BACHELOR OF PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

The Child & Adolescent Learner and

Learning Principles 1|P ag e
 TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier university in Asia and

the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain the offering of
quality and programs in higher and advanced education ensuring
equitable access to education for people empowerment, professional
development, and global competitiveness.
Towards this end, TSU shall:
1. Provide high quality instruction trough qualified, competent
and adequately trained faculty members and support staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by enhancing research
undertakings in the fields of technology and sciences and
strengthening collaboration with local and international
institutions.
Be a champion in community development by strengthening partnership with
public and private organizations and individuals.

CORE VALUES The six(6) core values institutionalize as a way of life of the
university community are:

E – xcellence and Enhanced Competence

Q – uality
U – nity
I – ntegrity and Involvement
T – rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y – earning for Global Competitiveness

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Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Professional Education Department

Self-Learning Module in

The Child & Adolescent Learner and

Learning Principles

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 Table of Contents

Part I – Introduction……………………………………………………………. 6
Unit 1- Learner Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)……………………
Unit 2 - Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development
1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concept………………….. 15
and Approaches
2 - The Stages of Development and ……………………………. 21
Developmental Tasks
3- Issues on Human Development …………………………… 28
4 - Research in Child and ……………………………………….. 33
Adolescent Development
Unit 3 - Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories……………… 45
5 - Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory …………………………………. 46
6. – Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ……………. 51
7. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development …………….. 58
8. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
9. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
10 - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

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COURSE

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current research and
theory on biological , linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of
the learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
developmental level.

COURSE OUTLINE

A. Learner- Centered Psychological Principles

B. Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development
a. Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
b. The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
c. Issues on Human Development
d. Research in Child and Adolescent Development
C. Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories
a. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
b. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
c. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory Development
d. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
e. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
f. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

 Read and understand the learning objectives. These will be your guide for the
learning outcomes at the end of this Module.
 Perform all the required activities such as evaluation, activity thinking, closure
activities and the like. Answer page are provided for activities needed to be
answered.

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Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

In this Module, challenge yourself to:

• explain the 14 principles.
• advocate for the use of the 14 principles the teaching-learning process.
• identify ways on bow to apply the 14 principles in
· instruction as a future teacher.
INTRODUCTION
The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around the
learner. This module introduces you to the fourteen (14) learner-centered principles
which shall be used throughout this book as a guide in determining appropriate
pedagogy for learners at different life stages.

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The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive , (2)
motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference
factors influencing learners and learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners - from children, to teachers, to
administrator s, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational
system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

L Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation knowledge, or cognitive skills and
learning strategies.
Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use
to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active; goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal- directed.
To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-
term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding
can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.

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Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent
with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
• Knowledge widens and deepen s as students continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of
these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying or reorganizing
existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different
subject areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities.
However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge
and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated cannot be used most
effectively in new tasks and does not transfer readily to new situations.

• Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a

number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying
abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning.
• They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help
them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.
• They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and
feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models.
• Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners
in developing, applying, and assessing' their strategic
5. Thinking about thinking Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

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• Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or
methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
• In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are
not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative
methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
• Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop
these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and
personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
• Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning environment.
• Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.
• Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners ' level
of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
• The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not,
can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7.Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner 's motivation. Motivation to
learn, in turn, is influenced by the individ11al's emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits of thinking.
• The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success
or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information
processing.
• Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both

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the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's motivation to

learn.
• Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate
learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the. learner 's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying
about competence, ruminating about failure: fearing punishment, ridicule, or
stigmatizing labels) generally detract
from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation stimulated by tasks task of optimal novelty and
difficulty; relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
• Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic
needs to be competent and o exercise personal control.
• Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
• Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control.
• Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation
to learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9.Effects of motivation on effort.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners’ motivation
to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

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• Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex

·knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
• Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that
enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.
• Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase
learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
10.Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
• Individuals learn best when material l is appropriate to their developmental level
and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
• Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional l,
and physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
• Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as reading
readiness, for example-may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more
capable in other areas of performance.
• The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how
they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and
community factors.
• Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of
language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas.
• Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with
and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities can facilitate the creation of
optimal learning contexts.
11.Social Influences on learning
Learning Is Influenced by social Interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
• Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.

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• Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity,
encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
• In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels
of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
• Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase
learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive
climate for learning.
• Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs
about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role
expectations, and under pressure to perform well.
• Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier
levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share
ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
• Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
• In addition, through learning and social acculturation. they have acquired their
own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
• Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand
or modify them, if necessary.
• The interaction ·between learner differences and curricular and environmental
conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
• Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also
need to attend to learner percept ions of the degree to which these differences are
accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

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13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
• The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply
to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all
can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting
enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments.
• When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks
and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14.Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well
as learning progress -including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -are
integral parts of the learning process.
• Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process.
• Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner 's cognitive strengths and
weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of
instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty.
• Ongoing assessment of the learner 's understanding of the curricular material
can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals.
• Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment
provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and across
individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
• Performance assessments can provide other sources of information
about the attainment of learning outcomes.
Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve student’s self-appraisal skills
and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

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Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 Principles and

distilled them into five areas:

1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all
future learning. The learner's previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically
on how he represents new information, makes associations and filters new
experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and
regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition)
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons
for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial
role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each
person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as
within an individual.

Reflection
From the Module on Learner- Centered Psychological Principles, I realized that….

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MODULE 1
Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches
- Brenda 8. Corpuz, PhD

As you read this textbook and do the activity in your small groups, you are Undergo the
process of development. How does this development take place? What do experts say
about development? These are the concerns of this Module.

I. Here are pictures of seven-year old Naschielle and three-year old Kenn. Each
one is a bundle of possibilities. Describe what they were before birth (their point of
origin) and who they will possibly be after birth unto adulthood. What will they possibly
become? Expound on your answers.

After listening to the predictions given by each member of the group, answer the
following questions:
1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent
Nascbielle and Kenn may become and hypothesized on who they once were, you were
referring to human development. What then is development? Translate the mea n ing of
development in your Mother Tongue.
2. Will three-year old Kenn be able to do all that seven-year old Nachielle can do?
Why or why not?
3. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Naschielle and
Kenn? If yes, what?
4. Will there be differences in their development, e.g. pace or rate of development?
What and why?
5. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually? Expound on
your answer.
6. Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to develop even in
adulthood? Or will they stop developing in adulthood?

