Logic and Truth Tables

What is a Truth Table?

A truth table is a tool that helps you analyze statements or arguments in order to verify
whether or not they are logical, or true. There are five basic operations that you will utilize
when creating a truth table. These operations are the conjunction, disjunction, negation,
conditional, and bi-conditional. These operations are also referred to as “and,” “or,” “not,”
“if-then,” and “if and only if.” The rules for these operations are as follows:

Logic Operations

And Statements – These statements are true only when

AND ∧ both p and q are true (as the rigorous definition of “and”
(conjunction) implies.)
p q p∧q Example: “I will bring both a pen AND a pencil to the tutoring
T T T session.” Only if I bring both is this true.
T F F
F T F
F F F

OR ∨ Or Statements – These statements are false only when both

(disjunction) p and q are false (follows the definition of “or”.)
p q p∨q Example: “I will bring a pen OR a pencil to the tutoring
T T T appointment.” Only if I don’t do either is this false.
T F T
F T T
F F F

NOT ~ Not Statements – The “not” is simply the opposite or complement

(negation) of its original value.
p ~p Example: p = “It is raining”
T F ~p = “It is NOT raining”
F T

IF-THEN If → Then Statements – These statements are false only when p is

(conditional) true and q is false (because anything can follow from a false premise.)
p q p→q Example: “IF I am elected THEN taxes will go down.”

T T T Only if I am elected and taxes don’t go down is this false.

T F F
F T T
F F T

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Reviewed August 2017
 IF AND ONLY IF If and Only If Statements – These statements are true only when
(bi-conditional) both p and q have the same truth values.
Example: “Taxes will go down IF AND ONLY IF I am
p q p↔q
elected.”
T T T Only if I am elected and taxes go down, or I am not elected and taxes
T F F do not go down is this true.
F T F
F F T
Constructing Truth Tables
To create a truth table, follow these steps:
1. Determine the number of variables; for n variables, create a table with 2n rows.
• If there are two variables (p, q), then you will need 22 or 4 rows.
• If there are three variables (p, q, and r), you will need 23 or 8 rows.
2. List the variable and every combination of T and F for the given variables.
TWO VARIABLE THREE VARIABLE
p q p q r
T T T T T
T F T T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
3. Then start with negations (“nots” or “~”), create a new column for each “piece” of
the statement or argument, filling in the truth values as you go. Work from simple
pieces to more difficult pieces until you have the truth values for the whole problem.
4. If two statements have the same truth values, then they are equivalent.
Equivalents
There are a number of equivalents in logic. This means that these statements have been
proven true, and you can use these statements without having to prove them. The symbol
for equivalent is ≡. The following are the most commonly used equivalents:
• p∧T≡p • p∧p≡p • ~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q
• p∧F≡F • p∨p≡p DeMorgan’s Law #1
• p∨T≡T • p ∧ ~p ≡ F • ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q
• p∨F≡p • p ∨ ~p ≡ T DeMorgan’s Law #2
• p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q • p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ • p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨
• p → q ≡ ~q → ~p (p ∨ r) (p ∧ r)

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Truth Table Example
Statement: (p ∧ q) ↔ (~p ∨ q)
p q
T T 1:
Step
T Determine
F the number of variables and rows needed, then
F write
T down all possible combinations of p and q.
F F

p qStep~p
2:
T T F
p ∧ q ↔ ~p ∨ q
T F F
F T T
Write down values of ~p (or “not p”)
F F T

q 3:~p p ∧ q
p Step
T T F
T p F∧ qF↔ ~pF∨ q
T

F T T F
F Left T Is (pF∧ q) true? Use values from p and q columns.
F Side:
pStepq 4: ~p p ∧ q ~p ∨ q
p ∧ q ↔ ~p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T F T
FRight
F Side: F ∨ q) true?
T Is (~p T Use values from ~p and q columns.
q 5:~p p ∧ q ~p ∨ q p ∧ q ↔ ~p ∨ q
p Step
T p T∧ qF↔ ~p T ∨q T T
T F F F F T
F Is T T F T
the entire statement true? No. F
F F T F T F

The entire statement is true only when the last column’s truth values are all “True.” In this
case, (p ∧ q) is not equivalent to (~p ∨ q) because they do not have the same truth values.

If every cell in the last column is “True,” then the entire statement is true.
This is called a tautology.

