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Animation
Animation is a method in which figures are manipulated to appear as
moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by
hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on
film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery
(CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D
computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation)
can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster real-time
renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion
technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, The bouncing ball
puppets, or clay figures. animation (below)
consists of these six
Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of frames.
sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as
in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon
and beta movement, but the exact causes are still uncertain. Analog
mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential
images include the phénakisticope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope, and
film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that
originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on the
computer, techniques like animated GIF and Flash animation were
developed. This animation moves at
10 frames per second.
Animation is more pervasive than many people realize. Apart from short
films, feature films, television series, animated GIFs, and other media
dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also prevalent in video games, motion
graphics, user interfaces, and visual effects.[1]

The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance moving images in
magic lantern shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-
dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata.
Electronic automata were popularized by Disney as animatronics.

Animators are artists who specialize in creating animation.

Contents
Etymology
History
Before cinematography
Silent era
Golden age of US animation
Animated features before CGI
Animation on television
Switch from cel animation to computer animation
Economic status
Education, propaganda and commercials
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Spin-off enterprises: other media, merchandise and theme parks

Criticism
Awards
Production
Techniques
Traditional animation
Stop motion animation
Computer animation
Mechanical animation
Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches
See also
References
Citations
Sources
External links

Etymology
The word "animation" stems from the Latin "animātiōn", stem of "animātiō", meaning "a bestowing
of life".[2] The primary meaning of the English word is "liveliness" and has been in use much longer
than the meaning of "moving image medium".

History

Before cinematography

Hundreds of years before the introduction of true animation,

people from all over the world enjoyed shows with moving
figures that were created and manipulated manually in puppetry,
automata, shadow play, and the magic lantern. The multi-media
phantasmagoria shows that were very popular in West-European
theatres from the late 18th century through the first half of the
19th century, featured lifelike projections of moving ghosts and
other frightful imagery in motion.

In 1833, the stroboscopic disc (better known as the

phénakisticope) introduced the principle of modern animation
with sequential images that were shown one by one in quick
Nr. 10 in the reworked second
succession to form an optical illusion of motion pictures. Series
series of Stampfer's stroboscopic
of sequential images had occasionally been made over thousands
discs published by Trentsensky &
of years, but the stroboscopic disc provided the first method to
Vieweg in 1833.
represent such images in fluent motion and for the first time had
artists creating series with a proper systematic breakdown of
movements. The stroboscopic animation principle was also
applied in the zoetrope (1866), the flip book (1868) and the praxinoscope (1877). The average 19th-
century animation contained about 12 images that were displayed as a continuous loop by spinning a
device manually. The flip book often contained more pictures and had a beginning and end, but its
animation would not last longer than a few seconds. The first to create much longer sequences seems
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to have been Charles-Émile Reynaud, who between 1892 and

1900 had much success with his 10- to 15-minute-long
Pantomimes Lumineuses.

Silent era

When cinematography eventually broke through in 1895 after

animated pictures had been known for decades, the wonder of
the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest
A projecting praxinoscope, from
accomplishment. Animation on film was not commercialized
1882, here shown superimposing an
until a few years later by manufacturers of optical toys, with
animated figure on a separately
chromolithography film loops (often traced from live-action projected background scene
footage) for adapted toy magic lanterns intended for kids to use
at home. It would take some more years before animation
reached movie theatres.

After earlier experiments by movie pioneers J. Stuart Blackton, Arthur Melbourne-Cooper, Segundo
de Chomón, and Edwin S. Porter (among others), Blackton's The Haunted Hotel (1907) was the first
huge stop motion success, baffling audiences by showing objects that apparently moved by
themselves in full photographic detail, without signs of any known stage trick.

Émile Cohl's Fantasmagorie (1908) is the oldest known example

of what became known as traditional (hand-drawn) animation.
Other great artistic and very influential short films were created
by Ladislas Starevich with his puppet animations since 1910 and
by Winsor McCay with detailed drawn animation in films such as
Little Nemo (1911) and Gertie the Dinosaur (1914).