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Two approaches to human development

You believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to adolescence,
little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to
development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood
developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed
life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life- span perspective? Paul
Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following
characteristics:
1. Development ls lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will
continue developing even in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development
is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as
"I am too old for that ..." Neither Kenn nor Naschielle will be too old to learn something.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines can be
prevented or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abil ities of older adul ts
were improved through retraining (Willies & Schose, 1994 cited by Santrock J., 2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex
because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socioenrotional processs
(Santroclc, 2002).

Biological processes involve changes in the individual 's physical nature. The brains of
Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience
hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline
as they approach late adulthood. All these show the common biological processes in
development.
Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/ development .htm)
Naschielle and Keun will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular
control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers.
This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, that: greatest growth always occurs at
the top - the head - with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders,
middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-candal pattern. These development
patterns are common to Naschielle and Kenn.

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Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage .com/ development.htm)

Naschielle and Kenn won't develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years
before they become one. In fact, that's the way of nature. The bud does not blossom
suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some changes occur in a flash
of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes
that result in the display of developmental characteristics.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's thought, intelligence, and
language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two
words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their
first prayer, singing Bayang Maglliw in every ftag ceremony to imagining what it would
be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All
these reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.
Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual's relationships with other
people, changes in emotions, and changes, in personality.

As babies, Naschielle and Kenn responded displeased and even showed temper
tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From aggressive children,
they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise, ctepencling on a
myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed,
deserted and desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of socioemotional
processes in development.
These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined.
/hile the>e processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or factor on a
person 's development is not isolated from the other processes. If Kenn and Naschielle
were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about to
separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would faii and
repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and drop out of school, revert to
illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and so forth. See how a biological
process, affects the cognitive process which in turn, affects the socioemotional process.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual's
biologi cal make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and
cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002) Naschielle's and Kenn's biological make ap, social
and cultural contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each
other.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth,
maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human develcpment. The goals of
individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle

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and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance
and regulation take the center stage.
I. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and
their implications to child care, education and parenting.

II. Characteristics of Human Development from a life span perspective Educational

implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Principles of Human Development. (NAEC, 2009) Characteristic of Human

Development from Life- span Perspective
a. All the domains of development and learning - physical, social and emotional,
and cognitive - are important, and they are closely interrelated. Children 's development
and learning in one domain influence and are influenced by what takes place in other
domains. e.g. Development is multidimensional.
b. Many aspects of children's learning and development follow well documented
sequences, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired.
c. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child, as well
as at uneven rates across different areas of a child 's individual functioning.
d. Development and learning result from a dynamic and continuous interaction of
biological maturation and experience.
e. Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and delayed, on a
child’s development and learning; and optimal periods exist for certain -pes of
development and learning to occur.
f. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic
or representational capacities.
g. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relationships with
responsive adults and opportunities for positive relationships with peers.

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h. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and
cultural contexts.
i. Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world around them, children
learn in a variety ·of ways; a wide range of teaching strategies and interactions are
effective in supporting all these kinds of learning.
j. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as well as for
promoting language, cognition, and social competence.
k. Development and learning advance when children are challenged to achieve at a
level just beyond their current mastery, and also when they have many opportunities to
practice newly acquired skills.
l. Children 's experiences shape their activation and approaches to learning, such
as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in
tum, these dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and development.
Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
1. Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this Module.
a. Give the meaning of human development
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

Patterns of development
a. The direction· of growth following the conceptual pattern is from the to the -
b. The direction of growth following the proximodorsal pattern is
from to the __________________________________________________

3. Differences between the traditional and life-span approaches to human

development.

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4. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.

5. In one sentence, write the characteristic of human development expressed in this

Venn diagram.

6. Discuss the meaning of the quotations written beneath the title of these Unit and
Module. Relate the quotation to your life. Child care. education and parenting.

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7. Put a check before a correct statement and an X before a wrong one. If you put
X, explain why.

1. Development is a pattern of change.

2. Development is either growth or decline.
3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.
4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
5. Individuals develop uniformly.
6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
7. Development is unidimensional.
8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
9. The effect 9f biological process on development is isolated from the effect of
cognitive and socioemotional processes.

MODULE 2: THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

INTRODUCTION
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What
happens when the expected developmental tasks are not achieved at the corresponding
developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?

Pre-natal period
From so simple a beginning does endless forms develop and grow and mature? What
was this organism, what is it now, and what will it become? Birth s fragile moment
arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between two worlds.

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Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)

In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years old.
We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy becoming
something we had not quite grasped ye t. Who knew our thoughts, which worked up into
small mythologies all our own? Our thoughts and images and drawings took wings. The
blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch. Our small world widened as we discovered
new refuges and new people. When we said "/" we meant · something totally unique,
not to be confused with any other. " (Santrock, 2002)

Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)

"In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belong to a generation and
a feeling properly our own wisdom of human development that at no other time we are
to learn than at the end of early childhood's period thirst was to now and to
understand . Continued to cradle our lives but our growth was
also of friends. We did not think much enjoyed the present”

Adolescence (13-18 years)

"In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We clothed
ourselves with rainbows and went 'brave as the zodiac', flashing from one end of the
world to the other. We tried on one face after another, searching for a face of our own.
We wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they would give up the privilege of
understanding them. We wanted to fly but found that first we had to learn to stand and
walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply and awkward moments we became
acquainted with sex. We played furiously at adult games but were confined to a society
of our own peers. Our generation was the fragile cable by which the best and the worst
of our parents ' generation was transmitted to the present. In the end, there were two
but lasting bequests our parents could leave us - one being roots, the other wings.
(Santrock, 2002)

Early Adulthood (19-29 years)

Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving
little time for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and
committing to a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves
who we are and wonder if it isn't enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our
thoughts are bold but at some point we become more pragmatic ex and love are
powerful passions in our lives - at times angels of light, at other times of torment.

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And we possibly will never know the love of our parents until we become parents
ourselves. (Santrock,2002).

Middle adulthood (30-60 years)

In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us,
middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are running
from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In
middle age, more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be
made, however reluctantly. As the young/old polarity greets us with a special force,
we need to join the daring of youth with the discipline of age in a way that does justice
to both. As middle-aged adults we come to sense that the generations of living. things
pass in a short while 'and like runner’s hand on the torch of life. (Santrock, 2002).