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Truth Tables for Arguments

A logical argument is made up of two parts: the premises and the conclusion.
Arguments are usually written in the following form:

If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not start.

My motorcycle started.
It is not cold.

Arguments of this form can be turned into a logical statement. First, assign variables to each
premise and conclusion.

“It is cold” = p
If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not start.
“It is not cold” = ~p
My motorcycle started.
“My motorcycle will start” = q
It is not cold. “My motorcycle will not start” = ~q

You can now re-write the argument using logical operators. Look for keywords like “if” and
“not.”

If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not start. p → ~q

My motorcycle started. q
It is not cold. ~p

Finally, the argument can be rewritten as a logical statement. Arguments can always be
written in the following form:

[Premise One ∧ Premise Two] → Conclusion

Our example would be rewritten as:

[ (p → ~q) ∧ q ] → ~p
This statement can then be proven valid or invalid using a truth table, as shown on the
following page.

Provided by the Academic Center for Excellence 4 Logic and Truth Tables
Truth Table Example

Statement: [ (p → ~q) ∧ q ] → ~p

p q
T TStep 1:
T FDetermine the number of variables and rows needed,
F Tthen write down all possible combinations of p and q.
F F

p q ~p
T T Step
F 2:
T F [F(p → ~q) ∧ q ] → ~p
F T Write
T down values of ~p (or “not p”)
F F T

pStep
q 3:
~p ~q
T T →F~q) ∧Fq ] → ~p
[ (p
T F
F down
Write T
values of ~q (or “not q”)
F T T F
F F T T
Step 4:
(p → ~q)
[ (p → ~q) ∧ q ] → ~p
p q ~p ~q
T T F F F
T F FLeftTSide: StartTwithin the inner most parentheses. Is (p → ~q)
true? Use values from p and ~q columns.
F T T F T
F F T T T
Step 5:
p q ~p ~q [ (p (p → ~q) ∧(pq→]~q)
→ ~q) ∧q
→ ~p
T T F F Left Side: F Work outwards F towards the outer
T F F T most parentheses. T F → ~q) ∧ q ] true?
Is [ (p
F T T F Use values T from (p → ~q) T and q columns.
F F T T T F
p q6: ~p ~q (p → ~q)
Step (p → ~q) ∧ q [ (p → ~q) ∧ q ]
[ (p → ~q) ∧ q ] → → ~p
T T F F F F T
~p
T F F T T F T
IsF theTentire
T statement
F true?
T T T
Yes. This is a tautology
F F T T T F T

Provided by the Academic Center for Excellence 5 Logic and Truth Tables
 INTRODUCTION TO
DISCRETE STRUCTURE

 PREPARED BY: MARIZ N. AQUINO

WHAT IS DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?
 Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures
that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous.
 In contrast to real numbers that have the property of varying
"smoothly", the objects studied in discrete mathematics – such
as integers, graphs, and statements in logic– do not vary
smoothly in this way, but have distinct, separated values.
 Discrete Mathematics concerns processes that consist of a
sequence of individual steps.
WHAT IS DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?

Discrete mathematics focuses on problems that are not over a

continuous domain.
For example, is it possible to visit 3 islands in a river with 6
bridges without crossing any bridge more than once? That is a
discrete math problem (because there are a finite (fixed, discrete)
number of bridges).
LOGICAL ARGUMENTS
AND PROPOSITIONS
PROPOSITIONS

 Typically expressed as a declarative sentence that

is either true or false, but not both.
 Represented by lowercase letters such as
p, q and r.
TRUTH VALUES

If a proposition is true, we say that it has a

truth value of “true” denoted by T.

If a proposition is false, we say that it has a

truth value of “false” denoted by F.
 A STATEMENT is a sentence that is either true or false,
in other words it is typically a declarative sentence. The
following sentences are statements:

• Mr. Cruzate is an instructor.

