chapter are only some of the great inventions and developments
during the different time periods There are still more innovations and discoveries that were made
I the course of history that changed the world. Can you name other great discoveries”?

26 | P a g e
REFLECTION:

1. Give three other major scientific and technological developments on the world (or in the
Philippines) that create a large impact on your daily life.

2. What historical antecedents gave rise to the inventions you mentioned in the first question?

27 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 2
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the paradigm shifts through history.
2. Explain how the Intellectual Revolution changed the way how humans see the world.
3. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

There have been instances when advancements in science and technology changed people’s
perceptions and beliefs. Much of these events happened in a period now known as the Intellectual
Revolution.

The developments during the Intellectual Revolution showed how society was transformed
by science and technology. This chapter aims to establish the interaction between science and
technology and society.

Copernican Revolution

In the early times, people questioned what created days and nights. They wanted to
understand what heavenly bodies like stars, moons, and planets are. The invention of the telescope
allowed the people to take a peek at the outer space, but more importantly, it also intrigued them
to know what was actually out there.

Many Greek philosophers and intellectuals wrote about planets in an attempt to explain the
movements of heavenly bodies and their effects on the world as they knew it. Many of these
philosophers agreed that planets moved around in
circular motion, and that these movements created
days and nights, among others. A famous philosopher
and astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy, stated that the
planets, as well as the sun and the moon, moved in a
circular motion around the Earth. The sun and moon’s
revolution explained the existence of days and nights.
He believed that the Earth was at the center – a concept
known as geocentrism. Ptolemy’s geocentric model
was widely accepted by the people and was one of the
greatest discoveries of that time.

The Geocentric Model

28 | P a g e
In the 16th Century, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, challenged the
Ptolemaic model. He introduced a new concept known as heliocentrism, which suggested that the
center of the Solar System was not the Earth but actually the sun. This idea was rejected at first by
the public. It appalled many since their religoud belief had taught them that the Earth was created
first before all other things. Copernicus was even persecuted as a heretic because his teachings
were against what was widely accepted by religion. After sometime, astronomers realized that the
Copernical model simplified the orbits for planets. It is also answered issues that could not be
explained using geocentric model. Other
works that supported this model started to
merge as well. It was eventually accepted by
the people in a period which was called the
birth of modern astronomy. This era began
what was known as the scientific revolution
which resulted in the transformation of
society’s thoughts and beliefs.

The Heliocentric Model

Darwinian Revolution

The Darwinian revolution was

considered to be one of the most
controversial intellectual revolutions of its
tie. In 1859, Charles Darwin, and English
naturalists, biologist, and geologists,
published his book, on the Origin of
Species. In this book, Darwin introduced
the theory of evolution, which posited that
populations pass through a process of
natural selection in which only the fittest
would survive. He stated that organisms
have the ability to adapt to their

29 | P a g e
environment and gradually change into something that would be more competitive to survive, a
process known as evolution. However, this theory became very controversial as people perceived
it to be contradictory to the church’s teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator. The
theory emerged at a time when most of the population believed and accepted the biblical version
of the Earth’s creation. Because of this conflict, the people were divided – some believed that the
theory explained the origin of life, but the religious and the faithful strongly refuted it. It even
sparked a massive debate between science and religion It was only after sometime that people
came to understand that Darwin’s theory of evolution was not in fact against the teachings of the
church ad both can coexist.

Freudian Revolution

I the past, the field of psychology was always classified under philosophy. Psychology was
considered more of an art rather than a science. In the late 19 th century, Sigmund Freud was able
to change people’s perception of psychology with his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis is the study that explains human behaviour. In his theory, Freud explained
that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence behaviour, and emotions.
He also argued that personality is a product of three conflicting elements: id, ego, and superego.
Science hardliners brushed off the legitimacy of psychoanalysis as a science since its concepts
were more philosophical and supernatural. Many believed that Freud’s theory had no scientific
basis as no empirical or experimental data could support it.

Despite criticisms, Freud still continued to work on refining his theory and in fact tried to
explain how psychoanalysis can be a clinical method in treating some mental disorders, Soon
enough, people were able to understand the concepts of psychoanalysis, which eventually resulted
in classifying psychology as a science.

These three revolutionizing theories are just some of many scientific ideas that transformed
and molded societies and beliefs. The changes they bought to the perspectives and perception of
the scientific community and the public are evidence of science and technology’s link to humanity.
Through scientific research and experimentations, people will continue to deepen their
understanding of the world and the universe.

The ID

The id, the most primitive of the three structures, I concerned with instant gratification of
basic physical needs and argues. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought).
For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely the ice cream
fir itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that I is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it
would care only that you wanted the ice cream.

30 | P a g e
The Superego

The superego is concerned with social rues and morals – similar to what many people call
their conscience: or their “moral compass”. It develops as a child learns what their culture
considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take ice
cream because it would know that you would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego
were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern, you would
still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.

The Ego

In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic
part of our personality. It is lees primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly
unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self”, and its job is to balance the demands of
the id and superego in the practical context of reality So, if you walked past the stranger with ice
cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I want the ice cream
right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream’) and decide to go buy
your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would
frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise – satisfying
your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings
of shame.

Freud believed that the id, ego and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behaviour are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood.
He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in
this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy
behaviours.

31 | P a g e
REFLECTION:

1. Why do you think were most intellectual ideas controversial?

2. Why did the people accept these new discoveries despite being contradictory to what was widely
accepted at that time?

3. Can you name other scientific revolutions that happened in the following places?

a. Meso-America

b. Asia

c. Middle East

d. Africa

32 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 3
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation-building.
2. Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their
contributions to nation-building; and
3. Identify the actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise
their impact on the development of the Filipino nation.

Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish Era

Even before the colonization by the Spaniards in the Philippine islands, the natives of
archipelago already had practices linked to science and technology. Filipinos were already aware
of the medicinal and therapeutic properties of plants and the methods of extracting medicine from
herbs. They already had an alphabet, number system, a weighing and measuring system and a
calendar. Filipinos were already engaged in farming, shipbuilding, mining and weaving. The
Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of engineering by pre-Spanish era
Filipinos.

Spanish Colonial Era

The colonization of the Philippines contributed to growth of science and technology in the
archipelago. The Spanish introduced formal education and founded scientific institution. During
the early years of Spanish rule in the Philippines. Parish schools were established where religion,
reading, writing, arithmetic and music was taught. Sanitation and more advanced methods of
agriculture were taught to the natives. Later the Spanish established colleges and universities in
the archipelago including the oldest existing university in Asia, the University of Santo Tomas.

The study of medicine in the Philippines was given priority in the Spanish era, especially
in the later years. The Spanish also contributed to the field of engineering in the islands by
constructing government buildings, churches, roads, bridges and forts. Biology is given focus.
Contributors to science I the archipelago during the 19 th century were botanists, Fr. Ignacio
Mercado, Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist Anaclento del
Rosario, and medicine scholars Dr, Manuel Guerrero, Dr. Jose Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado.

33 | P a g e
 The Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine colonial economy. Trade was given
more focus by the Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of big profits. Agriculture and
industrial development on the other hand were relatively neglected. The opening of the Suez Canal
saw the influx of European visitors to the Spanish colony and some Filipinos were able to study in
Europe who were probably influenced by the rapid development of scientific ideals brought by the
Age of Enlightenment.

The progress of science and technology in the Philippines continued under American rule
of the islands.

On July 1, 1901, The Philippine Commission established the Bureau of Government

Laboratories which was placed under the Department of Interior. The Bureau replaced the
Laboratorio Municipal, which was established under the Spanish Colonial Era. The Bureau dealt
with the study of tropical diseases and laboratory projects. On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of
Government Laboratories was replaced by the Bureau of Science and on December 8, 1933, the
National Research Council of the Philippines was established the Bureau of Science became the
primary research center of the Philippines until World War II.

Science during the American period was inclined towards agriculture, food processing,
forestry, medicine and pharmacy. Not much focus given on the development of industrial
technology due to free trade policy with the United States which nurtured an economy geared
towards agriculture and trade.

In 1946, the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science. In a report by the
US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were
necessities to the country’s industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget
for scientific research an low salaries and scientist employed by the government. In 1958, during
the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958
which established the National Science Development Board.

During the 1970s, which was under the time of Ferdinand Marcos’ presidency, the
importance given to science grew. Under the 1973 Philippine Constitution, Article XV, Section 1,
the government’s role in supporting scientific research and invention was acknowledge. In 1974,
a science development program was included in the government’s Fourth-Year Development Plan
which covers the years 1974 – 1978. Funding for science was also increased. The National Science
Development Board was replaced by the National Science and Technology Authority under
Executive Order No. 784. A Scientific Career in the civil service was introduced in 1983.

In 1986, during Corazon Aquino’s presidency, the National Science and Technology
Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science and
technology a representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan
for the years 1987-1992, science and technology’s role in economic recovery and sustained
economic growth was highlighted. During Corazon Aquino’s State of the Nation Address in 1990,

34 | P a g e
she said that science and technology development shall be one of the top three priorities of the
government towards an economic recovery.

In August 8, 1988, Corazon Aquino created the Presidential Task Force for Science and
Technology which came up with the first Science and Technology Master Plan or STMP. The goal
of STMP was for the Philippines to achieve newly industrialized country status by the year 2000.
The Congress did not put much priority in handling bills related to science and technology. The
Senate Committee on Science and Technology was one of the committees that handle the least
amount of bills for deliberation.

Former Science and Technology secretary, Ceferin Follosco, reported that the budget
allocation for science and technology was increased to 1.054 billion pesos in 1989 from the
previous year’s 464 million pesos. However, due to the Asian financial crisis budget allocation for
the years 1990 and 1991 were trimmed down to 920 and 854 million pesos respectively. Budget
allocation was increased to 1.7 billion pesos in 1992.