Late adulthood (61 years and above)

"The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their way to late
adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and "suddenly it is
evening. "We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to
the truth. We learn that life is lived forward but understood backward. We trace the
connection between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this
whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately we come to know that we are what
survives of us.
(Santrock, 2002).
I. How many developmental stages were described? How do these stages
compare to the developmental stages given below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:
1. infancy and early childhood (0-5 years),
2. middle childhood (6- 12 years),
3. adolescence (13-18 years),
4. early adulthood (19-29 years),
5. middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
6. later maturity (61+).

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II. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?

III. What task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
IV. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower
level developmental tasks?
V. Refer to Havighurt's Developmental Tasks given in the table on the next page.
Match the descriptions -given by Sanirock are Havighurst and Shamrock saying the
same things?

Concept of developmental tasks

In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are e perform of every
individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that "arises at a certain
period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and
success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval , and
difficulty with later tasks;" (Havihurst, 1972).

Developmental stages
There are eight (&) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8)
developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's six (6)
developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst
combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2)
separate stages. These developmental stages are described more in detail in the next
paragraphs.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let's describe the developmental ta!'ks and outstanding trait of each stage as described
by Sannock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth- from
a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to I 8-24 months) - A time of extreme dependence on adults.
Many psychological activities are just beginning - language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy lo 5-6 years (Grade /) - These are the
preschool years . Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and lo care for

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themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in ·play with pe
ers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-1/ years of age, the elementary school years) - The
fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally
exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme
of the child's world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence - (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins with
rapid physical changes - dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour
and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursue idependence
and identity are prominent . Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More
time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) - It is a time
of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a
mate, learning to /he with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing
children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) - It is a time of expanding personal and
social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in . a
career.
8. Late adulthood (60s qnd above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

I. Answer this question with a learning partner.

1. What are the implications of these developmental tasks to your role as a teacher
and or parent? Let's pay particular attention to each of the developmental stages -
prenatal period , infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood and adolescence.
• Preschool period - what are pregnant others supposed to do to ensure the birth
of a normal and healthy baby?
• Infancy what should mothers and baby sitters do and not do to help infants
develop normally and healthily?

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Let's do #1. Early Childhood - What are preschool teachers supposed to do with
preschoolers? Help them develop readiness for school and not to be too academic
in teaching approach . They ought to give much time for preschoolers to ply. Or
perhaps help preschoolers develop school readiness by integrating children's games in
school activities.

Middle and Late childhood

Elementary school teachers ttaught to help their pupils by
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Parents ought to help their children

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Adolescence
High School teachers ought to help their students by
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Early Adulthood College

Teachers ought to help their students by
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Parents can help their children who are young adults by

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Middle adulthood
What should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their career? What should school teach
for students to be prepared for middle adulthood? In their retirement, adults should

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______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Late Adulthood
In their retirement adults should
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

How should children relate to their parents in their late

adulthood stage? What should teachers teach to students on how they should treat and
relate to parent, grandparents in their late adulthood
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

II. Allow small groups to do each of the following :

a. Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of development.
b. Do a multimedia presentation of the outstanding characteristics and
developmental tasks of each developmental stage. You may use the text of Santrock
found under each collage of pictures in the ACTIVITY PHASE of this lesson.
c. Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage.

III. Discuss the meaning of the quotation beneath the title of the lesson. Relate it to
the stages of development.
IV. Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were you able
to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late childhood and
adolescence. What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such tasks?
Write your reflections.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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V. Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood middle and late
childhood and adolescence, reflect on what you should do as a teacher to facilitate your
students' acquisition of these developmental tasks. Write down your reflections.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

MODULE 3: ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other people's
development. These paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in
scholastic vigor, provide with a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves
and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human development.
Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues human development.

SMALL GROUP DEBATE

Divide the class into 3 small groups. Let each group to choose their topic for the debate.
1. Nature vs. Nurture - Which has a more significant influential on human
development? Nature or nurture? Nature to an individual biological inheritance. Nurture
refers to environmental experiences.
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity - Does development involve gradual, cumulative
change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity). To make it more concrete, here
is a question : Is our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into an
acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly?

3. Stability vs. Change - Is development best described as involving stability or as

involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop
into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development?

Report to the whole class what transpired in your small group debates.
After every small group presentation to the whole class, the teacher facilitates
the whole class .discussion and asks the following:

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1. Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional reasons you can give in
favor of nature/nurture? Who are neither for nature nor nurture? Why?
2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional arguments to
defend continuity/discontinuity? Who are in between continuity and discontinuity? Why?
3. Who claims stability more. correct than change? Change is more correct than
stability?

Issues presented can be translated to questions that have sparked animated

debate among development lists. Are girls less likely to do well in math because of their
'feminine' nature or because of Society •masculine' bias? How extensively can the
elderly be trained to reason more effectively? How much. if at all, does our memory
decline in old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduce the decline? For child
who experienced a world of poverty, neglect by parents, and poor schooling in
childhood, can enriched experiences in adolescence remove the 'deficits' that they
encountered earlier in their development (Santrock, 2002)?

Based on the presentations, each one has his/ her own explanations for his/her
stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time, the
debate continues. Researches are on-going. But let me tell you that most life-span
development lists recognize that extreme positions on these issues are unwise.
Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity and not all
stability or all change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and
nurture, continuity, stability and change characterize our life-pan development. The key
to development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather than either factor alone
(Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of "both" not
"either-or." Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson and the
message gets crystal clear.

To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to
exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr
and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment
operate together - or cooperate and interact - to produce a person 's intelligence,
temperament, height, weight... ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or contribution,
heredity or environment? The relative contribution is of heredity and environment are
not additive. So we can't say 500/o is a contribution of heredity and 50% of
environment. Neither is it correct to say that fult genetic expression happens once found

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c0nception or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to see how far
it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many different
environments. Or they don't produce these proteins, depending on how harsh or
nourishing those environments arc. (Santrock. 2002).

Let's find out where you can apply what you learned from a dilution of these
developmental issues.