During the 1910s, the production of animated "cartoons" became

an industry in the US.[3] Successful producer John Randolph
Bray and animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process
Fantasmagorie (1908) by Émile
that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the
Cohl
century.[4][5] Felix the Cat, who debuted in 1919, became the first
animated superstar.

Golden age of US animation

In 1928, Steamboat Willie, featuring Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse, popularized film with
synchronized sound and put Walt Disney's studio at the forefront of the animation industry. In 1932,
Disney also introduced the innovation of full colour (in Flowers and Trees) as part of a three-year-
long exclusive deal with Technicolor.

The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the golden age of American animation
that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a
plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. Several studios would introduce characters that would
become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including Walt Disney Productions' Goofy
(1932) and Donald Duck (1934), Warner Bros. Cartoons' Looney Tunes characters like Daffy Duck
(1937), Bugs Bunny (1938/1940), Tweety (1941/1942), Sylvester the Cat (1945), Wile E. Coyote and
Road Runner (1949), Fleischer Studios/Paramount Cartoon Studios' Betty Boop (1930), Popeye
(1933), Superman (1941) and Casper (1945), MGM cartoon studio's Tom and Jerry (1940) and
Droopy, Walter Lantz Productions/Universal Studio Cartoons' Woody Woodpecker (1940),
Terrytoons/20th Century Fox's Mighty Mouse (1942) and United Artists' Pink Panther (1963).

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Animated features before CGI

In 1917, Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first

feature-length film El Apóstol (now lost), which became a critical and
commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's Sin dejar rastros in
1918, but one day after its premiere the film was confiscated by the
government.

After working on it for three years, Lotte Reiniger released the German
feature-length silhouette animation Die Abenteuer des Prinzen
Achmed in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.

In 1937, Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature,

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, still one of the highest-grossing
traditional animation features as of May 2020.[7][8] The Fleischer
studios followed this example in 1939 with Gulliver's Travels with
some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second
World War, Disney's next features Pinocchio, Fantasia (both 1940)
and Fleischer Studios' second animated feature Mr. Bug Goes to Town Italian-Argentine cartoonist
(1941/1942) failed at the box office. For decades afterwards Disney Quirino Cristiani showing the
would be the only American studio to regularly produce animated cut and articulated figure of
features, until Ralph Bakshi became the first to also release more than his satirical character El
a handful features. Sullivan-Bluth Studios began to regularly produce Peludo (based on President
animated features starting with An American Tail in 1986. Yrigoyen) patented in 1916
for the realization of his films,
Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, including the world's first
other countries developed their own animation industries that animated feature film El
produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety Apóstol.[6]
of styles, relatively often including stop motion and cutout animation
techniques. Russia's Soyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936,
produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China,
Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France and Belgium were other countries that more than
occasionally released feature films, while Japan became a true powerhouse of animation production,
with its own recognizable and influential anime style of effective limited animation.

Animation on television

Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become
common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on
convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching Saturday-morning
cartoons. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s,
production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. Hanna-
Barbera Productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as The Flintstones (1960–
1966) (the first prime time animated series), Scooby-Doo (since 1969) and Belgian co-production The
Smurfs (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an
enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker limited animation methods and much more
formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the
early 1990s with hit series such as The Simpsons (since 1989) as part of a "renaissance" of American
animation.

While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced
their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring stop motion and puppetry over cel
animation. Japanese anime TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and
European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with
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Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as Barbapapa (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–
1977), Wickie und die starken Männer/ 小 さ な バ イ キ ン グ ビ ッ ケ (Vicky the Viking)
(Austria/Germany/Japan 1974) and Il était une fois... (Once Upon a Time...) (France/Japan 1978).

Switch from cel animation to computer animation

Computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started
popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller
Futureworld (1976).

The Rescuers Down Under was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a
camera.[9] It was produced in a style that's very similar to traditional cel animation on the Computer
Animation Production System (CAPS), developed by The Walt Disney Company in collaboration with
Pixar in the late 1980s.