• World War II began in 1939.
• Some cats are dogs.
• Gloria Arroyo was beheaded.
EXAMPLES FOR PROPOSITION/STATEMENT

 Is the following sentence a proposition? If it is a proposition,

determine whether it is true or false
1. Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan.
2. Can Ali come with you?
3. Take two aspirins.
4. x+ 4 > 9.
5. He is a college student.
The following sentences are not statements:

o What is the atomic weight of oxygen? (Q)

o Allyson will you be my girlfriend. (P)
o We suggest that you travel by bus. (S)
o Hey Marlon, wash the dishes. (C)
o Shut up! I hate you! (E)
o ATOMIC PROPOSITION-consisting of only a single propositional
variable or a single propositional constant (True and False).
o COMPOUND PROPOSITION-contain at least one logical connective
(all non atomic).
o TRUTH TABLE- gives the truth-values of the proposition under all
possible assignments.
ACTIVITY 1:

LOGICAL ARGUMENTS AND PROPOSITIONS

Which of the ff statements are propositions?

1.Is it true?
2.Mariz is a name.
3.Stop it!
4.10 is an even number.
5.10 is not an even number.
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
CONNECTIVES

 Used to combine
propositions
KINDS OF CONNECTIVES

 CONJUCTION – denoted by (read as “p and q”)

 DISJUNCTION – denoted by ( read as “p or q” )
 NEGATION -- denoted by (read as “not p”)
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENT – denoted by p q
(read as If p, then q.)
NEGATION

Let P be a proposition. The compound proposition –P,

pronounced “not P”, is the proposition that is true if P is
false, and that if false otherwise. –P is called the negation
of P. The connective - may be translated into English as “It
is not the case that”, or simply by the word “not”.
Let P stand for the proposition “London is a city”. Then –
P stands for the proposition “It is not the case that
London is a city” or “London is not a city”
CONJUNCTION (^)
 Rule
 Let P and Q be two propositions. Then P^Q is true if
and only if both P and Q are true. P^Q is called the
conjunction of P and Q, and the connective ^ is
pronounced “and”. The connective ^ may be translated
into English by the word “and”.
DISJUNCTION ( V)
Rule:
 Let P and Q be two propositions. Then PvQ is false only if both
P and Q are false. If either P or Q or both are true, then PvQ is
true, it is called the disjunction of P and Q, and the connective
v is pronounced “or”. The connective v may be translated into
English by the word “or”.
CONDITIONAL (=>)

Rule
 Let P and Q be two propositions. Then P=>Q is false if P is true
and Q is false, and P=>Q is true otherwise. P=>Q is called the
conditional of P and Q. “If P, then Q”, in other words, P=>Q
means that whenever P is correct, so is Q. The statement P is
called the antecedent and Q the consequent.
BICONDITIONAL 
Rule
 Let P and Q be two propositions. Then P<=>Q is true
whenever P and Q have the same truth-values. P<=>Q is
called the biconditional or equivalence and it is
pronounced “P if and only if Q” or “P iff Q” as an
abbreviation.
TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH TO SYMBOLS
TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH TO SYMBOLS
ACTIVITY 2:
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
Using the statements M for “Mariz is rich” and C for “Mariz is happy”,
respectively, write the ff statements in symbolic form:

(a) Mariz is not rich.

(b) Mariz is rich and happy.
(c) Mariz is rich or happy.
(d) If Mariz is rich, then he is happy.
(e) Mariz is happy only if he is rich.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
LEARNING GOALS

Define categorical proposition and identify its

parts;
Discuss the matter and form of a proposition;
Learn the distinctions among the four types of
categorical propositions; and
Learn how to reduce a proposition to its logical
form.
CONTENTS
Nature of Categorical Proposition

Elements of Categorical Propositions

Symbols of Categorical Propositions

Logical Form of Categorical Propositions

Rules of Inference
NATURE OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS
WHAT IS A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION?
NATURE OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

A categorical proposition is a kind of proposition that

expresses an unconditional judgment (Babor, 2003).
It is a proposition in which the subject term is affirmed or
denied by the predicate term (De Leon, 2003)
ELEMENTS OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS
MATTER AND FORM

 The subject and predicate are called the matter.

 The copula or bonding verb “is” is called the form.

“Hence, a valid proposition is one which is true in its matter and

correct in its form.”
EXAMPLE
LOGIC VS. GRAMMAR

Some schools are not state universities.

Subject Copula Predicate

S (Subject) – C (Copula) – P (predicate)

CONSIDER THIS ONE:

All apples are fruits.