I. Convinced of the interactive influence of heredity and environment on the

development of children, prepare for a power point presentation for parents to show
them how crucial their role is in the development of their children. Remember that
heredity is already fixed. Their children ·have been born and they have passed on these
inherited traits at conception and that they cannot do anything anymore to change them.
So concentrate on how they can contribute to their children's favorable development by
creating the environment conducive to development. Like heredity, environment is
complex. It includes nutrition as early as conception, parenting, family dynamics,
schooling, neighborhood quality and biological encounters such as viruses, birth
complications, and even biological events in cells.
Do not lose sight of the objective of your power point presentation. At the end of your
power point presentation, the parents should go home very much convinced of their role
in the development of their children and get very much inspired to do their part.
2. Do the same presentation (in # 1) to a class in General Psychology where they
discuss the nature-nurture debate or to a group of student teachers.
3. Discuss the implications of this statement:
The frightening part about heredity and environment is that we, parents, provide both."
4. He1e is an interesting article titled · ..How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest
of Your Life" from the October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then
answer the following questions:
• Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual's choice are the
factors that contribute to what a person may become? Read that paragraph that tells so.
• Read the 4111 paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word,
PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue OD stability versus change issue OD p. 46.
Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first experiences
have made of us (stability)? Explain your answer.

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How did the past Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious,
overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes
or high blood pressure?
There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are
because it's in our genes. We tum out the way we do because of our childhood
experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as
adults. But there's another powerful source of influence you may not have
considered : your life as a fetus. The mutton you received in the womb; the
pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to during gestation; your mother's
health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you - all these factors
shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this day.

This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose

pioneers assert that the nine months of gestation constitute the most consequent ia l
period of ou r lives, PERMAN ENTLY (Underscoring, mine) influencing the wiring of the
brain and the functioning of organs such as the heart, liver and pancreas. In the
literature on the subject, which has exploded over the past 10 years, you can
find references to the fetal origins of cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma,
hypertension , diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal- origins
research, scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence _
not only our physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about fetal
origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I had a
more personal motivation : I was newly pregnant. If it was true that my actions over
the next nine months would affect my offspring for the rest of his life, I needed to
know more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message that what
she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor's appointments, sees it in the
pregnancy guide: looks : Do eat this, don't drink that, be vigilant but never stressed.
Expectant mothers could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month
slog, full of guilt and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to add to
the burden.
But the scientists I met weren't full of dire warnings but of the excitement of discovery -
and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive difference. Research on fetal
origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in ticking about where human qualities come
from and when they begin to develop. It's turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: the
National Institutes of Health embarked last year on a multi-decade study that will

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examine its subjects before they're born. And it makes the womb a promising
target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health scourges like obesity
and heart disease through interventions before birth name - Magazine, October 4,
2010

Complete the sentence.

1. With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and change-stability

controversies, the wiser stand is
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement i s correct and which
one is wrong? Put a check (before the correct statement and mark M the wrong one.
If you mark a statement X, explain why.

1. Here ditty experts a greater influence on human development than

environment.
2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no
longer be changed.
3. From the perspective of life-span develop mentalist, later experiences are the key
determi1.1ants of a person 's development.

Read a research related to issues on human development. Fill out the matrix
below. Strongly suggested topic is fetal origins.
How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

I. Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your own
personal development. What has helped you become die person that you are now? Is
what you have become a product of the mere interaction of heredity and environment?

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Or is what you have become a product of both heredity and environment interacting
and what you decided or determined yourself to become? (Self-determination or
freedom is a third factor). Write your reflections.

MODULE 4: RESEARCH IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This Module is not intended to be
a substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you got or
will still get in the Research course.

Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each statement? Put a check
mark to indicate your answer.

STATEMENT YES/NO
1. Research is only for those who plan to take master's degree or doctorate
degrees.
2. Research is easy to do.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the responses.
4. Research with one or two respondents is not a valid research.
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their classroom s, are expected to u se
existing research rather than conduct their own research in the classroom
6. There is no need to go to research because a lot of researches have already
been conducted .
7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research . It is not their task
to conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to conduct research
9. It is not worth conducting research considering the time and money it requires.

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Share your answers among classmates. The teacher will designate the · right side of
the room as the "Yes" side and the left as the "No" side. The teacher will read each
statement and the students will give to the right or left side of the room based on their
answers. Teacher will process each question by encouraging students to explain their
answers.
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude about research. As
a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard for research. Best
practices in education are usually borne out of research. Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book are, in one way or another, a product of
research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about child and
adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner,
it becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the things you will do as an
effective teacher.

Teachers a consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers a n d also pol icy-maker s important knowledge to use in
decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers
are able to use and integrate the most authoritative research findings. Research
enables teachers to come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to
teach . This involves decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective
teaching- learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can help us,
teacher s, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the
developmental levels of our learners.

Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for
students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct research by finding out the
different research principles and the research methods and designs with focus on child
and adolescent development.

The Scientific Method

One important principle in research-is adherence to the scientific method, since
research is a systematic and a logical process . As such, researchers basically follow
the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as
follows:

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1. identify and define the problem

2. determine the hypothesis
3. collect and analyze data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is
followed by stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the
hypothesis . The hypothesis is also referred to as an "educated guess." How correct is
your "educated guess" or "hypothesis?" If your research problem is concerned
with determining the cause of an effect or a phenomenon you. have to gather
and analyze data derived from an experiment. This is true with 'experimental
research. However, if your research problem is concerned with describing data
and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying , you
do not need to perform an experiment . This is descriptive research . After
analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.

Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original
hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and
conclusion, affirm your hypothesis . If your original hypothesis does not jibe with
your finding and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.

Research Designs

Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us
with valuable information about child and for adolescent development . To be
able to conduct quality research, it is important that you know various research
designs and different data-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers.

Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

1. Case Study
2. Sludy

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3. Experimental
4. Naturalistic Research Design
5. Sequential
6. Action Research An in-depth look at an individual.
A research design that defines association
A research design that determines cause-and-effect relationships. The experimental
method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable
cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random
assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
Focuses on children’s experiences on natural settings.
This does not involve any intervention or manipulation on the part of the researcher.
This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of
research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research
is unrealistic, cost- prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.

This is to combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to learn about life-span

development (Schaie, 1993 cited by Satrock , 200£). This starts with a cross-
sectional study that includes individuals of different ages. A number of months or years
after the initial assessment, the same individuals are tested again-this is the
longitudinal aspect of the design. At this later time, a new group of subjects is
assessed at each grade level.aspect of the design. At this later time, a new group of
subjects is assessed at each grade level.

Action research is a reflective process of

progressive problem- solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part
of a community
of practice" to) improve
the way they address issues and solve problems (Wikipedla, thefree encyclopedia).

In the context of teaching, action re- searches of teachers stem from their own
questions about and reflections on their everyday classroom practice. It provides
information about individual’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences,

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upbringing, family relationships, healthy and anything that helps psychologist

understand the person’s development

The more strongly two events are correlated, the more we can predict one from the
other.