Government Policies on Science and Technology

1. Paradigm shift: Towards an evergreen revolution

2. Investment in agriculture, agricultural sciences, and research and technology development
3. Pro-poor science development and technology transfer: science with a human face.
4. Science-led agricultural diversification
5. Building bridges for science: strategic partnerships and regulatory framework
6. Globalization and liberalization: the role of science
7. Linking science nutrition and development

Expansions in science and technology have marked the onset of the Third Millennium. If
harnessed rationality and effectively, these could help eradicate hunger, poverty, destitution and
indignity. The progress in the fields of biotechnology, information and communication technology,
medicine, space science and management science offers unprecedented opportunity for
multifaceted development. The industrialized countries (in some of the areas) are vigorously
capturing these uncommon opportunities by innovating, adapting and regulating these
technologies. But the majority of the developing countries are far behind and are further falling
behind, thus widening the technology divide. Based on indicators of technology creation, diffusion
of recent innovations, diffusion of old innovations and human skills, UNDP had the calculated
technology achievement index (TAI) of 72 countries. Although somewhat flawed as it generally
ignores the vast contributions of public sectors, which are mostly under IPR, the index shows that
Finland with a TAI of 0.744 was first, closely followed by the USA with a TAI of 0.733. Japan
was fourth. Table 30 gives TAI of countries of the Asia-Pacific region (for which data were
available). It may be seen from the battle that of the 15 counties (including Hong Kong and
Singapore), five were listed as “Leaders”, to as “Marginalized”. A good number of the countries

35 | P a g e
are in the “Marginalized” category. In order to bridge he technology gap, effective policies and
programmers are needed in the countries with lower TAI.

Technology achievement index (TAI): Selected Asia-Pacific countries

Countries Leaders TAI Value TAI Rank out of 72

Japan 0.698 4
Korea Rep. of 0.666 5
Australia 0.587 9
Singapore 0.585 10
New Zealand 0.584 15

Potential Leaders TAI value TAI Rank out of 72

Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.455 24
Malaysia 0.396 30

Dynamic Adopters TAI value TAI Rank out of 72

Thailand 0.337 40
Philippines 0.300 44
China 0.299 45
Indonesia 0.211 60
Sri Lanka 0.203 62
India 0.201 63

Marginalized TAI value TAI Rank out of 72

Pakistan 0.167 65
Nepal 0.081 69
(Source: Human Development Report, UNDP 2001)

For the agriculture sector, as seen from the preceding section, science and technology offer
tremendous opportunities for enhanced and sustainable production, environmental protection and
income enhancement – leading to comprehensive food security and overall prosperity. But, in
order to be effective in its service to the humankind, science and technology development must be
guided in such a way that it meets the needs and aspirations of the people identified through
participatory approaches. An appropriate “environment” must be provided to realize the full
potentials of new scientific developments by formulating and implementing suitable policies and
strategies.

From the foregoing analysis it emerges that the most pressing need of the Asia-Pacific
region is the alleviation of hunger and poverty through enhanced and sustained production,
equitable distribution, and environmental protection. Science and technology must specifically
address the needs and prospects of majority small and resource-poor farmers of the region ad help

36 | P a g e
mainstream the gender concerns. Institutional, human resource and policy supports must capture
the positive effects and minimize the negative effects of globalization and liberalization and
communication technologies. Only a meaningful interaction between science and policy can bring
the much-needed congruence among productivity, sustainability, profitability and equity. Thus, it
is not only biological and physical sciences, but also economics and social sciences, which must
all interact dynamically to yield wholesome results.

Science has many roles including (i) to generate knowledge and make it accessible to all,
(ii) identify issues - such as the causes and consequences of hunger, food insecurity and poverty,
(iii) find facts to help resolve conflicts, and (iv) provide technical, physical and social solutions to
problems and new options for human well-being. In the first stages of the light against hunger, and
especially in creating the green revolution, science has been used mainly in role (iv). It is now time
to realize the other roles that science must play to aid the world and to transform the Green
Revolution into an Ever-green Revolution.

Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science

School science is filled with names of foreign scientist: Einstein, Galileo Galilei, Newton,
faraday, Darwin and many other Western scientists. We rarely hear of Filipino scientists being
discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (200) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientists who have
made significant contributions in Philippine science.

These scientists are also famous abroad especially in different science disciplines:
agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry, engineering, and biology.

These Filipino scientists are:

1. Ramon Cabanos Barba – for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes.
2. Josefino Cacas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using
satellite images.
3. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known intentionally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as
officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom.
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit – for his research on herbal medicine.
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – for his research on tilapia culture.
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drugs testing.
8. LIlian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology.
9. Mari-jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist.
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology.

37 | P a g e
 These are other outstanding Filipino scientist who are recognized here and abroad for their
contributions in science:

1. Caesar A. Saloma – an intentionally renowned physicist.

2. Edgardo Gomez – famous scientists in marine science
3. William Padolina – chemistry and resident of National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST) – Philippines
4. Angel Alcala – marine science

38 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT:

1. What are the significant contributions during the Spanish regime and American regime in the
Philippines to the development of science and technology?

2. Identify two (2) famous Filipino scientists. What are their contributions in the field of science?
State what made them pursue a career in science.

39 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of science education in the Philippines.
2. Identify science schools established to promote science education in the Philippines.

Concept of Science Education

School Science Education is useful because of its links to technology and industry, which
from a national perspective, are areas of high priority for development. Science provides ways of
making sense of the world systematically. It develops students’ scientific inquiry skills, values and
attitudes, such as objectivity, curiosity, and honesty and habits of mind including critical thinking.
All these are useful to the individual student for his own personal development, future career, and
life in general. These skills, values, attitudes, and dispositions are likewise useful to the community
that an individual student belongs to, and are further useful to the country that he lives in. The
learning of science is also important for the nation’s cultural development and preservation of its
cultural identity. Science is most useful to a nation when it is utilized to solve its own problems
and challenges, keeping a nation’s cultural, uniqueness and peculiarities intact. Thus in many
countries, science teaching and learning is linked with culture.

Challenges in Science Education: Philippines context some Filipino students have gained
recognition for their high level of accomplishments in the International Science and Engineering
Fair, Robotics Competition, and Physics Olympiad, to name a few. There are also reports of
students in far-flung rural schools scoring much higher than the international mean in the case of
the Third/Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) or have gone beyond
the 75% mastery level in the case of the National Achievement Test (NAT).

In the Philippines and around the world, people are talking about a science and technology-
based world and a knowledge-based economy. The current direction of curriculum development
in many countries is toward scientific literacy, where the science education needs of all students
are differentiated from those who have an interest in scientific careers. An example is York
University’s 21st Century Science, which has a Foundation Science subject to be taken by all
students, and a second optional subject, Additional Science, for those students who wish to proceed
with disciplines in science in later years.

Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education

Science is a way of thinking about and investigating the world in which we live. This
component addresses those skills scientists use to discover and explain physical phenomena. These

40 | P a g e
skills include asking questions about the world, designing and conducting investigations,
employing different strategies to obtain information, and communicating results. Activities such
as scientific investigations, experiments, project work, field work, group discussion, and debate
allow students to be actively engaged in the following processes. In the early grades, students
should be exposed to science as a “hands-on, minds on” process and encouraged to explore and
raise questions about the world around them. As they go up the grades, they should develop skills
to design and conduct investigations addressing self, as well as teacher-generated questions, and
involving identifying and controlling variables. Through the grades, students should develop
abilities to systematically collect and organize data and communicate investigations, culminating
in abilities to formulate explanations or models based on results of investigations. Among the
inquiry skills that should be developed through the years of schooling is analysing and evaluating
information, procedures, and claims. A person should not accept every piece of information
offered to him as true without some analysis. When confronted with a certain claim, one should
counter with: What is your basis for saying so? How do you know? Why do you say so? One
should always ask for supporting evidence, or search for further clarifying information. Moreover,
one must develop the skill to recognize faulty arguments or reasoning that lumps facts and opinions
together.

Science Schools in the Philippines and Philippines Science High Schools Systems (PSHSS)

The PSHSS offers an education that is humanistic in spirit, global perspective, and patriotic
in orientation. It is based on a curriculum that emphasizes science and mathematics and the
development of well-rounded individuals.

The PSHSS prepares its students for careers in Science and Technology and contributes to
nation building by helping the country attain a critical mass of professionals and leaders in Science
and Technology. Philippine Science High School System is an attached agency of the Department
of Science and Technology (DOST). The Board of Trustees (BOT), with the DOST Secretary as
the Chairman, is the highest policy making body of the PSHSS. Each PHSS campus is headed by
a Campus Director. The Executive Committee (ExeCom) is composed of all Campus Directors,
and headed by the Executive Director. The ExeCom is a collegial body that recommends policies
and guidelines for the consideration of the BOT.

The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project of the Department of Education
(DepEd)

The Department of Education through the Bureau of Elementary Education is

implementing the Specia Science Education (SSES) Project in pursuance to DepEd Order No.73,
s. 2008, DepEd Order No. 51, s. 2010 and the latest is DepEd Letter Unnumbered from theh
Director III, OIC, Office of the Director IV dated August 2, 2011.

The SSES Project envisions developing Filipino children who are equipped with scientific
and technological knowledge, skills and attitudes, creative and have positive values; and lifelong

41 | P a g e
learning skills to become productive partners in the development of the community and society.
Its mission is to provide a learning environment to science inclined children through a special
curriculum which recognizes multiple intelligences and is geared towards the development of God-
loving, nationalistic, creative, ecologically aware, scientifically and technologically oriented and
skilled individuals who are empowered through lifelong learning skills.

The program has three components: The School, the Learner and the Curriculum. The
learners in the SSES must exhibit the following characteristics:

1. On Physical/Psychomotor – must generally be healthy, alert and active and has heightened
sensory awareness.

2. On Intellectual/Academic Aspect – acquires knowledge fast and accurately, has quick mastery
and recall of factual information, superior reasoning ability, inquisitive and curious about a lot of
things, observant and quick to note details, reads books within and above his/her age, has a ready
grasp of underlying principles an can make valid generalizations, has a wide and well developed
vocabulary, has a large storehouse of information about variety of topics, can concentrate for long
period of time, can analyze ideas in different ways and other varied solutions to problems.

3. On Social/Emotional/Motivational Aspect – must be adaptable and flexible, independent,

enjoys doing challenging and different tasks, prefers to work independently and requires little
directions from teachers, is self-motivated in accomplishing his/her work another.

4. On Leadership/Creativeness – the SSES pupils participates actively in school/community

activities, is self-confident with children of his/her own age as well as adults, initiates worthwhile
activities, creates new ideas and products, gives original ideas or solutions to questions, has varied
interests and abilities, etc.

The SSES utilizes Science curriculum that will provide for the development of lifelong
learning skills and foster the holistic development of the child. The subject Science and Health is
taught starting in Grade I and provides longer instruction time in Science. In Grade I – III, 70
minutes and for Grade IV-VI, 8- minutes. The Curriculum also utilizes varied teaching
approaches/strategies to address the multiple intelligences, learning styles and needs of the
learners.