(quantifier) (subject) (copula) (predicate)
p (Particular) – u (Universal) p (Particular) – u (Universal)
SYMBOLS OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION
 TWO PROPERTIES OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS

1. Quality of Proposition
2. Quantity of Proposition
Quantity Of Proposition
The quantity of a categorical proposition, on the other
hand, is a measure of the degree to which the relationship
between its subject and predicate terms holds.

• Universal Proposition
• Particular Proposition
• Singular Proposition
ACCORDING TO QUANTITY

UNIVERSAL PROPOSITIONS
A universal proposition is one whose subject term stands for each and all
individuals to which it is applied.
Ex.
 Every man is created by God.
 Filipinos are industrious.
 All cows are animals.
 Environment is vital.
 An eagle is a flying bird.
ACCORDING TO QUANTITY

PARTICULAR PROPOSITIONS
This is a kind of proposition whose subject stands for a portions of a
given totality, or for an indeterminate individual or group.
Ex.
 Many people are generous.
 Some plants are edible.
 Four billion people are Christians.
 Not every bright girl is beautiful.
ACCORDING TO QUANTITY

SINGULAR PROPOSITIONS
A singular proposition is one whose subject is singular concept. The subject
refers only to a specific or definite individual or group.
Ex.
 The Philippines is a Christian nation on Asia.
 Miss Miriam is beautiful woman.
 This guy is my friend.
 I am not a Chinese.
Quality Of Proposition
The quality of a categorical proposition indicates the
nature of the relationship it affirms between its subject and
predicate terms.

• Affirmative Proposition
• Negative Proposition
ACCORDING TO QUALITY

AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
An affirmative proposition is one whose subject and predicate
terms are united by the copula: IS, ARE or AM.
Ex.
 All tress are with leaves.
 This man is my friend.
 Some teachers are late – comers.
 Dr. Samonte is a Department Chair.
ACCORDING TO QUALITY

NEGATIVE PROPOSITIONS
These propositions have subjects and predicate terms that are
separated from each other due to negative copula: IS NOT, ARE NOT or
AM NOT.
Ex.
 A person is not a dog.
 Some people are not poor.
 Not all glittery is gold.
Symbols of Categorical Propositions. Since Aristotle’s time, there have
been an attempt to make logic a science of symbols to achieve shortcuts
to correct reasoning. Among these are symbols for the four categorical
statements, namely, universal affirmative (A), universal negative (E),
particular affirmative (I), and particular negative (O).

A-E-I-O
 ACCORDING TO QUANTITY ANDQUALITY

A universal affirmative proposition (A) is a proposition having a

universal quantifier and an affirmative copula.

Examples:
 All idiots are slow learners.
 Every judgment is an act of the mind.
 Also, indefinite affirmative and singular affirmative propositions:
 Man is fallible.
 This insect is Poisonous
 ACCORDING TO QUANTITY ANDQUALITY

A universal negative proposition (E) is a proposition having a

universal quantifier and a negative copula.

Example:
 No transparencies are plastic.
Also, indefinite negative and singular negative propositions:
 Beauty is not sensible.
 This snake is not venomous.
 ACCORDING TO QUANTITY ANDQUALITY

A particular affirmative proposition (I) is a proposition having a particular quantifier

and an affirmative copula.

Examples:
 Few students are in the dean’s list.
 Some policemen are rich.
 Certain men are geniuses.
 Most parents are proud of their children.
Also, indefinite affirmative propositions
 Men are selfish. (Most?)
 Women are fickle (Some? A large minority? Most?)
 ACCORDING TO QUANTITY ANDQUALITY

A particular negative proposition (O) is a proposition having a

particular quantifier and a negative copula.

Examples.
 Some honest people are not married.
 Majority of the soldiers are not brave.
Also, indefinite negative propositions:
Politicians are not corrupt. (A few?)
Priests are not celibate. (Many?)
The four standard Categorical
Propositions.

Quality

Affirmative Negative

A E
Universal
Quantity
I O
Particular
LOGICAL FORM OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION
The PREMISES are the statements that set forth the evidence, and
the CONCLUSION is the statement that is claimed to follow from the
evidence.
Here is an example of an argument:
1ST PREMISE: Every flower is a plant (T)
2ND PREMISE: Fish is not a flower (F)
CONLUSION: Therefore, fish is not a flower (F).
There are (3) univocal terms contained in the premises.
1.MAJOR TERM symbolized as P
2.MINOR TERM symbolized as Q
3.MIDDLE TERM represented by B
 In this statement the conclusion really does follow from the premises, and
so the argument is a good one. Now consider this argument:

P1: Some cats are white Persians.