The only true reliable method of establishing cause and effect

The disadvantage of this type of research is that it allows the researcher to directly
observe the subject in a natural setting.

Allows them to record and monitor develop- mental trends. It pro- vides information that
is impossible to obtain from cross-sectional or longitu:linal approaches alone (Santrock ,
2002).

Appropriate in a particular setting when the purpose of study is to create changes

& gain information on processes and out-
come of the strategies
used"
(Hunt 1987).

Uses different menthods, can get the best out of the different methods em ployed, if
done well.
Stakeholders are in- cluded throughout and so researchers are
more likely to make a
"difference."

Needs to exercise caution when generalizing, from the information, the subject of
the case study is unique with a genetic makeup and experiences no one else shares

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involves judgements of unknown reliability in that usual check is made see if other
psychologists agree with other observations.

Because correlational research does not involve the manipulation of factors, it is not a
dependable way
to isolate cause (Kantowitz, et al, 2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002).

Experimental research is limited to what is observable, testable and maniputable.

Failure to achieve randomisation may limit the extent to which the study sample is
representative of the parent population and, with it, generalizability of the findings of the
study.

Experimentation with humans is subject to a number of influences that may dilute the
study results (Donnan, 2000).
A further limitation of experimental research is that subjects may change their behavior
or respond in a specific manner simply be- cause of awareness of being observed

Naturalistic observation include the fact that it is difficult to detect the exact cause a
behavior and
Experimentation that can control outside variables.

It is complex, expensive, and time consuming.

Typically takes place in one organization only at a particular time and could not be
interpreted within different organizations in the same way. Therefore, research
findings are hard (impossible) to generalize.
If research participants do not feel they understand and 'own' the research project, this
could lead to a potential conflict of interest be- tween the researcher and those

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participating in the organization , but also between the researcher ·with some
participants, on the one hand and other members the organization,
to other.

Data-Gathering Techniques

Data-Gathering Definition/Description Technique

1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories or natural settings.
In naturalistic observation, behavior is observed in the real world like classrooms ,
home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators of children's development such Measures
as, among others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
3.. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals performance in
different domains. These tests are administered in a consistent manner.
4 . Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide information
Questionnaires about themselves based on the interview or
questionnaire given by the researcher.

Gathering of data may be conducted through a questionnaire, over the telephone, by

mail, in or on-line.

Information is obtained by uti!izing standardized. procedures so that every

participant is ask the same questions in the same manner. It entails asking participants
for information in some structured format.

5. Life-History These are records of Information about a lifetime

Records chronology of events and activities. They often involve a combination of
data records on education, work, family, and residence. These Include public records or
historical
documents or interviews with respondent.

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Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical
principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of teachers,
there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research. These ethical
standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the
subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these
ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:
I. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association
http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/AboutAERA/Ethical Standards/EthicalStandards.pdf
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children - Society for Research in Child
Development (USA)
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research http:
//www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/l..1 l 2a. PDF

Common among the three standards given above are the following considerations for
researches conducted with young children and other vulnerable population which are
enumerated by the National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC).
Some key points are: .
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.
2.Children and their families have the right to full information
about the research in which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits.
Their decision to participate must be based on what is called "informed consent."
There must be informed consent procedures with research participants.
3. Children's questions about the research should be answered in a truthful
manner and in ways that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and
clear in their communication .
4.There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with
children should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal
information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and
discussions.

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The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)

This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 "to protect the fundamental human right
of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote
innovation and growth."
The law states that the collection of personal data "must be a declared, specified,
and legitimate purpose and that ... consent is required prior to the collection of all
personal data."
For more details, read RA 10173.

Impact of Teachers' Research involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to lose
when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggests that:
1. teachers who have been invoived in research may become more reflective,
more critical and analytical in their teaching, and more open anq committed to
professional development (Oja & Pipe 1989; Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust
2007).
2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in
their decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning,
reflective and mindful teaching, and self- transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
4. engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and,
consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students.
S. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective
teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire (Borko,
Liston, & Whitcomb
2007).

Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from thinking
about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done by
teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert
2000). .

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1. The class may be divided into groups. Except this Module on Research, divide
the Module s in ·this book among the groups. Go over the Modules of the Unit assigned
to your group and look for statements of research findings. If the research design and
the data-gathering techniques were not identified, identify to the best of your ability what
must have been used in the researches. The Table below can make your task easier.

2. A Research Abstract - A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the

beginning of the article. It has the following
a. parts:
b. Title
c. Researcher/s
d. Date of Research
e. Introduction
f. Method s
g. Findings/Results of the Study
h. Conclusions and Recommendations
i. References
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further explanation. The
introduction, as the title implies, introduce s the problem or issue that is being studied.
It includes a concise review of research relevant to the topic, theoretical ties, and one or
more hypotheses to be tested. The method section consists of a clear description of the
subjects evaluated in the study, the measures used and the procedures that were
followed. The results section reports the analysis of the data collected. The conclusions
and recommendations state the author/s' answers to the specific problems of the study
and suggestions on next steps based on the findings and conclusions of the study.
Methods, Findings/Results of the Study and Conclusions and Recommendations
constitute the Body of the Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These
include bibliographic information for each source cited in the research report.

Write T the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.

1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate purpose,
researchers must be governed by ethical principles.

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3. Which research design and data-gathering technique to use has

nothing to do with the nature of the research problem and objective/s of the research.
4.Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are
consumers or end users of knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve
instruction.
5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers' self - understanding and on their
classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of
themselves, their classrooms, and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.

Group research

J. You may want to replicate a research that you came across in your readings of
research abstracts (APPLICATION # 2 above). Or you may want to research on a
research problem you consider to be relevant and significant. Have it checked by your
teacher. With your teacher as research adviser, conduct a research on the ap. Proved
problem. Your teacher may set aside a day or two for the research presentation by
group. The research groups may take turns serving as panel of reactors during the
research presentation. For evaluation, you may use the Scoring Rubric given on the
next page for the research paper and the Research Presentation Rubric for your
Presentation.

Based on the presentations, each one has his/ her own explanations for his/her stand
on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time, the debate
contains. Researches are on-going. But let me tell you that most life-span development
lists recognize that extreme position on these issues are unwise. Development is not all
nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity and not all stability or all change
(Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and nurture, continuity and
continuity, stability and change characterize our life-pan development. The key to
development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather than either factor alone
(Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of "both- md"
not "either-or." Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson and the
message gets crystal ·clear.