The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, has become extremely
popular since Pixar's Toy Story (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style.

Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer animated films around the
1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was
generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted
appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software,
while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects.[10][11][12][13][14][15]

Economic status
In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion.[16] Animated feature-length films
returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres between 2004 and 2013.[17]
Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s.

Education, propaganda and commercials

The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also
allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has
therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment.

During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. Many American studios,
including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey the
public of certain war values. Some countries, including China, Japan and the United Kingdom,
produced their first feature-length animation for their war efforts.

Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the
humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as
Snap, Crackle and Pop in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals.[18] The legendary animation director
Tex Avery was the producer of the first Raid "Kills Bugs Dead" commercials in 1966, which were very
successful for the company.[19]

Spin-off enterprises: other media, merchandise and

theme parks
Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also
prove extremely lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media.
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Animation has traditionally been very closely related to comic books. While many comic book
characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many manga are
adapted into anime), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and
magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for video games (an interactive animation
medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.

Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media.
Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and
music have appeared on records and as streaming media.

While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image
media, The Walt Disney Company is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being
licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their Mickey Mouse mascot has been depicted on an
enormous amount of products, as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced
some pejorative use of Mickey's name, but licensed Disney products sell well, and the so-called
Disneyana has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated Disneyana fanclub (since 1984).

Disneyland opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon
characters. Its enormous success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts. Disney's
earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies.

Criticism
Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its
popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films.[20] Many
concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around
the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its
inception into mainstream culture.[21]

Awards
As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The
original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th Academy Awards function. The first winner of
the Academy Award was the short Flowers and Trees,[22] a production by Walt Disney
Productions.[23][24] The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only
instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by
the film Shrek, produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images.[25] Disney Animation and Pixar
has produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. Beauty and the Beast was
the first animated film nominated for Best Picture. Up and Toy Story 3 also received Best Picture
nominations after the Academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.

Academy Award for Best Animated Feature

Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film

Several other countries have instituted an award for the best-animated feature film as part of their
national film awards: Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation (since 2008), BAFTA Award
for Best Animated Film (since 2006), César Award for Best Animated Film (since 2011), Golden
Rooster Award for Best Animation (since 1981), Goya Award for Best Animated Film (since 1989),
Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year (since 2007), National Film Award for Best Animated
Film (since 2006). Also since 2007, the Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film
has been awarded at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Since 2009, the European Film Awards have
awarded the European Film Award for Best Animated Film.

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The Annie Award is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the
Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and
not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavour. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a
new field for Best Animated Feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney; however,
newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The
list of awardees is as follows:

Annie Award for Best Animated Feature

Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject
Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production

Production
The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a
few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain
unique aspects.[26] Traits common to both live-action and
animated feature-length films are labor intensity and high
production costs.[27]

The most important difference is that once a film is in the

production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher Joy & Heron – A featured video
for animated films than live-action films.[28] It is relatively easy
for a director to ask for one more take during principal
photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by
animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by
modern computer animation).[29] It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators
to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance
the plot of the film.[30] Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s
of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through
storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied
that all the scenes make sense as a whole.[31] While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they
enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).[32]

Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start
to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists,
necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to
whatever style is employed on a particular film.[33] Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600
people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is
relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is
more difficult.[34]

This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an
overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins. Character designers on the visual
development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different
facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.[35][36] On
traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how
characters would look from different angles.[37][35]

Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage
through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the
film.[38] In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write
screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become
commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s.

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Techniques

Traditional animation

Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-

drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films
of the 20th century.[39] The individual frames of a traditionally
animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on
paper.[40] To create the illusion of movement, each drawing
differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings
are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called
cels,[41] which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones
on the side opposite the line drawings.[42] The completed An example of traditional animation,
character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted a horse animated by rotoscoping
background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film.[43] from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th-
century photos.
The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the
beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and
the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.[1][44] Various
software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects.[45] The
final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and
newer media with digital video.[46][1] The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the
character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years.[37] Some
animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital")
to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.