P2: Garfield is a cat.
C: Therefore, Garfield is a white Persian.
P1: All cats are animals. (T)
P2: Garfield is a cat. (T)
C: Therefore, Garfield is an animal (T).

P1: If the demand rises, the companies expand. (T)

P2: If companies expand, then they hire workers (T)
C: If the demand rises, then companies hire workers // if the
company hire workers, then the demand rises. (T)

P1: This computer program has a bug, or the input is

erroneous. (T)
P2: The input is not erroneous. (T)
C: This computer program has a bug (T)
RULES OF INFERENCE
- are templates for building valid arguments.
 ADDITION:
P
Addition (ADD) Therefore, P or Q.
p
/pvq P: It is raining
Conclusion: Therefore, either it is
raining or the sun is shining.
 SIMPLIFICATION:
P and Q.
Simplification (SIMP) Therefore, P.
p^q
/p P: It is raining in both New York and
Boston.
C: Therefore, it is raining in New
York.
 CONJUNCTION:
Conjunction (CONJ) P
Q
p Therefore, P and Q.
q
P: It is raining in New York.
/p^q Q: It is raining in Boston
C: Therefore, it is raining in both New
York and Boston
 MODUS PONENS:
If P then Q.
Modus Ponens (MP)
P.
pq Therefore, Q.
p
/q 1. If it is raining, then I will get wet.
2. It is raining.
3. Therefore, I will get wet.
 MODUS TOLLENS:
If P then Q.
Modus Tollens (MT) Not Q. (~Q).
pq Therefore, not P (~P).
-q
1. If it had rained this morning, I would
/ -p have gotten wet.
2. I did not get wet.
3. Therefore, it did not rain this morning.
 HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM:
If P then Q.
If Q then R.
Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) Therefore, if P then R.
pq
qr 1. If it rains, then I will get wet.
2. If I get wet, then my shirt will be
/pr
ruined.
3. Therefore, If it rains, then my shirt
will be ruined.
 DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM:
Either P or Q.
Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) Not P (~P).
pvq Therefore, Q.
-p
/q 1. Either it rained or I took a cab to the
movies.
2. It did not rain.
3. Therefore, I took a cab to the movies.
 CONSTRUCTIVE DILEMMA:
(If P then Q) and (If R then S).
Constructive Dilemma (CD) P or R.
(p  q) ^ (r  s) Therefore, Q or S.
pvr
1. If it rains, then I will get wet and if it is
/qvs
sunny, then I will be dry.
2. Either it will rain or it will be sunny.
3. Therefore, either I will get wet or I will
be dry.
 ABSORPTION:
If P, then Q.
Absorption (ABS) Therefore, If P then P and Q.
pq
/ p  (p v q) 1. If it is raining, then I will get wet.
2. Therefore, if it is raining, then it is
raining and I will get wet.
 Any statement that is either true or false is called PROPOSITIONS, and they can
never be anything else. We mentioned earlier that Aristotle introduced variables such
as P, Q, and R. We call these PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES. PV is an ATOMIC
PROPOSITION that is they cannot be further subdivided. By combining several AP, one
obtains COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS. (“P or Q”, “P and Q”, “not P”) The function of
the words “or”, “and” and “not” is to combine propositions, they are called LOGICAL
CONNECTIVES.

o ATOMIC PROPOSITION-consisting of only a single prepositional variable or a

single prepositional constant (True and False).
o COMPOUND PROPOSITION-contain at least one logical connective (all non atomic).
o TRUTH TABLE- gives the truth-values of the proposition under all possible
assignments.
QUIZ
 FIRST LECTURE (SEPTEMBER 27, 2021)
COSC 50A

Discrete Mathematics and Its no unintended recipient can read it?