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To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to
exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person
(Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and
environment operate together - or cooperate and interact - to produce a person 's
intelligence, temperament, height, weight... ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or contribution,
heredity or environment? The relative contribution is of heredity and environment are
not additive. So we can't say 500/o is a contribution of heredity and 50% of
environment. Neither .is it correct to say that fault genetic expression happens once,
compound conception or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to
see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many
different environments . Or they don't produce these proteins, depending on how harsh
or nourishing those environments arc. (Santrock. 2002).

Let's find out where you can apply what you learned from a discussion of these
developmental issues.
1. Convinced of the interactive influence of heredity and environment on the
development of children, prepare for a power point presentation for parents to show
them how crucial their role is in the development of their children. Remember that
heredity is already fixed. Their children ·have been born and they have passed on these
inherited traits at conception and that they cannot do anything anymore to change them.
So concentrate on how they can contribute to their children's favorable development by
creating the environment conducive to development . Like heredity, environment is
complex . It includes nutrition as early as conception, parenting , family dynamics,
schooling, neighborhood quality and biological encounters such as viruses, birth
complications, and even biological events in cells.

Do not lose sight of the objective of your PowerPoint presentation. At the end of your
power point presentation, the parents should go home very much convinced of their role
in the development of their children and get very much inspired to do their part.
2. Do the same presentation (in # 1) to a class in General Psychology where they
discuss the nature-nurture debate or to a group of student teachers.
3. Discuss the implications of this statement:
The frightening part about heredity and environment is that we, parents, provide both."

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4. Here is an interesting article titled · ..How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest
of Your Life" from the October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then
answer the following questions:
• Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual's choice are the
factors that contribute to what a person may become? Read that paragraph that tells so.
• Read the 4111 paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word,
PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue OD stability versus change issue OD p. 46.
Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first experiences
have made of us (stability)? Explain your answer.

How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious,
overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes
or high blood .pressure?
There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are
because it's in our genes. We tum out the way we do because of our childhood
experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the
lifestyle choices we make as adults.
MODULE 5: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

Freud's views about human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well known psychologist because of his very interesting theory
about the unconscious and also about sexual development . Although a lot of his views
were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his
earlier views). Freud's theory remains to be one of the most influential in psychology.
His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became
the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erikson 's Psychosocial
theory in Module 7.

ACTIVITY

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1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision.
Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were
involved and how you arrived at your decision? What factors influenced you in
making your decision?
Which of the following did you consider most in making your decision: what will make
you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical, or what you believed was the
most moral thing to do? Elaborate on your answer.

Freud 's Stage 1 of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of
personality, also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through
the sequence of t.'1ese five stages and along the way there are needs to be met.
Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a
healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud
identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific
"pleasure areas" that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs· are not
met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest
behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the
oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may but-. oral receptive,
that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or· oral aggre5sive,
that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a
result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become
pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to· 3 years). The child 's focus in this stage is the
anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating . and retaining feces. Through
society's expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet
training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years the child's
favorite word might be ..Nol". Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose to
defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason . In tenns of personality,
fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal expul1ive where the person may become
messy and disorganized.

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Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During
the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
Preschoolers will sometimes be .seen fondling their genitals. Freud's studies led him
to believe during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their
mother. Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother's affection . Boys ma y
fear that heir father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety.
These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology,
Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
Psychoanalysts also believed that girl; may also have a similar experience, developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to as the
Electra Complex.

According to Freud , out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of
their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys develop ·masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as muscles and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A
fixation: this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and
avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It's during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition
-of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with
girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins
at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier
stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the
pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the Id,
the ego and the superego. For each person, the -first to emerge is the id, followed by
the ego, and last to develop is the superego. -
While reading about the three components, use the graphic organizer below to put your
notes and questions about them.

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The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one's
personality because as a baby, it works so that ·the baby's essential need.> are met.
The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will purs11e with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a
baby is hungry. It 's Id wants food or milk... so the baby will cry. When the child needs to
be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or
just wants attention, the Id speaks up un l his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the Id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented
towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of
day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or daddy is sleeping.
When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
The e10. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she
relates more with the environment, the e10 slowly begins to emerge. The e10
operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It
is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet
its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.

The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage,
the superego develops. The superego embodies a person 's moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it
exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong .

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud.(i said t at a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help
satisfy the needs of the id without going against the super ego while maintaining
the person's sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for
the ego to do all that and strike a balance . If the id exerts too much power over
the ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over
one's life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the
ego is overpowered . The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and
others' actions. The person 's best effort to be good may still fall short of the
superego's expectations.

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The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was
brought ·up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extent to
which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was
taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent
adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual
is formed early during the childhood
years.

Topographical Model
The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions
beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level.
He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious . The Oedipus and
Electra Complex mentioned eat-lire were both buried down into the unconscious, out of
our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in
our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic
ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious
mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in
our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality ; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.

The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or

subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our
active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still "hidden " somewhat unless we
search for it . Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories,
or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious .
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very
small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate
it. A big part of the icebergs is hidden beneath the water 's surface. The water,
may represent all that we are not aware of.

I . Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate his
theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his concepts
and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a reaction paper on
one of these case studies focusing on how he explained the personality development of
the individuals in the case studies.

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II. From your internet search engine, just type Freud's case studies. It will be easy
to find a pdf file which you can readily download.

Visit the Lirry of Congress in Washington DC, through its virtual museum . V1s1t
the walls that contain very interesting pictures ,
documents lUld information about the most controversial psychologist of all time,
Sigmund Freud!
You won 't need a passport, just follow these steps: I . Go to www.lor.gov
2. Click "Exhibitions"
3. Click "View all exhibits"
4. Go to "Sigmund Freud: Conflict and Culture"
5. Seat back and enjoy the virtual tour! The pictures and write-ups are so
interesting!!!!
As in any visit to a museum, it would be good to take some notes. Make notes of the
following and add your own ideas and cornme11ts as well ...
Describe Freud's family background. Describe the composition of his family. What
do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this family?

III. From the Module on Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that...

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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MODULE 6: PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of

educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.