To enhance the operation of the project, financial subsidy is provided to the implementing
schools for the enhancement of teachers and school heads capability and participation to
conferences, trainings, seminars and immersion training in science oriented schools, development
of pupil activities such as investigatory projects, leadership training, workshops, payment of
internet subscription, procurement of instructional devices/facilities like science models,
apparatuses, video materials and software in Science, Mathematics and English including
maintenance and repair of said facilities. The Manila Science High School (MaSci) was established
in 1963. It was the first science high school in the country. It was patterned after the Bronx Science

42 | P a g e
High School of New York. 1963 was when the first batch that entered the pilot science high school
graduated. It started in 1959 with 36 students.

In 1964, the Philippine Science High School (PSHS) was established. It was under the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST). The premier science high school in the country,
it is considered among the top science high schools in the ASEAN. Aside from its main campus
in Diliman, Quezon City, it has 12 other regional campuses in the Philippines.

Aside from the PSHS and the MaSci, other science high schools were established to further
spread the education of those inclined in the sciences. The Department of Education (DepEd)
through the Local Government Units (LGUs) fund and administer these science high schools.
These are categorized accordingly: 1. Regional, 2. Provincial, 3. City

Science Framework for Philippine Basic Education , 2011 by the Science Education
Institute, Department of Science and Technology (SEI-DOST) and the University of the
Philippines National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development (UP
NISMED), Manila, Philippines Citation: SEI-DOST & UP NISMED, (2011). Science framework
for Philippine basic education. Manila: SEI –DOST & UP NISMED. ISBN 978-971-8600-46-7
Published by :Science Education Institute, Department of Science and Technology 1 st and 2nd
Levels, Science Heritage Building DOST Compound, General Santos Avenue Bicutan, Taguig
City, Metro Manila, Philippines Tel.Nos. (632) 837 – 1359, (632) 839-0241, Fax No. (632) 837-
1924 http://www.sei.dost.gov.ph / www.science-scholarships.ph and University of the Philippines
National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development E. Quirino Avenue, UP
Campus Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines Tel No. (632) 927 – 4276, Fax No. (632) 928 –
3545 http://www.upd.edu.ph/ismed/e-mail: [email protected]

43 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT:

Answer the following.

1. What is Science Education?

2. How does science education progress in our country?

3. What was the major impact of science education in the Philippines?

44 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 5
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Give the importance of indigenous science; and
2. Discuss the contribution of indigenous science in the development of science and
technology in the Philippines.

Indigenous Science and Technologies

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) are local knowledge developed over
centuries of experimentation by our ancestors and are passed orally from generation to generation.
It was proven to be a perfect scaffold to sustainable development connecting the past, present and
the future. However, these knowledge, systems and practices are at escalating rate of deterioration
due to consistent assimilation that resulted from the continuing loss of interest of these practices
from young people. Thus, empirical evidence to showcase importance to environmental protection
and cultural preservation are encouraged. Likewise, studies connecting these indigenous
knowledge and practices to academic curriculum are highly regarded to be influential in their
preservation. According to Baguilat (2009), IKSPs cover a broader scope that included all
traditional skills, laws, philosophy, rituals, livelihood, sciences and technologies of the
community. IKSPs were incorporated in several public secondary subjects. (Kinomis, X.2016).

What is Indigenous Science?

Like Western Science (WS), Indigenous Science (IS) relies upon direct observation for
forecasting and generating predictions; its power lies in its ability to make connections and
perceive patters across vast cycles of space and time. Indigenous scientists are trained in various
specializations such as herbalism, weather observations, mental health, and time keeping, and there
are tests to ensure IS validity.

One marked difference between the two sciences: Data from IS is not used to control the
forces of nature, but instead is used to find methods and resources for accommodating it. Other
critical distinctions apply to IS, including:

 Indigenous scientists are an integral part of the research process and there is a defined
process for ensuring this integrity.
 IS tries to understand and complete our relationships will all living things. All of nature is
considered to be intelligent and alive, thus an active research partner.
 The purpose of IS is to maintain balance.

45 | P a g e
  IS collapses time and space; our fields of inquiry and participation extend into and overlap
with past and present.
 IS is holistic, drawing on all senses, including the spiritual and psychic.
 The end-point of an IS process is an exact balance where creativity occurs.
 We always remain embodies in the natural world. In other words, when we reach the
moment/place of balance, we do not believe that we have “transcended”. Instead, we say
that we are normal.
 Humor balances gravity and is a critical ingredient of all truth seeking, even in the most
powerful rituals.

Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the knowledge that an indigenous (local)
community accumulates over generations of living in a particular environment. (Ryser RC.
2011). Available from: Indigenous forestry knowledge systems largely encompass local
technologies, innovations, know-how, skills, practices and beliefs uniting local people to
conserve forest resources and their cultural views. These have developed over thousands
of years of direct human contact with the environment (Armstrong et al. 2006).

Education and research opportunities for traditional ecological knowledge.

Traditional knowledge often refers to a more generalized expression of knowledge
associating a people or peoples with “time-honoured” ideas and practices associated with
an individual or family (Ryser RC. 2011). Indigenous people and traditional knowledge.
This knowledge is not limited to know-how, skills, innovations, practices, process, learning
and teaching, but also includes knowledge that is associated with biodiversity, traditional
lifestyles and natural resources (WIPO 2012-World Inttelectual Property Orgaization).
While distinctions exist between the meanings of the terms, there is also sufficient overlap;
hence, indigenous knowledge is often equated or used interchangeable with the term
traditional knowledge, local knowledge, traditional forestry practices, indigenous practices
and indigenous knowledge systems.
In the Philippines, about 14-17 million of the total population are indigenous
peoples belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups mainly concentrated in Northern Luzon
(33%) and Mindanao (61%), with few groups in the Visayas area (UNDP, 2010 United
Nations Development Program Philippines). Many of these indigenous peoples can be
found in remote forested and hilly uplands. Some have also stood their ground successfully
and maintained a close link with their ancestral past. (Molintas, J.2004).
Many indigenous peoples in the Philippines such as the Ifugaos in Cordillera
Mountains continued to thrive I their relatively remote and yet self-sufficient communities.
They were able to uphold their traditions as reflected in their music, dances, rituals folklore,
wood carvings, and agriculture and forestry practices. For instance, they believe that many
endemic trees such as Ficus spp. are associated with spirits (anito), so they conserved them
(Lim et.al. 2012). Traditional forest-related knowledge: sustaining communities,

46 | P a g e
 ecosystems and bicultural diversity. The indigenous peoples also observe customary laws
that lay the foundation for justice, unity and peace within their tribes.
However, the advent of colonial rules from the early 1700s to the late 1940s has led
to the unabated influx of migrants into ancestral domains (Molintas J. 2004). The
Philippine indigenous peoples’ struggle for land and life: challenging legal texts. This
contributed to gradual changes in many local practices and beliefs. For instance is the
ingress of Christian missionaries introducing new faith, agricultural technologies to
address food security, logging, construction of roads and other infrastructures for better
mobility, and formal educational systems.
Notwithstanding the transformations of many indigenous knowledge systems in the
Philippines, there remain intact traditional forestry practices that help promote sustainable
forest, management. However, there are limited studies on the relevance of these
indigenous knowledge and practices in the sustainable management of the indigenous
forest. This study was therefore conducted in order to identify and describe these
indigenous knowledge and practices as in the case of the Ifugao communities. In particular,
it described key indigenous practices in woodlot or watersheds or collectively known as
muyong for the sustainable management of the Ifugao forests.

47 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT:

1. What is Indigenous Science?

2. What is the importance of indigenous science in the development of science and technology?

3. Is indigenous science considered as science? Why?

48 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 6
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be should be able to:
1. Describe the human condition and reflect on the philosophical ramifications that are
meaningful to the student as a part of the society.
2. Critique human flourishing vis- à-vis the progress of science and technology so that the
students can define for himself/herself the meaning of the good life.
3. Describe the meaning of good life.

Science, Technology and Human Flourishing

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is the most significant thinker and the most accomplished
individual who has ever lived. Every person currently living in Western civilization owes an
enormous debt to Aristotle who is the fountain head behind every achievement of science,
technology, political theory, and aesthetics (especially Romantic art) in today’s world.

Aristotle bases the understand ability of the good in the idea of what is good for the specific
entity under consideration. For whatever has a natural function, the good is therefore thought to
reside in the function. The natural function of a thing is determined by its natural end. With respect
to living things, there are particular ways of being that constitute the perfection of the living thing’s
nature.

According to Aristotle, there is an end of all of the actions that we perform which we desire
for it. This is what is known as eudaimonia, flourishing, or happiness, which is desired for its own
sake with all other things being desired on its account. Eudaimonia is a property of one’s life when
considered as a whole. Flourishing is the highest good of human endeavours and that towards
which all actions aim. It is success as a human being. The best life is one of excellent human
activity.

For Aristotle, the good is what is good for purposeful, goal-directed entities. He defines
the good proper to human beings as the activities in which the life functions specific to human
beings are most fully realized. For Aristotle, the good of each species is teleologically immanent
to that species. A person’s nature as a human being proved him with guidance with respect to how
he should live his life. One’s own life is the only life that a person has to lie. It follows that, for
Aristole, the “good” is what is objectively good for a particular man. Because self-interest is
flourishing, the good in human conduct is connected to the self-interest of the acting person. Good
means “good for” the individual moral agent. Egoism is an integral part of Aristotle’s ethics.

49 | P a g e
 “The Science of Human Flourishing” is a bold and ambitious new project, bringing
together leaders in the fields of science, technology and theology to examine some of the key
elements that contribute to human flourishing. Science is taken in the broader sense of scentia,
which encompasses the whole range of human knowledge. Unlike a standard research grant, this
proposal deliberately spans a number of disciplines and seeks, in line with Sir John Templeton’s
donor intent, to gain new scientific and spiritual information that will enable human flourishing
or, as he himself put it, “a better way of life for all humanity”.

The academic research is combines with plans for dissemination of the new spiritual
information that will be generated, thus forming an integrated and comprehensive examination of
science and human flourishing. The whole project is centred on The Faraday Institute for Science
and Religion, which acts as a hub to coordinate, integrate and disseminate the research being
carried out.

Science as a Method and Results

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe
work. It is also the body of knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in
the universe. Science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis. Science is based on
fact, not opinion or preferences. The process of science is designed to challenge ideas through
research. One important aspect of the scientific process is that it is focuses only on the natural
world, according to the University of California. Anything that is considered supernatural does not
fit into the definition of science.