Applications
Introductory Lecture
● How can we build a circuit that adds two
What is Discrete Mathematics? integers?
Kinds of Problems Solved Using Discrete
● Discrete mathematics is the part of
Mathematics
mathematics devoted to the study of discrete
(as opposed to continuous) objects.
● What is the shortest path between two
● Calculus deals with continuous objects and cities using a transportation system?
is not part of discrete mathematics. ● Find the shortest tour that visits
● Examples of discrete objects: each of a group of cities only once
integers, steps taken by a and then ends in the starting city.
computer program, distinct paths ● How can we represent English sentences
to travel from point A to point B so that a computer can reason with
on a map along a road network, them?
ways to pick a winning set of
numbers in a lottery. ● How can we prove that there are infinitely
many prime numbers?
● A course in discrete mathematics provides
the mathematical background needed for ● How can a list of integers be sorted
all subsequent courses in computer so that the integers are in
science and for all subsequent courses in increasing order?
the many branches of discrete
mathematics. ● How many steps are required to do
such a sorting?
Kinds of Problems Solved Using Discrete
Mathematics ● How can it be proved that a sorting
algorithm always correctly sorts a list?
● How many ways can a password be Goals of a Course in Discrete Mathematics
chosen following specific rules?
● How many valid Internet addresses ● Mathematical Reasoning: Ability to
are there? read, understand, and construct
mathematical arguments and proofs.
● What is the probability of winning a
particular lottery? ● Combinatorial Analysis:
Techniques for counting objects
● Is there a link between two computers of different kinds.
in a network?
● Discrete Structures: Abstract
● How can I identify spam email mathematical structures that represent
messages? objects and the relationships between
them. Examples are sets, permutations,
● How can I encrypt a message so that
 ●
relations, graphs, trees, and finite state The concepts learned will also be
machines. helpful in continuous areas of
mathematics.