Read the situations below. The class may choose to dramatize each of the
situation before analysis is done.
1. It's Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving "aguinaldo" to the
children. Three year-old Karen did not want to receive the one , hundred peso bill
and instead preferred to receive four 20 peso bills. Her' ten year-old cousins were
telling her it's better to get the one hundred bill, but they failed to convince her.
2. Siblings, Tricia, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their stuffed animals.
They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and I dolphin . Mommy, a psychology teacher,
enters and says, "Good thing you're sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or
more bears?" Tricia and Enzo says, "stuffed
animals." Riel says, "Bears"
3. While eating on her high chair, seven -month old Liza accidentally dropped
her spoon on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up. Liza again drops her new spoon,
and she does this several times more on purpose. Mommy didn't like it at all but Liza
appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.

On situation 1 : Why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso bills?
On situation 2: Why do you think Riel answered "Bears?" What does this say about
how she thought to answer the question?
On situation 3: Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons?

The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and so also
should apparent differences in the way they thought. They were in different stages of
cognitive development. Perhaps no one has influenced the field of cognitive
development more than Jean Piaget. As you read through this Module you will come to

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understand cognitive development of children and adolescents and also identify ways
of applying this understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years·, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His
research method involved observing a small number of individuals as they
responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as
Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was
interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into
biology and he also .had a background in philosophy. knowledge from both these
disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his
researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but
also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widel) to
teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and elementary curricula.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individual s intellectually adapt to and or- gauze their environment. It is an individual 's
way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has
a nling cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of things be bas had a
experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his
own schema of what a dog is. It ha<> four legs and a tail. It barks. It's furry. The child
then "puts this description of a dog 'on file' in his mind." when he sees another similar
dog, he "pulls" out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, and says, "four legs,
tail, barks, furry.... That's a dog!"

Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or

previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this
time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this
new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now
sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try
to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its
bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That's not a funny looking dog. That's a ·
goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that
of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.

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Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand
how the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life.
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation .
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive
structures, we experience co1nltlve disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through
assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage I. Sensorimotor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is
the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching
becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensorimotor focuses
on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes
to learn about himself and the world . In working with children in the sensorimotor
stage, teachers should air. to provide a rich and stimulating environment will-
appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists
even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. (Please
refer to Unit 2, Module 13 for more notes.)

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about two to
seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage
is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
- representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a
thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word
comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic
function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-year old
may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she
already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around
four years of age, however, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty
glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone . By the age of 6 or

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7 the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is
six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor ''props." Tricia, who is
seven can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in her mind.

Epentrlam. This is the tendency of the child to only see the point of view and to assume
that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother 's birthday.

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is character-ized by the ability of the

child to think logically but only in tens of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school yards. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.

Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number,
mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because
of the development of the child 's ability of decentering and also reversibility, the
concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but
barrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider
glass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-
con server, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations covering
ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve
abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment .
This can be done in the ·absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with
"What if ' questions.

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Analogical. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then
use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
problem . The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If
United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to . The individual will
reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is
found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. 1brough reflective thought and even
in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now understand relationships
and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule
to a particular instance or situation . For example, all countries near the north pole
have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole Therefore, Greenland has
cold temperature .
From Piaget 's findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following
principles :

1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive

development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that
engage learners and require adaptation (i .e., assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or
mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that
are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members. Choose
a story you want to see for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or a
movie or "telenovela" that you watched or plan to watch. Us the matrix below to
relate the
characters to Piaget's stages of cognitive development .

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Title of Story/Movie:

Write a brief summary of the story:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Character Description Piagetian Connection

1. Father

2. Mother

3. Children

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4. Other Characters What is his stage o cognitive development?

Examples : Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (what he thought of,
how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)
What is her stage of cognitive development ?
Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (what she thought of, how
she thought, her reactions and attitudes)

What is his/her stage of cognitive development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say s/he is in this stage. (what s/be thought of, how
s/he thought, his/her reactions and attitudes

What is his/her stage of cognitive development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say he/she is in this stage. (what he/she thought of,
how he/she thought, his/her reactions and attitudes)

Read a research that is related to Piaget's theory. Fill out the matrix below.

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MODULE 7: Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Erik Erikson's Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire

This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Comelis Plug's self-report
questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson's first 5
stages of psycbisexual development . It can serve to make the stages personally
relevant to you.
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust
(Infancy and Early Childhood) Score
1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
2. I feel the world's major problems can be solved.
3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
4. People can be trusted.
5. I feel optimistic about my future.
TOTAL SCORE:

Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Infancy and Childhood) Score
6. When people try to persuade me to do some- thing I don’t want to, I refuse.
7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a mistake.
8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them .
TOTAL SCORE:

Stage 3: Initiative Venus Guilt

(Infancy and Childhood) Score
11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.

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13. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.

14. I feel what happens ·to me is the result of what I have done
15. When I have difficulty in getting something right, I give up.
TOTAL SCORE:

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

(Infancy and Childhood) Score
16. When people look at something I have done I feel embarrassed.
17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really like to do in life.
19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I would fail.
20. I feel competent
TOTAL SCORE:

Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Adolescence) Score

21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
23. My worth is recognized by others.
24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
TOTAL SCORE:

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation

(Early Adulthood) Score
26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
27. I have a feeling of complete ''togetherness" with someone.
28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become committed to 'marriage for life.

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29. I share my private thoughts with someone

30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
TOTAL SCORE:

Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 1 5, with high scores reflecting greater
strength on a particular personality dimension.

1. The response lo item I should _ be reversed (0 = 3, t = 2, 2 = I , 3 = 0) and

then added to the numbers given 1n response to items 2 3 4 and 5 to obtain a
trust score.
2. Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to items 6 and
O to assess autonomy.
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 13 and 14 to
measure initiative.
4. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and 20 to
calculate industry.
5. Responses to 2 1 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 23, and 24 to obtain a
measure of identity.
6. Answers to 26, 28, and 30 are reversed and added to .27 and 29 to give intimacy.

What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Have these scores in mind as you read about Erikson's stages and see how the
stages can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding others as well.