Scientific Theories and Laws

The scientific method and science in general can be frustrating. A theory is almost never
proven, though a few theories do became scientific laws. One example would be the laws of
conservation of energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics. Dr. Linda Boland, a
neurobiologist and chairperson of the biology department at the University of Richmond, Virginia,
told Live Science that this is her favourite scientific law. “This is one that guides much of my
research on cellular electrical activity and it states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
only changed in form. This law continually reminds me of the many form of energy, “she said.

A law just describes an observed phenomenon, but it doesn’t explain why the phenomenon
exists or what causes it, “In science, laws are a starting place, “said Peter Coppinger, an associate
professor of biology and biomedical engineering at the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology.
“From there, scientists can then ask the questions, “Why and How?”

Laws are generally considered to be without exception, though some laws have been
modified over time after further testing found discrepancies. This does not mean theories are not
meaningful. For a hypothesis to become a theory, rigorous testing must occur, typically across
multiple disciplines by separate groups of scientists. Saying something is “just a theory” is a

50 | P a g e
layperson’s term that has no relationship to science. To most people a theory is a hunch. A science,
a theory is the framework for observations and facts, Tanner told Live Science.

Verification Theory

The importance of meaning in the use of words and language cannot be quantified. Without
making clear the meaning of the words we use, communication will be vague. Meaning brings
about clarity and gives light to the understanding. This of course explains why we have a lot of
theories as regards meaning. Some of these theories fall under the category of denotation or
connotation.

The traditional doctrine of “meaning” process extension (the set of things a term is true of)
and intensions (something internal or mental concepts). The three modes of explanation of
meaning are the referential, the ideational and behavioural. The question to be posted here is: do
all meaningful expressions refer to something?

Falsification Theory

Falsifiability, according t the philosopher Karl Popper, defines the inherent testability of
any scientific hypothesis. Falsifiability is the assertion that for any hypothesis to have credence, it
must be inherently disprovable before it can become accepted as a scientific hypothesis or theory.
For example, someone might claim “the earth is younger than any scientist state, and in fact was
created to appear as though it was older through deceptive fossils etc,” This is a claim that is
unfalsifiable because it is theory that can never be shown to be false. If you were to present such
a person with fossils, geological data or arguments about the nature of compounds in the ozone,
they could refute the argument by saying that your evidence was fabricated to appeared that way,
and isn’t valid.

Science and philosophy have always worked together to try to uncover truths about the
universe we live in. Indeed, ancient philosophy can be understood as the originator of many of the
separate fields if study we have today, including psychology, medicine, law, astronomy, art and
even theology. Scientists design experiments and try to obtain results verifying or disproving a
hypothesis, but philosophers are interested in understanding what factors determine the validity of
scientific endeavours in the first place. While most scientists work within established paradigms,
philosophers question the paradigms themselves and try to explore our underlying assumptions
and definitions behind the logic of how we seek knowledge. Thus there is a feedback relationship
between science and philosophy – and sometimes plenty of tension.

Science as a Social Endeavour

There is no single scientific method that can be blindly followed. The process of science is
flexible and may take many possible paths. Science is done by unique individuals – not by
automated robots coldly following a routine without motivation, ambition, or creativity. Scientists

51 | P a g e
are people too. Many of them are passionately about their work, and many of them are intensely
creative. Their personalities, backgrounds, and goals are highly diverse. And finally, science is
embedded within a global scientific community. This community provides cultural norms,
expectations, and accumulated knowledge, which are essential to the expansion of scientific
knowledge. Real science is more complex – but also more human.

Science and Results

What does “Results” mean in Science?

Whether you’re listening to a lecture on the results of a study or are reading a scientific
journal, you’re bound to come across the word “results”. Simple on the surface but complex behind
the scenes, “results” mystifies even some advanced students of science. “Results” means, well,
results.

When scientist announces his study’s results, he’s telling the world the most important
findings in his study. When he mentions these results he often glosses over insignificant or
unimportant results if his study in favour of data underlying the conclusions that are most
important. Generally, the important results of a study are answers to the specific questions that
study set out to find: the reply to the specific, but not necessarily the overarching, question the
study asked. Results mean “Objective Results”. Science is objective by nature and the results of
science hold true to that objectivity.

Science as Education

Science is defined as “the intellectual and practical; activity that encompasses the
systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through
observation and experiment”. Science relies on the accumulation of previously acquired
knowledge. Scientists collaborate and learn from one another. They observe, test and experiment
so that new knowledge can be obtained.

Importance of Science Education in Schools

We are surrounded by technology and the products of science every day. Public policy
decisions that affect every aspect of our live are based in scientific evidence. And, of course, the
immensely complex natural world that surrounds us illustrates infinite scientific concepts. As
children grow up in an increasingly technologically and scientifically advanced world, they need
to be scientifically literate to succeed.

Ideally, teaching the scientific method to student’s teaching them how to think, learn, solve
problems and make informed decisions. These skills are integral every aspect of a student’s
education and life, from school to career.

52 | P a g e
 Science is everywhere. A student rides to school on a bus, and in that instance alone, there
are many examples of technology based on the scientific method. The school bus is a product if
many areas if science and technology, including mechanical engineering and innovation. The
systems of roads, lights, sidewalks and other infrastructure are carefully designed by civil
engineers and planners. The smartphone in the student’s hand is a miracle of modern computer
engineering.

Outside the window, trees turn sunlight into stored energy and create the oxygen we need
to survive. Whether “natural” or human-derived, every aspect of student’s life is filled with science
– from their own internal biology to the flat-screen TV in the living room.

In the fields of hard science, the process of inquiry is more direct and finite: Take a
question: use evidence to form an explanation; connect that explanation to existing knowledge;
and communicate that evidence-based explanation. Experimentation based on the scientific
method follows a similar course: Combine a scientific question to test that hypothesis; evaluate
the results to draw conclusions; and communicate those conclusions.

The Importance of Science in Early Education

Government guidelines and tests often focus on middle and high school level STEM
(science, technology, engineering and math) education. Yet, many educators believe science
education should begin much earlier. Not only does science education teach young leaders
problem-solving skills that will help them throughout their schooling, it also engages them in
science from the start.

Kids usually from a basic opinion about the sciences shortly after beginning school. This
is a negative opinion it can be hard to engage these students in science as they grow older.
Engaging young students with exciting material and experiences motivates them to learn and
pursue the sciences throughout school.

Science education is one of the most important subjects in school due to its relevance to
students’ lives and the universally applicable problem-solving and critical thinking skills it uses
and develops. These are lifelong skills that allow students to generate ideas, weigh decisions
intelligently and even understand the evidence behind public policy-making. Teaching technogical
literacy, critical thinking and problem-solving through science education gives students the skills
and knowledge they need to succeed in school and beyond.

53 | P a g e
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are 8 goals that UN Member
States have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015. The United Nations Millennium Declaration,
signed I September 2000, commits world leaders to combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy,
environmental degradation, and discrimination against women. The MDGs are derived from this
Declaration. Each MDG has targets set for 2015 and indicators to monitor progress from 1990
levels. Several of these relate directly to health.

While some countries have made impressive gains in achieving health-related targets other
are falling behind. Often the countries making the least progress are those affected by high levels
of HIV/AIDS, economic hardships or conflict.

Millennium Development Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Under nutrition which includes fetal growth restriction, shutting, wasting and deficiencies
of vitamin A and Zinc, along with suboptimal breastfeeding; is the underlying cause of death in an
estimated 45% of all deaths among children under 5 years of age. The proportion of underweight
children in developing countries has declined from 28% to 17% between 1990 and 2013. This rate
of progress is close to the rate required to meet the MDG target, however improvements have been
unevenly distributed between and within different regions.

Millennium Development Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a
full course of primary schooling. Literacy rates of 5-24 years of old, both sexes, percentage.

Millennium Development Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and to
all levels of education no later than 2015.

Millennium Development Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Reduce by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate. Globally,
significant progress has been made in reducing mortality in children less than 5 years of age. In
2013, 6.3 million of children fewer than 5 died compared with 12.7 million in 1990. Between 1990
and 2013, under-5 mortality declined by 49% from an estimated rate of 90 deaths per 1000 live
births to 46. The global rate of decline has also accelerated in recent years – from 1.2% per annum
during 1990-1995 to 4.0% during 2005 – 2013. Despite this improvement, the world is unlikely to
achieve the MDG target of a two-thirds reduction in 1990 mortality levels by the year 2015.

More countries are now achieving high levels of immunization coverage: in 2013, 66% of
Member States reached at least 90% coverage. In 2013, global measles immunization coverage

54 | P a g e
was 84% among children aged 12-23 months. During 2000-2013, estimated measles deaths
decreased by 74% from 481 000 to 124 000.

Millennium Development Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ration Achieve,
by 2015, universal access to reproductive health. To reduce the number of maternal deaths, women
need access to good-quality reproductive health care and effective interventions. In 2012, 64% of
women aged 15-49 years were married or in a consensual union were using some form of
contraception, while 12% wants to stop or postpone childbearing but were nit not using
contraception. The proportion of women receiving antenatal care at least once during pregnancy
was about 83% for the period 2007-2014, but for the recommended minimum of 4 or more visits
the corresponding figure drops to around 64%.

Millennium Development Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS Malaria and other diseases

Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Achieve, by 2010,
universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it. In 2013 an estimated 2.1
million people were newly infected with HIV – down from 3.4 million in 2001. By the end of 2013
about 12.9 million people were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally. Of these, 11.7
million lived in low-middle-income countries representing 36% of the estimated 32.6 million
people living with HIV in these countries should current continue the target of placing 15 million
people on ART by 2015 will be exceeded.

The coverage of interventions such as the distribution of insecticide-treated nets and indoor
residual spraying has greatly increased, and will need to be sustained in order to prevent the
resurgence of disease and deaths caused by malaria. Globally, the MDG target of halting by 2015
and beginning to reverse the incidence of malaria has already been met.

Tuberculosis

The annual global number of new cases of tuberculosis has been slowly falling for a decade
thus achieving MDG target 6.C to reverse the spread of the disease by 2015. In 2013, there were
estimated 9million new cases and 1.4 million deaths (including 360 000 deaths among HIV-
positive people).

Globally treatment success rates have been sustained at high levels since 2007, at or above
the target of 85%. However, multi0drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), which emerged
primarily as a result of inadequate treatment, continues to pose problems.