Examples of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio (United States, 1940),[47] Animal
Farm (United Kingdom, 1954), Lucky and Zorba (Italy, 1998), and The Illusionist (British-French,
2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion
King (US, 1994), The Prince of Egypt (US, 1998), Akira (Japan, 1988),[48] Spirited Away (Japan,
2001), The Triplets of Belleville (France, 2003), and The Secret of Kells (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009).

Full animation

Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that
regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,[49] having a smooth animation.[50] Fully
animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those
produced by the Walt Disney studio (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Lion
King) to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated
features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982),
The Iron Giant (US, 1999), and Nocturna (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24
frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be
held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.[51]

Limited animation

Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of
movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.[52] Limited animation uses fewer
drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic
technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America,[53] limited
animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in Gerald McBoing-Boing (US,

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1951), Yellow Submarine (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan.[54] Its primary use,
however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of
Hanna-Barbera,[55] Filmation,[56] and other TV animation studios[57]) and later the Internet (web
cartoons).

Rotoscoping

Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action
movement, frame by frame.[58] The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into
animated drawings,[59] as in The Lord of the Rings (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive
manner, as in Waking Life (US, 2001) and A Scanner Darkly (US, 2006). Some other examples are
Fire and Ice (US, 1983), Heavy Metal (1981), and Aku no Hana (2013).

Live-action/animation

Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or

live-action actors into animated shots.[60] One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko
was drawn over live-action footage.[61] Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of Alice Comedies
(1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include Allegro
Non Troppo (Italy, 1976), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (US, 1988), Volere volare (Italy 1991), Space
Jam (US, 1996) and Osmosis Jones (US, 2001).

Stop motion animation

Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-

world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of
movement.[62] There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the
medium used to create the animation.[63] Computer software is widely available to create this type of
animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to
produce than current computer animation.[63]

Puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed

environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.[64] The puppets generally
have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to
particular joints.[65] Examples include The Tale of the Fox (France, 1937), The Nightmare Before
Christmas (US, 1993), Corpse Bride (US, 2005), Coraline (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and
the adult animated sketch-comedy television series Robot Chicken (US, 2005–present).
Puppetoon, created using techniques developed by George Pal,[66] are puppet-animated
films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply
manipulating one existing puppet.[67]

Clay animation, or Plasticine animation (often called claymation, which, however, is a

trademarked name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-
motion animation.[62][68] The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside, similar to the
related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.[69] Alternatively,
the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures
morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include The Gumby
Show (US, 1957–1967), Mio Mao (Italy, 1974–2005), Morph shorts (UK, 1977–2000), Wallace
and Gromit shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's Dimensions of Dialogue (Czechoslovakia,
1982), The Trap Door (UK, 1984). Films include Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-
Rabbit, Chicken Run and The Adventures of Mark Twain.[70]

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Strata-cut animation, Strata-cut animation is most

commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-
like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with
varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the
animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for
each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the
internal images within.[71]
Cutout animation is a type of stop-motion animation
produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material
paper or cloth.[72] Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated
A clay animation scene from a
sequences from Monty Python's Flying Circus (UK, 1969–
Finnish television commercial
1974); Fantastic Planet (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); Tale
of Tales (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult
television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of
South Park (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band
(produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).
Silhouette animation is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and
only visible as silhouettes.[73] Examples include The Adventures of Prince Achmed (Weimar
Republic, 1926) and Princes et Princesses (France, 2000).
Model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a
live-action world.[74] Intercutting, matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend
stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.[75] Examples include the work of
Ray Harryhausen, as seen in films, Jason and the Argonauts (1963),[76] and the work of Willis H.
O'Brien on films, King Kong (1933).
Go motion is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur
between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion.[77] The technique was
invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effect scenes for the
film The Empire Strikes Back (1980).[78] Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax"
from 1981 film Dragonslayer.[79]
Object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as
opposed to specially created items.[80]
Graphic animation uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper
clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create
movement.[81] At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is
moved to create on-screen action.
Brickfilm are a subgenre of object animation involving using Lego or other similar brick toys
to make an animation.[82][83] These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of
video sharing sites, YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation
software.[84]
Pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters.[85] This allows for a number
of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to
slide across the ground, and other effects.[85] Examples of pixilation include The Secret
Adventures of Tom Thumb and Angry Kid shorts, and the Academy Award-winning Neighbours by
Norman McLaren.