Goals of a Course in Discrete Mathematics

● Other Disciplines: You may find
● Algorithmic Thinking: One way to solve concepts learned here useful in
many problems is to specify an courses in philosophy, economics,
algorithm. An algorithm is a sequence linguistics, and other departments.
of steps that can be followed to solve
any instance of a particular problem.
Algorithmic thinking involves specifying DEFINITION OF STRUCTURE
algorithms, analyzing the memory and
time required by an execution of the Discrete Structure A set of discrete elements
algorithm, and verifying that the on which certain operations are defined.
algorithm will produce the correct Discrete implies noncontinuous and therefore
answer. discrete sets include finite and countable
sets but not uncountable sets such as the real
● Applications and Modeling: It is numbers.
important to appreciate and understand
the wide range of applications of the Discrete Mathematics is the part of
topics in discrete mathematics and mathematics devoted to the study of discrete
develop the ability to develop new objects.
models in various domains. Concepts Discrete Mathematics is the study of
from discrete mathematics have not only mathematical structures that are fundamentally
been used to address problems in discrete rather than continuous.
computing, but have been applied to
solve problems in many areas such as Discrete mathematics is the study of
chemistry, biology, linguistics, mathematics confined to the set of integers.
geography, business, etc. While the applications of fields of continuous
mathematics such as calculus and algebra are
Discrete Mathematics is a Gateway Course obvious to many, the applications of discrete
mathematics may at first be obscure.
● Topics in discrete mathematics will
be important in many courses that EXAMPLE OF DISCRETE DATA:
you will take in the future:
Number of boys in the class.
● Computer Science: Computer
Number of candies in a packet.
Architecture, Data Structures,
Algorithms, Programming Number of suitcases lost by an airline.
Languages, Compilers, Computer
Security, Databases, Artificial EXAMPLE OF DISCRETE CONTINOUS:
Intelligence, Networking, Graphics, Height of a person.
Game Design, Theory of
Computation, …… Time in a race.
● Mathematics: Logic, Set Theory, Distance traveled by a car.
Probability, Number Theory,
Abstract Algebra, Combinatorics, APPLICATION OF DISCRETE STRUCTURE
Graph Theory, Game Theory, Discrete Math in Cryptography - which is the
Network Optimization, … study of how to create security structures and
passwords for computers and other electronic Information Theory involves the quantification
systems, is based entirely on discrete of information. Closely related is coding theory
mathematics. This is partly because computers which is used to design efficient and reliable
send information in discrete or separate and data transmission and storage methods.
distinct bits. Information theory also includes continuous
topics such as: analog signals, analog coding,
Relational Databases - play a part in almost analog encryption.
every organization that must keep track of
employees, clients or resources. A relational Logic is the study of the principles of valid
database connects the traits of a certain piece reasoning and inference, as well as of
of information. For example, in a database consistency, soundness, and completeness.
containing client information, the relational The study of mathematical proof is particularly
aspect of this database allows the computer important in logic and has applications to
system to know how to link the client’s name, automated theorem proving and formal
address, phone number and other pertinent verification of software.
information.
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that
Uses for Discrete Math in Logistics studies set, which are collections of objects,
such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of
Logistics is the study of organizing the flow of all prime numbers. Partially ordered sets and
information, goods and services. Without sets with other relations have applications in
discrete mathematics, logistics would not exist. several areas.
This is because logistics makes heavy use of
graphs and graph theory, a sub-field of Combinatorics studies the way in which
discrete math. Graph theory allows complex discrete structures can be combined or
logistical problems to simplify into graphs arranged. Enumerative combinatorics
consisting of nodes and lines. concentrates on counting the number of
certain combinatorial objects
Computer Algorithms
Graph theory, the study of graphs and
Algorithms are the rules by which a computer networks, is often considered part of
operates. These rules are created through the combinatorics, but has grown large enough
laws of discrete mathematics. A computer and distinct enough, with its own kind of
programmer uses discrete math to design problems, to be regarded as a subject in its
efficient algorithms. This design includes own right.
applying discrete math to determine the
number of steps an algorithm needs to Discrete probability theory deals with events
complete, which implies the speed of the that occur in countable sample spaces. For
algorithm. example, count observations such as the
numbers of birds in flocks comprise only
FIELDS OF DISCRETE STRUCTURE natural number values {0, 1, 2, ...}.
Theoretical computer science includes areas Number theory is concerned with the
of discrete mathematics relevant to computing. properties of numbers in general, particularly
It draws heavily on graph theory and integers.
mathematical logic. Included within theoretical
computer science is the study of algorithms for Algebraic structures occur as both discrete
computing mathematical results. Computability examples and continuous examples. Discrete
studies what can be computed in principle, and algebras include: boolean algebra used in logic
has close ties to logic, while complexity studies gates and programming; relational algebra
the time, space, and other resources taken by used in databases; discrete and finite versions
computations. of groups, rings and fields are important in
algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups
and monoids appear in the theory of formal amount of confidential information
languages. involved, cryptographers must first have a
solid background in number theory to show
A function defined on an interval of the they can provide secure passwords and
integers is usually called a sequence. A encryption methods.
sequence could be a finite sequence from a
data source or an infinite sequence from a Relational databases
discrete dynamical system.
• Relational databases play a part in almost
Discrete geometry and combinatorial every organization that must keep track of
geometry are about combinatorial properties of employees, clients or resources. A
discrete collections of geometrical objects. A relational database connects the traits of a
long-standing topic in discrete geometry is certain piece of information. For example,
tiling of the plane. Computational geometry in a database containing client information,
applies algorithms to geometrical problems. the relational aspect of this database
allows the computer system to know how
Discretization concerns the process of to link the client’s name, address, phone
transferring continuous models and equations number and other pertinent information.
into discrete counterparts, often for the This is all done through the discrete math
purposes of making calculations easier by concept of sets. Sets allow information to
using approximations. Numerical analysis be grouped and put in order. Since each
provides an important example. piece of information and each trait
WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF belonging to that piece of information is
DISCRETE MATH? discrete, the organization of such
information in a database requires discrete
Discrete Structure mathematical methods.
• Discrete mathematics is the study of Discrete Math in Logistics
mathematics confined to the set of
integers. While the applications of fields of • Logistics is the study of organizing the flow
continuous mathematics such as calculus of information, goods and services. Without
and algebra are obvious to many, the discrete mathematics, logistics would not
applications of discrete mathematics may exist. This is because logistics makes
at first be obscure. Nevertheless, discrete heavy use of graphs and graph theory, a
math forms the basis of many real-world sub-field of discrete math. Graph theory
scientific fields -- especially computer allows complex logistical problems to
science. The primary techniques learned in simplify into graphs consisting of nodes
a discrete math course can be applied to and lines. A mathematician can analyze
many different fields. these graphs according to the methods of
graph theory to determine the best routes
Discrete Math in Cryptography for shipping or solving other logistical
problems.
• The field of cryptography, which is the
study of how to create security structures Computer Algorithms
and passwords for computers and other
electronic systems, is based entirely on • Algorithms are the rules by which a
discrete mathematics. This is partly computer operates. These rules are
because computers send information in created through the laws of discrete
discrete -- or separate and distinct -- bits. mathematics. A computer programmer
Number theory, one important part of uses discrete math to design efficient
discrete math, allows cryptographers to algorithms. This design includes applying
create and break numerical passwords. discrete math to determine the number of
Because of the quantity of money and the steps an algorithm needs to complete,
 which implies the speed of the algorithm. counted.
Because of discrete mathematical
applications in algorithms, today’s • Graph theory is the study of graphs,
computers run faster than ever before. which are a collection of connected nodes.