Other Diseases

MDG Target 6.C also includes neglected tropical diseases – a medically diverse group of
infectious conditions caused by a variety of pathogens. In 2013, only 6314 cases of human African

55 | P a g e
trypanosomiasis were reported, representing the lowest levels of recorded cases in 50 years. This
disease is now targeted for elimination as a public health problem by 2020. Dracunculiasis is also
on the verge of eradication with an historic low of 126 cases reported in 2014 and an on-going
WHO target of interrupting its transmission by the end of 2015.

Plans to eliminate leprosy as a public health problem worldwide by 2020 have also been prepared
and are being implemented. The elimination of visceral leishmaniasis as a public health problem
in the Indian subcontinent by 2020 is on track with a greater than 75% reduction in incident cases
recorded since the launch of programme in 2005. In the case of lymphatic filariasis, more than 5
billion treatments have been delivered since 2000 to stop its spread and of the 73 known endemic
countries 39 are on track to achieve its elimination as a public health problem by 2020.

Millennium Development Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

By 2015, halve of the portion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water
and basic sanitation. The world has now met the MDG target relating to access to safe drinking-
water. IN 2012, 90% of the population used an improved source of drinking-water compared with
76% in 1990. Progress has however been uneven across different regions, between urban and rural
areas, and between rich and poor.

With regard to basic sanitation, current rates of progress are too slow for the MDG target
to be met globally. In 2012, 2.5 billion people did not have access to improved sanitation faciltiies,
with 1 billion these people still practicing open defecation. The number of people living in urban
areas without access to improved sanitation is increasing because of rapid growth in the size of
urban population.

Millennium Development Goal 8: Develop a global partnership or development

In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential

medicines in developing counters. Many people continue to face a scarcity of medicines in the
public sector, forcing them to private sector where prices can be substantially higher. Surveys
undertaken from 2007-2013 show the average availability of selected generic medicines in 21 low
– and middle-income countries was only 55% in the public sector.

Even the lowest-priced generics can put common treatments beyond the reach of low-
income households in developing countries. The greatest price is paid by patients suffering chronic
diseases. Effective treatments for the majority of the global chronic disease burden exist, yet
universal access remains out-of-reach.

WHO Response

WHO works with partners to support national efforts to achieve the health-related MDGs,
WHO’s activities include: setting prevention and treatment guidelines and other global norms and

56 | P a g e
standards; providing technical support to countries to implement guidelines; analysing social and
economic factors and highlighting the broader risks and opportunities for health.

WHO assists national authorities as they develop health policies and plans, and helps
governments work eth development partners to align external assistance with domestic priorities.
WHO also collects and disseminates data on health so countries can plan health spending and track
progress.

57 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT:

1. What I the importance of human flourishing to science and technology?

2. What do you think constitute human flourishing?

58 | P a g e
ACTIVITY:

1. Brainstorming. – (By group). Determine the possible alternatives to growth and development.
List down several ways to promote sustainable living and start a mini campaign advocating the
method of your choice.

2. Public Events/Campaigns

Roleplaying. Ask students to organize a public event/campaign, such as a panel discussion, a

round table or a talk by a prominent person, can really help o the discussion about “Human
Flourishing”. Students can portray local academics and other experts, politicians, community
leaders and celebrities to talk on the topic.

3. Group Presentation. For each group, state a brief history or discovery that brought about the
invention or discovery of the things stated below. State their contributions in our scientific
development.

a. cell phones b. internet c. radio

d. televisions e. processed foods f. microscope
g. guns h. magnifying lens i. telescope
j. gravity

59 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 7
THE GOOD LIFE

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of the good life as posited by Aristotle;
2. Discuss how humans can attain what is deemed to be a good life;
3. Identify the possibilities available for the human being to attain the good life;
4. Examine shared concerns that make up the good life in order to come up with innovative,
creative solutions to contemporary issues guided by ethical standards.

Aristotle and Good Life

For Plato, the task of understanding the things in the world runs parallel with the job of
truly getting into what will make the soul flourish. In an attempt to understand reality and the
external world, man must seek to understand himself, too. It was Aristotle who gave definitive
distinction between the theoretical and practical sciences. Among the theoretical disciplines:
Aristotle included logic, biology, physics, and metaphysics, among others. Among the practical
ones, Aristotle counted ethics and politics. Whereas “truth” is the aim of the theoretical sciences,
the “good” is the end goal of the practical ones. Every attempt to know is connected is some way
in an attempt to find the “good” or as said in the previous lesson, the attainment of human
flourishing. Rightly so, one must find the truth about what s the good is before one can even try to
locate that which is good.

Aristotle is the first thinker into the problematization of the end of goal of life: happiness.
Aristotle embarked on a different approach in figuring out reality, he puts everything back to the
ground in claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this world is the only realty we can
access. For Plato, change is so perplexing that it can only make sense if there are two realities the
world of forms and the world of matters. When you try to see yourself in front of the mirror, you
normally say and think that you are looking at yourself. Plato recognized change as a process and
as a phenomenon that happens in the world, that in the reality of change, things remain and they
retain their ultimate “whatness”.

Aristotle disagreed with his teacher’s position Plato and forwarded the idea that there is no
reality over and above what the senses can perceive. It is only by observation of the external world
that one can truly understand what reality is all about. Change is a process that is inherent in things.
We, along with the other entities in the world, start as potentialities and move toward actualities.
Every human being moves according to some end. Every action that emanates from a human
person is a function of the purpose (telos) that the person has. Every human person, according to
Aristotle, aspires for an end. This end, we have learned is happiness or human flourishing.

60 | P a g e
 No individual resists happiness. We all want to be happy. Aristotle claims that happiness
is the be all and end all of everything that we do. We may not realize it but the end goal of
everything that we do is happiness. If you ask one person why he is doing what he is doing, he
may not readily say that it is happiness that motivates him. When Aristotle claims that we want to
be happy he does not necessarily mean the everyday happiness that we obtain when we win a
competition. What Aristotle actually means is human flourishing, a kind of contentment in
knowing that one is getting the best out of life. A kind of feeling that one has maxed out his
potentials in the world, that he has attained the crux of his humanity.

Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life

In the 18th century, John Stuart Mill, declared the greatest happiness principle by saying
that an action is right as far as it maximized the attainment of happiness for the greatest number of
people. At a time when people were sceptical about claims on the metaphysical, people could not
make sense of the human flourishing that Aristotle talked about in the days old. Mill said that
individual happiness of each individual; should be prioritized and collectively dictates the kind of
action that should be endorsed. Consider the pronouncements against mining. When an action
benefits the greatest number of people, said action is deemed ethical. Does mining benefit rather
than hurt the majority? Does it offer more benefit rather than disadvantages? Does mining result
in more people rather than sad? If the answers to the said questions are in the affirmative, then the
said action, mining, is deemed ethical. History has given birth to different schools of thought, all
of which aim for the good and happy life.

Materialism

The first materialists are the atomists in Ancient Greece. Democritus and Leucippus led a
school whose primary belief is that the world is made up of and s controlled by the tiny indivisible
units in the world called atomos or seeds. For Democritus and his disciples, the world, including
human beings, is made up of matter. Atomos simply comes together randomly to form the thngs
in the world. Only material entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes
us attain happiness. We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth
as the primary source of the meaning of their existence.

Hedonism

The Hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has
always been the priority of hedonists. For them, life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure
because life is limited. The mantra of this school of thought is the famous, “Eat, drink, and be
merry, for tomorrow we die”. Led by Epicurus, this school of thought also does not buy any notion
of afterlife just like the materialists.

61 | P a g e
Stoicism

Another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics espoused the idea that to generate
happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. The original term apatheia,
precisely means to be indifferent. The stoics, happiness can only be attained by a careful practice
of apathy. Adopt the fact that some things are not within our control. The sooner we realized this,
the happier we can be.

Theism

Many people find the meaning of their lives using God as fulcrum of their existence. The
Philippines as a predominantly catholic country is witness to how people base their life goals on
beliefs that hinged on some form of supernatural reality called heaven. The ultimate basis of
happiness for theists is the communication with God. The world where we are in is only just a
temporary reality where we have to maneuver around while waiting for the ultimate return to the
hands of God.

Humanism

Another school of thought is humanism where it espouses to freedom of man to carve his
own destiny and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and
controls. The humanist, man is literally the captain of his own ship. Inspired by the enlightenment
in seventeenth century, humanists see themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but as
individuals who are in control of themselves and the world outside them. This is the spirit of most
scientists who thought that the world is a place and space for freely unearthing the world in seeking
for ways on how to improve the lives of its inhabitants.

Scientist of today meanwhile is ready to confront more sophisticated attempts at altering

the world for the benefit of society. Some people now are willing to tamper with time and space
in the name of technology. As an example social media has been so far a very effective way of
employing technology in purging time and space. Not very long ago, communication between two
people from two continents in the planet will involve months of waiting for a mail to arrive. Today
communication between two people wherever they are just possible but easy.

We agree or not technological advancements, these are all undertaken in the hopes of
achieving good life. Balance between the good life, ethics, and technology has to be attained.

62 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT:

1. In your own opinion, what constitutes a good life?

2. What is the relationship between the good life and science?

3. How will technology lead us to all the good life? Why?

63 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 8
WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Evaluate contemporary human experience to strengthen the human person functioning in
society;
2. Discuss the importance of human rights in the face of changing social conditions and
technological development; and
3. Identify laws or policies in the country that protect the well-being of the person in
technological advancement and ethical dilemmas.

The good life entails living in a just and progressive society whose citizens have the
freedom to flourish. The human person has the autonomy to make choices which may enable the
flourishing of his/her self and society. The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on December 10, 1948 as the global standard of
fundamental human rights for universal recognition and protection. The UDHR begins, “Whereas
recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the
human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world” (UDHR Preamble). As
implied, everyone has absolute moral worth by virtue of being human. Human dignity is an
ultimate core value of our existence. When we fully recognize and appreciate this truth in ourselves
and in all the persons around us, regardless of their status in life, then we pave the way for a just
and progressive society. It is in this kind of society that we are able to become fully human—more
free when we are empowered to make choices for our flourishing. We become more loving when
we ensure that human dignity lies at the foundation of our endeavors, whether scientific or not. It
entails knowing one’s fundamental human rights that must always be protected in the face of
changing conditions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The UDHR explicates the fundamental human rights in 30 articles. It outlines inalienable
human rights that are vital and necessary in the pursuit of the good life. These are the freedoms
everyone is entitled to and guaranteed by virtue of being human. The first article states the essential
principle of being human in a just, free, and rational society. Everyone is born free and equals in
dignity and rights. To common experience, however, does not always manifest such truth. More
often than not, those who have more to offer are given special treatment. The good life,
nevertheless, as a life of justice, demands not just equal treatment of human beings but also
preferential treatment to those who have less or are disadvantaged. The first seven articles of the
UDHR encapsulate the spirit of this so-called “milestone document in the history of human rights.”
They are as follows:

64 | P a g e
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason
and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction
of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis
of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person
belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of
sovereignty.

Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all
their forms.
Article 5

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Article 6

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the
law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration
and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Humans vs. Robots

The rise of the machines accompanying the progress in Science and Technology may
render human useless. Manual labor is gradually being replaced by machinery. Computers become
more and more sophisticated. Robots, usually designed like human beings, are created to perform
complex, repetitive, or dangerous tasks. With the development of artificial intelligence (AI), robots
may also eventually act and decide like humans. In the possibility that machines adopt the nature
of humans, there is a need to reflect on the ethical problems posed by such development.

Though the Philippines has not yet reached the point of producing robots on a commercial
scale for household use, it still behooves us to ponder the ramifications of replacing persons with
machinery. Much as the BBC News has reported that experts in South Korea are crafting ethical
guidelines to prevent human from exploiting robots and vice versa (Evans, 2007), and that

65 | P a g e
roboticists in Europe are lobbying for government legislation, such as reality is generally unheard
of in the Philippines. To Filipinos, artificial intelligence seems like a stuff of science fiction
movies. Be that as it may, its use in the country is surely gaining ground, especially in the business
process outsourcing (BPO) industry. Technology enables the growth of the BPO industry but it
seems that it is also technology that will kill the industry as we know it. Investors and business
people find as a sure return of investments the use of business analytics is a means by which
consumer and industry data are used to come up with better decision-making. With the help of AI,
decisions now arise from sophisticated statistical analyses made from massive data. As of August
2017, it is estimated that a million Filipino BPO workers may be affected and lose their jobs with
the adoption of artificial intelligence (Santos, 2017).

Unemployment is only one of the many ethical considerations in the widespread use of AI.
What does this mean for human beings who can be replaced by machines? Is the value of the
person inversely proportional to that of a machine exhibiting artificial intelligence? How do we
guard against mistakes committed by machines? These points are but a sample of the questions
that should be resolved when faced with technology that may become a threat to human dignity
and security. In the future, when machines and robots become more human-like, with all the
attendant feelings and thoughts, people may also have to consider the ethical treatment for AI.

It is also interesting to note that as machines and robots approach having a human-like
nature, humans may also have the tendency to become machine-like. Since many of the things
people need, from conveniences to information, are available with just the touch and swipe of the
fingertips, human begin to functions more like automatons. The internet has become an instant go-
to tool for answers to questions. More often than not, people accept what the search engine, like
Google, spews out in byte sizes and forget how process, read, think further, or put things in context.
As the internet gets more intelligent, we are in danger of becoming less so. In the article, “Is google
making us stupid?” Nicolas Carr (2008) asserted that “as we come to rely on computers to mediate
our understanding of the world, it is our own intelligence that flattens into artificial intelligence.”

The development of society along with science and technology gives rise to more and more
complex issues. What is vital is that, at the very least, we are able to protect and exercise human
rights for everyone that amid these developments, human beings become more free, more rational,
and more loving in our practice of science and technology.

As we examine contemporary issues in science and technology—information, genetically

modified organisms, nanotechnology, and climate change—we keep in mind that the building of
a just and progressive society entails the constant practice of the good. It may be exhibited in
exceptional scientific methodologies, personal virtue, social responsibility, and global concern.

66 | P a g e
ACTIVITY:

Search for national policies or laws that address the ethical and moral concerns in the
technological era.

67 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 9
INFORMATION SOCIETY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the human and social impacts of the developments in the information age;
2. Discuss the evolution of technology from the ancient times up to the present; and
3. Illustrate how social media have affected their lives.

Humans are surrounded on all sides by technology claiming to supply information:

television, smart phones, internet and devices, among others. However, do they all provide
information or just noise? More voices are trying to get our attention but how can we be sure that
they share knowledge and the truth?

To answer this basic question, a short historical backgrounder might prove useful.

Before the printed word, the written word was prevalent. Yet, the intent to carry
information has always been present.

Information

A word is a combination of sounds that represents something. It is this significance which

makes words distinct from just any kind of vocal utterance. Words are made up of sounds and yet
they transmit something more significant. They transmit a message. The words “informed”
because they carry “infotmation” (Chaisson, 2006; Ben-Naim, 2015). Words are informed with
meaning given by the speaker and intended for the listener. Simply put, they communicate
meaning.

The Role of Language

In the human quest for understanding the natural world, the ability to name and classify
objects found in nature was seen as a first step in knowing. Thus, the scientific search for truth
early on recognized the usefulness of language and the ability it gave to make sense of nature. For
the ancient greeks, language was an object worthy of admiration. Words have power.

This kind of knowing sprang from the Greek fascination and wonder at the power of words
and language. How is it possible that one’s idea can simultaneously exist in his/her mind and in
another’s? how is it possible that human beings can communicate through words and thus form a
community? Does the power of the communicated word come from the speaker, who is the thinker
and the source, or from the listener, who is the recipient of the communication? However, you
answer these points, it is clear that thinking in terms of a common system being generated by the

68 | P a g e
speaker and received by the listener is useful in the pursuit of knowledge. Science, from the Latin
word scire (meaning to know), is one kind of knowledge the Greeks wanted to understand.

The idea of comprehending words as more than just combinations of sounds led the Greeks
to seek out the principles of everyday language. When talking to other people, for example, a
meaningful message is created using ordinary sounds. Its meaning is also not diminished by
multiplication—the speaker can use the same words over and over again to talk to ten, a hundred,
or even a thousand people separately or at the same time. Nevertheless, the same message will be
received by everyone. Words, therefore, can function across space and time without reducing their
meaning.

The first philosophers, as they thrashed about groping for the seeking a unifying principle
in nature, sometimes hit upon things such as fire or water. But they believed that something was
common in all of these. The many seemingly different things in the natural world must have a
unifying factor. There was an inside to be “understood”. They sought for this meta phusis, literally
meaning “after nature” (De Chardin, 1965).

Plato’s principle of “One and Many” refers to the underlying unity among diverse beings
in the natural world. For Plato, there is a common intrinsic natured shared by different objects,
which determines their real sense. Biologists devised a way to illustrate this principle using a
system differentiating between genus and species. Many species belong in one genus.

In the 21st century, we are aware more than ever that there is rich diversity in nature, which
technology has allowed us to discover (BANWA Natural Science, 2008).

Mathematics as the Language of Nature

Technology in the modern world is the fruit of science. Because the scientific method
helped people discover how nature behaves, they were able to control nature with technology. A
more accurate statement is: since people have discovered the laws and language of nature, they
can develop technology that uses these laws and language for their benefit. This language is, of
course, mathematics, the great contribution of Isaac Newton. Nature can be understood because it
speaks in the language of mathematics and the human brain, to a certain extent, can comprehend
this language (Wigner, 1960). Unfortunately, this fact is not always appreciated.

Technological World

The ability to think and conceptually comprehend nature and the principles it follows
eventually leads to science. Even in ancient times, Western thinkers harnessed the forces of nature
after understanding them better. Lost in antiquity is the first sailing vessel that worked through the
power of the wind. Similarly, it was never recorded when the early people realized that fire has its
own power and energy. Not all early inventions are lost in time. However, Hero of Alexandria, for
instance, would invent a primitive steam engine in the first century (Paul Davies, 1990).

69 | P a g e
The Printing Press and Beyond

The power of the eidos, or idea, would be witnessed in the succeeding centuries of
development in the West. The ancient fascination with language gave rise to the preservation of
the words of earlier people at the same time when the West weakened itself due to internecine
warfare and conflicts. Throughout this dark period, the importance of the word—the power to be
informed as a human being—led to the transmission of ideas through hand—copying. From this
manual action would arise the technology that would transform cultures—the printing press. The
development of the printing press, which may be regarded as the beginning of a true revolution,
could be dated to the 15th century. Through this technology, the ancient Greek idea that knowledge
should be shared and communicated among humans would actually be done on a scale unimagined
by its thinkers. Using the printing press, people on different sides of the world could share their
thoughts and ideas with each other, forming communities of thinkers across space and time
(Connell, 1958).

The world has never looked back. This technological invention allowed words ad scientific
ideas to establish a view of nature anchored in scholarly works and studies. For instance, new
discoveries about the phenomenon of electricity were eagerly absorbed by fellow scientists who
then utilized the science to create other technological products. The radio was built upon the wave
nature of electricity and magnetism, and from there, television followed.

In the age of information, the transmission of ideas has undergone changes. Meaning and
depth are no longer conveyed strictly by rhetoric but rather by its electronic replacement, the digital
signal or digit. Such a digital world is a direct offspring of the progressing world of technology
built upon the many advances in science (Toffler, 1984).

The World Wide Web

A more modern example of technology feeding upon itself is the 20 th century tour de force:
The World Wide Web through the internet. Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented it as a way of addressing
data processing and information sharing needs among scientists for the European Organization for
Nuclear Research (CERN). CERN’s atom smasher produces a huge amount of scientific data every
second. It thus required better data analyzers to work on the gathered information in coordination
with each other. While the telegraph and telephone had allowed the transmission of information to
transcend physical boundaries, processing a veritable ocean and mountain of scientific data
generated by the atom smasher needed a new medium.

With the ease of sharing information at present, its reliability becomes compromised.
Anyone with a connection to other people can produce contents which are showing half-truths or
even lies, giving rise to disinformation. Social media also encourages building a community of
like- minded people. The creation of these groups often reinforces biases and beliefs based only
on the content that they allow within the community, foregoing the variation and clash of ideas
provided in real life. Worse, these communities can be tapped by people in power who may take

70 | P a g e
advantage of these mechanisms—controlling public opinion and harassing those who present
opposing views—for their own advantage. Meanwhile the easy access to personal information
makes one susceptible to online predation, identify theft, and scamming among others. Thus, it
pays to be vigilant in utilizing these modern devices at all times.

The technology applied when a sailor rigs up a piece of cloth to catch the wind is the same
one that produces modern machines and devices, albeit less complex. Nevertheless, human beings
have always found a way to address their needs and discover new frontiers with scientific thinking.
Considering the many benefits we get from these technologies, we must also be responsible in
utilizing them to avoid harming others and ourselves.