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Introduction to the 8 Stages:

l. Erikson's 'psychosocial' term is derived from the two source words - namely
psychological (or the root, 'psycho'. relating to the mm?, brain, personality, etc) and
social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory.
Occasionally you 'll see the ·term extended to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to
life, as in biological.
2. Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud . But Erikson extended
the theory incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud's biological and sexually-
oriented theory.
3. It 's also interesting to see how his id developed over time, perhaps aided by his
own journey through the "psychosocial crisis" stages model that underpinned his work.
4. Like other theories, Erikson's model is simple and well-
designed. The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of
personality and behavior, and also for understanding for facilitating personal
development - of self and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more
knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of the various environmental
factors that affect his own and his students' personality and behavior.
5. It is very accessible and. obviously relevant , from several different perspectives
for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develops in people . As
such Erikson 's theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and
coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson's model, for example
Erikson's biopsychosocial or bio-psychosocial theory (10 refers to biological, which in
this context means hfe); Erikson s human development cycle or life cycle, and variations
o these: All other to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it Erikson s most
distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epi gen etic principle. As Bocree explains, "' This principle says that we
develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our
progress through each stage ;s in part determined by our success, or lack of success,
in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal
opens up at a certain time, in a certain order, which nature, through its genetics, has
determined. If we interfere in the natural order of
development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the
development of the entire flower." Erikson "5 theory delved into how personality was
formed and believed that the earlier stages served as a foundation for the later stages.

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The theory highlighted the influence of one's environment, particularly on how earlier
experiences gradually build upon the next and result into one's personality.
8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A
helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing forces is "contrary dispositions '.'. Each
crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson
used the words "syntonic" for the first-listed "positive " disposition in each crisis (e.g.,
Trust) and "dystonic" for the second-listed "negative" disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To
signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between
each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word "versus".
9.If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength
which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing
through each crisis involves "achieving" a healthy ratio or balance between the two
opposing dispositions that represent each- crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don 't do so well, we may develop maladaptation and
malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the
worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect
of the task, such as a person who can't trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad
and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person
who trusts too much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and
mingle from one stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It's a broad framework
and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates precisely across all people
and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
"overlapping". Crisis stages ·connect with each other like inter- laced fingers, not like a
series of neatly stacked boxes. People don 't suddenly wake up one morning and be in
a new life stage. Changes don't happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are
graduated, mixed-together and organic.
13. Erikson emphasized t h e significance of "mutuality" and "generativity " in his theory.
The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each other,
especially among families, and particularly between parents and children and
grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else's experiences as they pass
through the different crisis stages. Generativity, actually a named disposition within one
of the crisis stages (Generativity vs. Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant
relationship between adults and the best interests of children - one's own children, and
in a way everyone else's children - the next generation, and all following generations.

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Now you are ready to go over the eight stages. As you read, enjoy filling up the concept
map we made, found at the beginning of each stage. This will help you remember the
important terms in each stage and how these terms are interrelated. Use the side
margins to write your thoughts about the stage and how they connect to your own life
now and as a future teacher.

The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development:

Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and'
a half of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without
completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the
parents can give the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the
baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe to be, that people are reliable and
loving. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it, if
other interests cause both parents to tum away from the infant's needs to satisfy their
own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and
suspicious around people.

Maladaptation Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to
be perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there to the
first cry comes out, will lead that child to the maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls
sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe
anyone would mean them, and will use all the defenses at their command to find an
explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of course, is the child
whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side.

Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong
belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end . One
of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't overly upset
by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs: Mom or Dad

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doesn't have to be perfect ; I trust them enough to believe that, if they can't be here
immediately, they will be here soon; things may be tough now, but they will work out.
This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love,
our careers, and many other domains of life.
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four years
old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If
mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a tod4ler, to explore and manipulate
his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or independence.
The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance
is required. People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage, and
the advice is good . This way, the child will develop both self- control and self-esteem.
On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame
and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be
independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she cannot and should
not act on his/her own. We should keep in m in:! that even something as innocent as
laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt
his or her abilities.

There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you give children
unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what they
should learn to do for themselves, you will also give them .the impression that they are
not good for much . If you aren't patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her
shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will assume that this is too
difficult to learn.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Nevertheless, "shame and doubt" is not only inevitable, but beneficial. Without it, you
will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a son of shameless
willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things
without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too much shame and
doubt, which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive
person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do, and so everything must
be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes, and
mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know how it feels to always be

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ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with your own
children may help them avoid your path. And give yourself a little slack, too.

Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and
doubt. you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most
admirable - and frustrating - things about two- and three-year-
olds is their determination. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can do"
attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.

Psychosocial Crisis
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or ·four to five or six. The task is
to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive respo1ise to the
world's challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful.
Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We
should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity 1Uld imagination . This is a time for
play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining
a future situation, one that isn't a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make
that non-reality a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be responsible as
well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my watch down the toilet, I can safely
assume that there were no "evil intentions." It was just -a matter of a shiny object going
round and round and down. What fun! But if my five year old does the same thing...
well, she should . know what's going to happen to the watch, what's going to happen to
daddy's temper, and what's going to happen to her! She can be guilty of the act
and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgment has
arrived.

Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal experience in
this stage. From his perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels
in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex parent. A parent has the
responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to "grow up -- you're not a baby
anymore!" But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to
feel guilty about his or her feelings.

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Maladaptation/Malignancy
Too much in intiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be "without mercy."
The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their plans, whether it 's a
matter of school or politics or career. It's just that they don't care who they step on to
achieve their goals. The goals are the only things that matter. and guilty feelings and
mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme fom1 of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively" easy on· the ruthless person.
Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition.
The inhibited person will not try things because "nothing ventured, nothing lost" and,
particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a
project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed .

Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose . A
sense of purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do
not realize that they themselves make their purposes , through imagination end
initiative. I think an even better word for this virtue would have been courage, the
capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.

Stage Four
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve. The task
is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority.
Children must "tame the imagination" and dedicate themselves to education and to
learning the social skills their society requires of them . There is a much broader social
sphere at work now: The parents and other family members are joined by teachers and
peers and other members of he community at large. They all contribute. Parents
1nust encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there
is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the
feeling of success, whether it is in school or on the playground , academic or social.

A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in the
fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four-year-olds may love
games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change them

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several times during the course of the _ game, and be very unlikely to actually finish
the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seven-year-old
, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them pretty much sacred, and
is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its required
conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers,
for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or
incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism,
and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success is related to who you
are rather than to how hard .you try, then why try?

Maladaptation/Malignancy
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see
this in children who aren't allowed to "be children," the ones that parents or teachers
push into one area of competence, without allowing the development of broader
interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child athletes, child musicians,
child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little closer, it's
all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer
from the •'inferiority complexes" Alfred Adler talked about. If at find you don't succeed,
don 't ever try again! Many of us didn't do well in mathematics, for example, so we'd
die before we took another math class. Others were humiliated instead in the gym
class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball . Others never
developed social skills -- the most important skills of all -- and so we never go out
in public .

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