Computer animation

Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the
animation is created digitally on a computer.[45][86] 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image
manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move
and interact.[87] 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.[88]
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2D animation

2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D

bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics.[89] This includes automated
computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated
morphing,[90] onion skinning[91] and interpolated rotoscoping.
A 2D animation of two
2D animation has many applications, including analog computer circles joined by a chain
animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are
still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is
animated.[92]

Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation,[93] to give artists and animators
more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same
department.[94] Speaking about using this approach in Paperman, John Kahrs said that "Our
animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the
profile of the arm."[95]

3D animation

3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually
starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh for the animator to manipulate.[96] A mesh typically includes
many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D
object or 3D environment.[96] Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure
called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.[97][98] This process
is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with key frames to create movement.[99]

Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations),
simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations.[100] These techniques fall under the
category of 3D dynamics.[101]

3D terms

Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software.[102]

Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include Skyland (2007, France), The
Iron Giant (1999, United States), Futurama (Fox, 1999) Appleseed Ex Machina (2007, Japan),
The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker (2002, Japan), The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild
(2017, Japan)
Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term
originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s
recordings of the first-person shooter video game Quake.
Motion capture is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy
their movements into CG characters.[103][104] Examples include Polar Express (2004, US),
Beowulf (2007, US), A Christmas Carol (2009, US), The Adventures of Tintin (2011, US)
kochadiiyan (2014, India)
Computer animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using
advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc.[105] Examples
include Up (2009, US), How to Train Your Dragon (2010, US)
Physically based animation is animation using computer simulations.[106]

Mechanical animation

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Animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than
robotic.
Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics is a form of robotics animation, combined with
3-D animation, created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney
theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song).[107] They are fixed
to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-
Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and
sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive
version of the technology called Autonomatronics.[108]
Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in
a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion,
parallel to the installed picture frames.[109] The concept and the technical solution were
invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania.
Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series Action
League Now! in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled
around to simulate talking by unseen hands.[110]
The magic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since Christiaan
Huygens invented this early image projector in 1659.

Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches

Hydrotechnics: a technique that includes lights, water, fire,
fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist
screens.
Drawn on film animation: a technique where footage is
produced by creating the images directly on film stock; for
example, by Norman McLaren,[111] Len Lye and Stan
Brakhage.
Paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated
films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of World of Color hydrotechnics at
glass,[112] for example by Aleksandr Petrov. Disney California Adventure creates
illusion of motion using 1,200
Erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2D media,
fountains with high-definition
photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image.
projections on mist screens.
For example, William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal
erasure films,[113] and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique
of animating scratches on plaster.
Pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or
out by pressing an object onto the screen.[114] The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast
shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects
difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.[115]
Sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each
frame for an animated film.[116] This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the
light contrast.[117]
Flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with
a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are
turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change.[118][119]
Flip books are often illustrated books for children,[120] they also be geared towards adults and
employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books,
they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.[118]
Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-
made flip books.[121]
Character animation
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Multi-sketching
Special effects animation

See also
12 basic principles of animation International Animated Film Association
Animated war film International Tournée of Animation
Animation department List of film-related topics
Architectural animation Motion graphic design
Avar (animation variable) Society for Animation Studies
Independent animation Wire-frame model
International Animation Day

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External links
The making of an 8-minute cartoon short (http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoo
n/cartoon.html)
"Animando" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091001071111/http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_engli
sh/), a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use
them).
Bibliography on animation – Websiite "Histoire de la télévision" (https://www.histv.net/animation)
Animation (https://curlie.org/Arts/Animation) at Curlie

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