71 | P a g e
 REFLECTION:

1. Which developments in the information age brought significant changes in the way
you live your life today?
2. How did the transmission of information evolve from the ancient times up to the
present?
3. How did the printing press change the course of history? What ideas were spread
using this invention.
4. Social media is a technology which facilitates the sharing of information, ideas and
other content in different parts of the globe. If social media was deactivated for a
month in the country, what could possibly happen?
5. Social media also poses certain risks especially in the dissemination of false
information. As a student, how will you use social media to ensure that you do not
propagate inaccurate and unreliable information?

72 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 10
BIODIVERSITY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the interrelatedness of society, the environment, and health;
2. Explain the process of genetic engineering; and
3. Discuss the ethics, implications, and potential future impacts of GMOs.

From the early times, when ancient philosophers of nature tried to explain all things as
coming from the elements of water, fire, air, or earth, science sought for the common characteristic,
a unifying element, in all of nature’s many phenomena. There was a growing awareness of how
all living things are related to each other, an idea called biodiversity. This recognition started when
naturalists began to classify organisms in the natural world using taxonomy, a system devised by
Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Still used in the biological sciences today, taxonomy is the
hierarchical system of classifying and naming organisms. It builds on the ability of the mind to
find the common in the diverse, the One in the Many. It is a system commonly used today and
shows that though the living organisms in the world are so diverse, they still share many traits.

Where several different species and genera cohabitate, there is rich biodiversity. One of the
basic laws of the living is that of self-preservation. An organism will sacrifice all it has to ensure
its survival. However, with a limited amount of resources, how do the many living organisms of a
diverse region survive? The answer lies in the way the available energy supply in the world is
shared among the different species through the various ecological relationships. The energy needed
to live is shared among the elements of the living world, or passed on from one to another.

Biotechnology

The Biodiversity International has released a module titled “Law and policy of relevance
to the management of plant genetic resources” (Bragdon et al., 2005) which aims to help
professionals in managing, conserving, and using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
The module provides the following definitions:

1. Biotechnology uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives, thereof, to make

or modify products or processes for a specific use.
2. Genetic engineering is a technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one
source to another. It leads to the production of living modified organisms (LMO’s) or
genetically modified organisms (GMO’s).
3. Modern biotechnology gives scientists molecular tools for obtaining a better understanding
of the structure and function of genes in living organisms.

73 | P a g e
 Modern biotechnology paves the way for new developments on food and agriculture.
Particularly, it aims to develop new precision tools and diagnostics; speed up breeding
gains and efficiency; develop pest-and disease-resistant crops; combat salinity, drought,
and problems of agriculture; enhance the nutritional quality of food; increase crop varieties
and choice; reduce inputs and production costs; and increase profits (Bragdon, et al., 2005).

Genetically Modified Organisms

Based on evolutionary theory, the concept of survival of the fittest implies that
living organisms have a natural spectrum of characteristics such as size, mass, or length.
The characteristics of an organisms and its successors can be modified today by modern
technology, giving rise to what are called genetically modified organisms or GMOs (Mayr,
2001).
A GMO is a plant, animal, microorganism, or other organism whose genetic
makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (also called gene splicing),
gene modification, or transgenic technology. It is the result of a laboratory process where
genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially inserted into the genes of
an unrelated plant or animal, also called genetic engineering (GE) or genetic modification
(GM). Because this process involves the transfer of genes, GMO’s are also known as
“transgenic” organisms.
Genetic modification aims to address issues with regard to food security,
agriculture, drug production, and nutrition.
To understand better the controversy over GMO, the actual process to achieve such
an organism will be discussed.
The information about the microbe and its reproduction mechanisms are contained
in its gene structure. The first step in the process is the identification of the desired train
trait from another organism. A gene containing this trait is first isolated and replicated.
Next, the insertion of the trait happens. What is being transferred from one organism to
another is not the whole gene but only sections of the gene that carry the particular
characteristic that will be integrated into the adult organism. After the successful insertion,
the modified organism should be able to grow and replicate.
In the process of recombinant DNA technology, the needed information for an
organism can be borrowed from another. Such a process means that a farmer can “design”
organism to have the characteristic necessary to address particular issues. For example, a
farmer may want the crops to have less chance of getting bruised due to rough handing. If
an organism containing a gene that prevents bruising in the mature fruit (employing the
science of genetics) could be found, then this characteristic could then be used to modify
the crops through the process of recombinant gene technology.
However, because GMO’s are novel life forms, biotechnology companies were also
able to obtain patents which restrict their use. As a result, some companies that make
GMO’s could have the power to sue farmers whose fields are contaminated with these

74 | P a g e
 organisms, even when it is the result of inevitable drifting from neighboring fields
(Nicholson, 2014). GMO’s therefore, may pose a serious threat to farmer sovereignty and
to the food security of a country.
The promise of better food that is more resistant to spoilage, pest invasiveness, and
harsh weather conditions has made transgenic crops enticing to many people. It is a truly
debatable topic for the people of the 21st century, given the promise of this technology and
yet the fact that it is very new. Should it be embraced as a saving grace or is it to be feared
as a possible threat to a sustainable food supply?

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

The case above contextualizes the country’s signing of the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety. The Protocol is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe
handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMO’s) resulting from modern
biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into
account risks to human health. It takes a precautionary approach by making sure that
countries are provided with the data necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing
to the import of such organisms into their territory.
The Philippines recognizes the technologies that can be of particular help for its
development. Since the Philippines is one of the biodiversity “hotspots” in the world, it is
helpful to know how biotechnology will progress in the country.

75 | P a g e
 REFLECTION:
1. What role does the environment play in addressing the needs of a society?
2. How can people maintain the rich biodiversity in nature?
3. In your own words, how is an organism’s genome manipulated?
4. What are the pros and cons of genetically modifying crops?
5. Will you eat GMOs? Why or why not?

76 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 11
THE NANO WORLD

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Define the major potential and realized impacts of nanotechnology on society;
2. Analyze nanotechnology through the conceptual STS lenses; and
3. Examine the costs and benefits to society of nanotechnology.

In the pursuit of science and technology, humans are now dealing more and more with a
world not seen by the naked eye. This is no surprise as the study of science keeps leading us beyond
the world of everyday. The information we search for is always available in nature but we need
tools to harvest it. The nani world, like the other scientific principles, provides both knowledge
and instrument to control nature.

Why nano?

The term “nano” refers to a unit meaning one billionth or ten raised to negative nine (10−9 ).
For example, a nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Hence, “nano” express a very tiny amount
or size.

Nanostructures can be found in nature. Catalysts, minerals and other particles are measured
on a nano scale. A single strand of DNA is about three nanometers wide. Nanoscience, therefore,
deals with materials that are very small using specialized microscopes and other nanodevices.

Just as we are not aware of the air we breathe or the molecules constantly feeding our cells
at every second, we are also not conscious of these very little particles. Since the nano world cannot
be seen by the naked eye, it was only identified after technology has allowed for the discovery of
nanostructures. Without the microscope and its attendant technology, people would not even be
aware of how this tiny world surrounds and affects us. But what is the purpose of dealing with
such small entities?

Nanotechnology refers to the manipulation of matter on an atomic or subatomic scale.

Some innovations developed in this field include microprocessors and strain-resistant fabrics. In
the future, as nanoscience and nanotechnology progress, more breakthroughs are expected to arise
in the different fields of science, hopefully resolving problems in health, environment, and
security, among others.

77 | P a g e
REFLECTION:

1. What are the other examples of nanostructures?

2. What tools can manipulate nanostructures?
3. How can nanotechnology be used in the prevention and treatment of illnesses?
4. What is another example of a nanotechnology and how does it work?

78 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 12
GENE THERAPY

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Describe gene therapy and its various forms;
2. Discuss the prevalence of gene therapy in daily life; and
3. Explore the opportunities that may be opened by gene therapy in the future.

The last technology that will be tackled in this chapter is gene technology. In the previous
chapter, the nano world that contains atoms and molecules was introduced. This chapter will now
focus on the developments in the nano world as applied to the animate or the living.

When identifying the contribution of technology to biology, the first place to look would
be the field of human health. The whole vast concerns of human health including aging, disease
treatment and prevention, and diet and general lifestyle have greatly benefited from technology.
Medicine is one example of a scientific and technological innovation that made a breakthrough in
the area of human health. Before aspirin was ever understood in the nano level, it had been known
for its effects. Pain of various forms could be relieved and softened by this medicine. The aspirin
was already an “old” technology at the beginning of the 21 st century. The more recent findings in
the area of nano and gene science can be incorporated to medicine. If new discoveries on the areas
of molecular and atomic physics are applied to the biological basic building blocks–the genes–
even greater technologies for human health may be found.

Suppose scientists would like to fashion a gene to counter cancer cell growth. After several
steps of developing the technology, its success would still depend on its science and
implementation. To achieve the goal, the harmful gene has to be found among the 46 such
structures in the ordinary cells of the person. The specific part of that gene doing the problem
should be identified. Afterwards, that section of the gene must be removed and replaced with the
“correct” or developed gene part to complete the therapy. This process would then correct the
misinformation encoded in the whole gene.

The financial cost of this therapy is not trivial. Each of the steps mentioned requires
expertise and technological skill. Therefore, gene therapy can be costly.

79 | P a g e
REFLECTION:

1. Research on the various forms of gene therapy. How are they done?

2. What are the recent development in gene therapy?

3. Stem cell treatment has been a subject of debates since the early 21 st century. What do you think
urgently needs to be treated by gene therapy? Justify your answer.

4. What health condition do you think urgently needs to be treated by gene therapy? Justify your
answer.

5. Do you think the average human lifespan will change 20 years from now? Why or why not?

80 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 13
CLIMATE CHANGE

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Explain how to climate change happens;
2. Provide pieces of evidence to affirm the presence of climate change; and
3. Discuss the implications of climate change.

Climate is not similar to weather which is constantly changing. Climate refers to the long-
term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of a planet. The term comes from a Greek word
klinein meaning “to slope”. It evolved into klima, connoting a zone or region of the Earth
characterized by its atmospheric conditions. In ancient Greece, the orb of the sun stood at a high
angle in the sky at noontime as ships sailed toward the north, and the daytime temperature of the
air would get colder. Hence, the klima in the north was colder than in the south.

Another consideration in explaining climate change is the interaction between the sun and
the Earth. The best way to visualize this relationship is to look at the orbit of the Earth around the
sun. with the sun in the center, the Earth moves in an elliptical motion.