FIELDS OF DISCRETE MATH? • Graphs are useful for representing all kinds
of real-world problems.
Combinatorics
• A probability is a number, between 0 and
• Combinatorics is the mathematics of 1 inclusive, that represents the likelihood of
counting and arranging. Of course, most an event.
people know how to count, but
combinatorics applies mathematical • Discrete probability is a probability based
operations to count things that are much on discrete sets of outcomes. The most
too large to be counted the conventional basic type of probability is a uniform
way. probability. If each outcome in a set is
equally likely, then the probability of an
• Combinatorics is especially useful event is equal to a ratio of cardinalities.
in computer science. Combinatorics
methods can be used to develop estimates • A discrete probability distribution is a
about how many operations a computer function that takes a numerical outcome as
algorithm will require. Combinatorics is an argument and gives a probability as a
also important for the study of discrete result. Discrete probability distributions can
probability. Combinatorics methods can be be created using the rules and guidelines
used to count possible outcomes in a described above. There are also some
uniform probability experiment. discrete probability distributions that show
up in many problems:
• A permutation is an arrangement of
objects with regard to order. • Geometric Distribution: Given repeated
trials in which the probability of success is
• A combination is an arrangement of the same each time, this gives the
objects without regard to order. probability that the first success will occur
on a certain trial. Example: You roll a dice
As a field of mathematics, combinatorics is until you roll a 6. What is the probability
nearly as broad as discrete mathematics. that the first 6 will occur on the third roll?
Other topics within combinatorics include:
• Binomial Distribution: Given a certain
• derangements: a permutation such that number of trials in which the probability of
no object is in its original spot in the order; success is the same each time, this gives
• rectangular grid walks: determining the the probability of a certain number of
number of ways a rectangular lattice can successes. Example: You flip a coin 10
be traversed; times. What is the probability that there will
be exactly 5 heads?
• distribution of objects into bins:
determining how objects can be grouped • Poisson Distribution: Given a time period
into bins. in which an event occurs a certain average
number of times, this gives the probability
• Set theory is the branch of mathematics that the event will occur a specific number
that is concerned about collections of of times. Example: A fast food drive-
objects. Sets can be discrete or through gets 3 customers per minute.
continuous; discrete mathematics is What's the probability they will get 4
primarily concerned with the former. At a customers in the next minute?
basic level, set theory is concerned with
how sets can be arranged, combined, and • A statistic is a number used to describe a
 set of data or a probability distribution.
Statistics is widely used in many fields
outside of mathematics, from biology to
politics to sports. The power of statistics
lies in taking a massive, varied set of data
and making sense out of it. Furthermore,
statistics has the power to quantify
confidence in those findings. Of course, the
usefulness of statistics is not without
controversy, but an understanding of its
theoretical underpinnings can help one
avoid its misuse.
• One major kind of statistic is a measure of
central tendency. A measure of central
tendency is a number which describes
what a value of a probability distribution or
data set will tend to. An expected value is
the theoretical long-run average outcome
of a probability experiment when it is
performed many times.
• Measure Of Variation is a number which
describes the distribution of a probability
distribution or data set. The standard
deviation of a probability distribution is a
number that represents how much the
outcomes differ from the expected value.
Likewise, the standard deviation of a data
set is a number that represents how much
the elements of the set differ from the
mean.
• A bijection is a relationship between two
sets such that each element in a set is
paired with exactly one element in the
other set, and vice versa. Bijections can be
applied to problem solving by establishing
a bijection between a set that is difficult to
enumerate and a discrete stucture that is
well understood. By establishing a
bijection, one can take advantage of the
known formulas and theorems that the
discrete structure affords. r from the mean.
• A proposition is a statement that can
either be true or false. Propositional
logic aims to outline the rules of how these
statements can be altered and combined.