Earth’s movement around the sun

While the orbit remains an ellipse, its position or orientation in space changes over time.
Due to the tilt of the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight. The Earth
spins around its own axis, an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole, which dips and
wobbles gradually. The Earth could then be imagined like a spinning top or trumpo, turning and
wobbling in its path about the sun.

The elements in the interaction between the sun and the Earth are defined as follows:

1. Aphelion refers to the point in the orbit of the Earth farthest from the sun.

2. Perihelion is the point in the orbit of the Earth closest to the sun.

3. Earth’s axial tilt is the inclination angle of the Earth’s rotational axis in relation to a line
perpendicular to its orbital plane.

4. Precession is the change of the orientation of the rotational axis of the Earth.

81 | P a g e
5. Equinox refers to the time the sun at noon is directly over the equator. It happens twice a year
and causes an equal length of day and night.

6. Solstice happens when the sun at noon sits above the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn.
The summer solstice has the longest period of daylight in the year and the winter solstice has the
shortest period.

7. Precession of the equinoxes refers to the motion of the equinoxes relative to the precession of
the Earth’s axis of rotation. It happens over thousands of years.

Milankovitch Parameters

There have been eras of climate change in the past. Is it possible that the 21 st century may
introduce yet another dramatic changes in the climate? Is there enough information to answer the
age-old question of “what will the weather be tomorrow” (Ciliberto, 2015)? There is a growing
body of data suggesting that the climate, not just the local day-to-day weather, is changing all over
the world. In fact, since the end of the 20 th century, many scientists have asked if the Earth is
headed for another Ice Age (Sparks & Hawkesworth, 2004).

This concern raises the question as to what causes such dramatic changes in the day-to-day
weather and climate. It was addressed as early as the 1930s by Slovak scientist and meteorologist
Milutin Milankovitch. His interest in the daily weather patterns led him to investigate the deeper
issues: Do weather and climate come ultimately from the sun so that it is the sun and its relation
to Earth that accounts for the change in the climate? Is it possible that as the distance of the sun to
the Earth changes, the Earth is affected enough to cause climate to change? He knew that it has
long been said by astronomers that the distance from the sun to the Earth is constant as shown by
the orbital radius of the Earth. Likewise, the tilt of the North Pole of the Earth has always been
relative to the plane of the solar system. Finally, the North Pole of the Earth is also relative to the
stars as the Earth circles the sun over many years. But could all of these very small changes in the
amount of radiation reaching the Earth from the sun bring about the huge change in the climate of
the Earth?

His contemporary scientists critiqued his work, saying that the effects of the change in the
tilt of the spin of the Earth’s orbit, the change in the tilt of the spin of the Earth and the wobble in
the spin axis (now called Milankovitch parameters), while real, were each so small that they
could not alter the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth enough to cause a phenomenon like the
Ice Age. Milankovitch’s calculations indicated that there would be indeed be a change but seemed
far too small to cause an Ice Age. Even the cumulative effect would simply be to tiny to matter. It
could not be proven that one caused the other and hence could not be qualified as a scientific fact
or genuine theory.

82 | P a g e
 Milankovitch believed he was on to something so much that he wanted to b=validate his
theoretical calculations. The work was time-consuming and tedious. Since this was the early 20 th
century, no modern computing devices were available for him to use. Even the electronic adding
machine was not invented yet. With the technology at hand, he could not prove that mathematics
was correct. (Gleick, 1987).

Nevertheless, the mathematical expressions of the Laws of Nature as first enunciated by

Isaac Newton in the 17th century have some subtle features that might help explain the role of the
Milankovitch parameters in changing climate.

The equation of the Laws of Nature allow for cumulative or summative effects. If the sun
warms a small piece of land, it can warm a larger piece of land in the same way. If a cup of water
can be heated by one degree, two cups can be heated in the same way, one cup after another. But
what if the two cups are added together? Can the sum be heated with the same amount of energy?
No, twice as much heat would then be needed. The laws of science seem quite consistent and
reasonable. But French mathematical physicist Henri Poincare showed that mathematically, this
simple cumulative or summing process need not be as straightforward as it might seem (Zeh,
2007).

Using the computer, scientists went back to the mathematical equations that described how
the sun-Earth relationship causes the climate to change over thousands and even millions of years.
They have come to realize that changing the Milankovitch parameters over long periods of time
can indeed have a cumulative effect far greater that it appears at first glance. This discovery is part
of what has been called a “new” science called Chaos theory (Gleick, 1987).

In summary, it can thus be seen that science has been reviewing for decades the issue of
how and why the climate changes, especially with regard to explaining the Ice Age. Milankovitch
studied whether or not the direct amount of sunlight falling on Earth was the cause of the Ice Age.
He reasoned that over thousands of years, the relative position of the Earth and sun changes,
causing variations in the solar radiation reaching the Earth over thousands of years. He knew that
the change would be very small at any one time but he wanted to see if the cumulative effect could
be sufficient to cause the ice in the North Pole region to grow massively enough over time to lead
to the Ice Age. By the end of the century, the mathematics had advanced and more data became
available. As a result, scientists are more open to new theories that could be verified by examining
if the data and predictions conform to one or more mathematical theories. With the advent of chaos
theory, it semms that the Milankovitch theory might in fact be relevant to the question of long-
term climate change (Stewart, 2002).

83 | P a g e
Global Warming

The Milankovitch parameters seems to be part of the cause of climate change, though not
the only cause. Some of other factor seems to be needed. Today, as the world considers climate
change and its implications on food security and national development, many nations are taking a
deeper look a deeper look at the science behind the issue.

Most of the scientists who study climate change agree that the average temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere has been increasing by over 90% in the latter part of the 20th century. What are
the causes of this phenomenon (Rees, 2001)?

There are two opposing arguments on the issue of whether or not this global warming is
just “natural”. One side states that nature, simply acting according to its laws with no reference to
human beings and their actions, is the main reason. For the purveyors of this belief, global warming
will happen as naturally as the suns rises and sets. Meanwhile, the other side maintains that global
warming is caused or greatly abutted by the actions of human beings. It lays the blame on the
actions of humanity, past and present.

An oft-cited fact to better understand global warming is the temperature of the planet versus
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Gases

The so-called greenhouse effect refers to how certain gases in the atmosphere trap the heat
of the sun. as early as 1859, British engineer John Tyndall wrote:

As a dam built across a river causes a local deepening of the of the stream, so our
atmosphere, thrown across the terrestrial [infrared] rays, produces a local heightening of the
temperature at the Earth’s surface (quoted in Weart, 2003, p.4).

His words mean that the atmosphere contains certain gases that naturally capture the heat
from the sun and hold it in so that the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere becomes hotter than
it would be otherwise. This mechanism is good for the biosphere because without it, the Earth’s
atmosphere would be like that of Mars and Antartica—extremely cold. Life can be sustained at
planet Earth due to these gases and other elements.

In the middle of the 19th century, Tyndall noted that the most prevalent of these greenhouse
gases is water vapor. Meanwhile, the amount of CO 2 was miniscule. Tyndall, however, was
concerned as to what would become of the Earth’s atmosphere if industrialization became
widespread. Industrialization is the conversion of an agrarian economy into an industrialized one
on a large scale. Since machines are primarily used in an industry, the production of electricity by
means of burning fossil fuel—usually coal—increases. In Tyndall’s time, manufacturing plants
were not as widespread so the by-product of burning fuel, CO2, was not great enough to be an issue.

84 | P a g e
 In a century’s time, the situation changed. With the Second World War and the
changes in the geo-political arena, the industrialization of many nations has directly affected the
amount of CO2, in the atmosphere. This led Charles David Keeling, an American scientist in the
mid-20th century, to find out if the increased burning of fossil fuel and the consequent release of
CO2, in the atmosphere. He began to measure the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere of a place far
away from the industrialized nations—on an extinct volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Pacific
Ocean (Weart, 2003). The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the continuous measurements of
data taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.

The graph shows that the concerns of Engr. Tyndall in the mid-19th century and Dr. Keeling
in the mid-20th century were well-founded. The carbon dioxide concentration has gone up and
temperature has also risen. These findings are the solid proofs of global warming.

But how can scientists account for the correlation between the amount of CO 2 and the
temperature? Is the temperature higher because of the CO 2 is higher or are the values simply a
coincidence at this time in history? Just because a thing follows something else does not prove a
cause-and-effect relationship. Therein lies the cotemporary debate.

Scientists turned to history and technology to substantiate that there is a causal relationship
between high CO2 and high temperature levels. a major part of the debate hinges on what really is
happening and causing the global warming this issue concerns many nations since not burning
fossil fuels may mean not industrializing or modernizing.

Future Actions

Another area of debate is centered on the predictions as to what will happen to the climate
of the world in the future. This is a difficult question to answer since the climate is a chaotic system
that can only be understood using computer models. However, a computer model is only good as
the data it used to do the calculations. Thus the challenge is to assemble sufficient and well-
established data from all over the world to make the predictions as accurate as possible (Sparks
and Hawkesworth, 2004). Some scientists take the issue further by setting “tipping points”,
specifying values of meteorological parameters in which irreversible changes will take place. Upon
reaching the tipping point, a new state would replace the old one. In chaos theory, it means that
the Earth-atmosphere relationship would become a chaotic region where uncertainty would exist.

As presented in this book, however, this issue has implications on the environment and on
the economy—burning of fossil fuels is one of the major sources of electricity but also leads to
higher amounts of CO2. All factors must then be considered when resolving this issue or debate. If
we want to industrialize but at the same time protect the environment, then a balanced plan must
be created.

85 | P a g e
 Science has given humanity a tool for modernization. It allows for the emergence of
technology that spreads and supplies knowledge for the attainment of the good life. It must be
realized that science is more like a cookbook than a blueprint. It is open for experimentation,
innovation, and refinement. So like any good chef, reading it requires a fine sense of taste.

86 | P a g e
REFLECTION:

1. Why does the average temperature of the atmosphere rise? What might have caused the
unprecedented increase in its level?
2. Aside from the rise in mean temperature and CO2 levels, what are some other pieces of
evidence for global warming?
3. How does climate change affect biodiversity?
4. What can people and nations do to fix global warming? Give five contributions you can
personally achieve and three potential contributions on a national or international scale.
5. If climate change denial persists, what could possibly happen to the Earth and humanity
after 20, 50, and 100 years considering the current trend?

87 | P a g e
REFERENCES:

McNamara, SJ, et al, Science, Technology , and Society. C&E Publishing Inc. 2018

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2173424_Sciencetechnology_and_society

88 | P a g e